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CHAPTER ELEVEN George Kelly: Personal Construct Theory LEARNING OBJECTIVES Review the life of George Kelly. Describe personal construct theory. Summarize ways of anticipating life events. Evaluate assessment in Kelly’s theory. Interpret research in Kelly’s theory. OUTLINE The Cognitive Movement in Psychology The Life of Kelly George Kelly, an only child, was born on a farm in Kansas. His parents were fundamental in their religion and gave Kelly attention and affection. Kelly was home-schooled until he was 13, at which point he was sent to a high school in Wichita. He worked as an engineer and an instructor and then entered graduate school where he received a master’s degree in educational sociology. Kelly also earned a psychology degree when studying at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. He developed a clinical psychology service for a local Kansas public school system and established clinics which went from school to school. Kelly used traditional methods of assessment and therapy as well as his own methods. Kelly’s clients were capable of discussing concerns rationally and expressing their intellectual problems, unlike a mental health population of patients. Kelly joined the U.S. Navy and served as a psychologist in the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery in Washington, D.C. Later, Kelly spent 19 years teaching, refining his personality theory, and conducting research. Kelly was a major force in the development of the clinical psychology profession. Personal Construct Theory Kelly believed people perceive and organize their world of experiences by formulating hypotheses about the environment and testing them against the reality of daily life. We observe the events of our life and interpret them in our own way. This special view, the unique pattern created by each individual, is what Kelly called our construct system. A construct is a person’s unique way of looking at life, an intellectual hypothesis devised to explain or interpret events. Over the course of our lives we develop many constructs, one for almost every type of person or situation we encounter. We expand, alter, and discard these constructs periodically as situations change. Our constructs must continually be revised and be adaptable to change, which is called constructive alternativism. This view expresses that we are not controlled by our constructs, but are free to revise or replace them with other alternatives. Ways of Anticipating Life Events Kelly’s personal construct theory contains the fundamental postulate, which states that our psychological processes are directed by the ways in which we anticipate events. By using the word, processes, Kelly believed that personality was a flowing, moving process where we anticipate or predict the future by using these constructs. Kelly presented his personality theory with the use of 11 corollaries. In Kelly’s viewpoint, no two life events can be reproduced exactly as they occur the first time. Events can be repeated, but not exactly the same way. This is called the construction corollary. With individual corollaries, Kelly pointed out that we are different from one another. Each construct consists of the unique interpretation each of us places on it. According to Kelly, we organize our individual constructs into a pattern according to our view of their interrelationships, that is, their similarities and differences. Kelly called this the organizational corollary, where we organize our constructs into a hierarchy, with some constructs subordinate to others. The dichotomy corollary states that all constructs are bipolar or dichotomous and are two mutually exclusive alternatives. With the choice corollary, every situation forces us to choose the alternative that works best for us, the one that allows us to anticipate or predict the outcome of future events. Kelly believed that our choices are made in terms of how well they allow us to anticipate or predict events, not necessarily in terms of what is best for us. The range corollary is a range of convenience or applicability to situations or people. This range of convenience or relevance for a construct is a matter of personal choice. Kelly believed constructs differ in their permeability, which means to penetrate or pass through something. The modulation corollary measures how much we adapt or adjust to new experiences. If we are too rigid or too impermeable, then we are not capable of being changed, no matter what our experiences tell us. Kelly believed that within our construct system some individual constructs might be incompatible, even though they coexist within the overall pattern. This competition among constructs is called the fragmentation corollary. We use these kinds of constructs so we can tolerate subordinate inconsistencies without damaging our overall construct system. The commonality corollary describes similarities among people in interpreting events. People from the same culture may show a resemblance in their behaviors and characteristics even though they are exposed to different life events. Kelly’s final construct, the sociality corollary defines our interpersonal relationships. According to Kelly, we must understand how another person thinks if we are to anticipate how that person will predict events. Construing another person’s constructs is something we do routinely. Questions about Human Nature 1. Kelly's personality theory was optimistic and treated people as rational human beings capable of forming a framework of constructs through which to view the world. People have free will, the ability to choose new constructs when old constructs need to be revised. He did not consider past events to be determinants of present behavior. To Kelly, our goal is to establish a construct system that enables us to predict events. Assessment in Kelly’s Theory Kelly’s primary assessment technique was the interview. Kelly realized a person may lie deliberately, but we must respect our client, even if we do not fully believe them. Kelly would have his client construct a self-characterization sketch, as if that person were in a play. They were to write this as a friend who knew them intimately and very sympathetically. Kelly found this useful for learning how clients perceive themselves in relation to other people. Kelly devised the Role Construct Repertory Test (REP) to uncover the constructs we apply to the important people in our lives. The names are listed and grouped in sets of those who are most alike and how the next group may differ. This information is presented in a diagram called a repertory grid. The assumption of the REP Test is that people construe events in dichotomies, according to the dichotomy corollary, in terms of like versus unlike or similar versus dissimilar. Kelly promoted a form of psychotherapy called fixed role therapy, to help clients formulate new constructs and discard old ones; he would ask them to write a self-characterization sketch describing themselves as the lead character in a play. Kelly developed fixed role therapy from observing a friend who performed in a college drama production. This person became more and more like the character in the play offstage. This example shows the intent of fixed role therapy: first to play a role and then come to live it. Research in Kelly’s Theory Studies using the REP Test have shown that a person’s constructs remain stable over time. Research has been done to investigate the complexity of a person’s construct system. Some research has shown a correspondence between one’s personal characteristics and the ways of construing other people. The REP Test has been used to study schizophrenics, neurotics, depressives, and persons with organic brain damage. With the use of the REP Test, the researchers compared the personal construct systems of repeat patients in psychiatric hospitals with persons hospitalized for the first time. Researchers have applied the REP Test in market research to assess the criteria consumers use to evaluate products. This test has also been used for vocational counseling, employee selection, job performance evaluation, and evaluation of training programs. To Kelly, a person’s degree of cognitive complexity can be determined from the pattern of Xs on the repertory grid. When the Xs are scattered on the grid, this indicates cognitive complexity, defined as the ability to discriminate in the process of applying personal constructs to other people. People high in cognitive complexity are able to see variety among people and can easily place a person in many categories. However, the other extreme is cognitive simplicity, which applies when the pattern of Xs on the repertory grid is the same or highly similar for each construct. This person is less capable of perceiving differences when judging other people. Research has confirmed personality differences in personality style. In Kelly’s theory, cognitive complexity is the more desirable and useful cognitive style. G. Reflection on Kelly's Theory 1. Kelly's unique personality theory was developed by his own construct system from data provided by his clinical practice. Criticisms include the exclusion of emotional aspects of personality by focusing on the intellectual and rational aspects. His viewpoint was limited to subjects he studied of Midwestern young adults. However, personal construct theory continues to enjoy a large and growing base of support, although the support is much broader in Europe, Canada, and Australia, rather than the United States. Personality psychologists typically think in terms of familiar concepts of motivation and emotion, unconscious forces, drives, and needs, which form no part of Kelly's system. Adherents apply his theory of personality in clinical psychology, industrial psychology, anthropology, criminology, and urban planning as a way of modifying and predicting behavior in many walks of life. LECTURE TOPICS Lecture Topic 11.1 The instructor could lecture on how culture and personal background can change and alter the perceptions of people around us. Kelly came from the Midwest United States and was not heavily influenced by European founded psychology until he studied in Scotland. Kelly may have been exposed to Freud’s theories, but decided to found his intellectual approach to counseling in a practical way. The instructor may want to contrast and compare the assessment techniques of free association and dream analysis and the tenets of psychoanalysis with Kelly’s use of the interview, self-characteristic sketches and the Role Construct Repertory Test. The instructor could help students understand whether or not these two types of techniques help the client. The psychoanalytic methods of assessment may or may not coincide with the assessment goals of Kelly’s measures. In the students’ opinions, are either of these techniques relatively helpful for the client? Have the students discuss in class or in groups the importance of these two areas of assessment as well as the similarities and differences. This could also lead to a quiz or even a debate about the effectiveness of one set of techniques over the other. Lecture Topic 11.2 Students can explore and examine Kelly’s corollaries with a case study for a classroom discussion. Following a lecture of the 11 corollaries, the instructor may have the students work in groups and challenge each other to explore the case studies to find as many corollaries as possible and on what end or dimension of a particular corollary each of the case display? These case studies could also be used as a partial exam or quiz on the subject. Internet sites for Lecture Topic 11.2: http://up-za.academia.edu/PieterDuToit/Papers/771959/Pursuing_a_constructivist_approach_to_mentoring_in_the_higher_education_sector STUDENT PROJECTS Student Project 11.1 Students may wish to use the following web sites to further their research into the theories of George Kelly. Internet Site for Student Project 11.1: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/kelly.html Student Project 11.2 The following web site centers on Personal Construction Theory and business applications with the use of the Repertory Grid. Students may desire to apply Kelly’s theory to their own constructs of similarities and differences in personality: Internet Site for Student Project 11.2 http://www.brint.com/PCT.htm ONLINE DISCUSSION BOARD GEORGE KELLY REVIEW: To what extent do you feel arguments, even wars, result because people construe events with different construct systems? In your opinion, what can be done to reduce such confrontation, at a personal level between people? Give a detailed point by point answer, in relation to this theory. George Kelly's theory of personal construct psychology suggests that individuals interpret and understand the world through their unique construct systems, which consist of mental constructs or categories used to make sense of experiences. When individuals construe events with different construct systems, misunderstandings, conflicts, and even wars can arise due to differing perspectives and interpretations. To reduce confrontation between people stemming from differences in construct systems, several strategies can be employed at a personal level: 1. Practice Empathy : Empathy involves actively listening to others, seeking to understand their perspectives, and acknowledging their feelings and experiences. By empathizing with others, individuals can gain insight into how different construct systems shape people's interpretations of events. 2. Cultivate Open-mindedness : Open-mindedness entails being receptive to new ideas, perspectives, and ways of thinking. Instead of rigidly adhering to one's own construct system, individuals can cultivate openness to alternative viewpoints, recognizing that there are multiple valid ways of construing reality. 3. Communicate Effectively : Effective communication involves expressing oneself clearly and respectfully while also being receptive to feedback. By fostering open and honest dialogue, individuals can clarify misunderstandings, resolve conflicts, and bridge differences in construct systems. 4. Seek Common Ground : Despite differences in construct systems, individuals often share common values, goals, and aspirations. By focusing on shared interests and values, people can find common ground and build connections, fostering mutual understanding and cooperation. 5. Practice Self-reflection : Self-reflection involves examining one's own construct system, biases, and assumptions. By reflecting on how their own perspectives shape their interpretations of events, individuals can become more aware of their own biases and develop greater flexibility in their thinking. 6. Promote Education and Awareness : Education and awareness-raising initiatives can help individuals learn about different construct systems, cultural perspectives, and worldviews. By promoting understanding and appreciation for diversity, these initiatives can reduce stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. 7. Engage in Conflict Resolution : In situations of conflict, individuals can employ conflict resolution techniques such as negotiation, mediation, and compromise. By collaboratively seeking mutually beneficial solutions, conflicts arising from differences in construct systems can be resolved peacefully. 8. Build Relationships : Building positive relationships based on trust, respect, and empathy can facilitate constructive dialogue and problem-solving. By fostering strong interpersonal connections, individuals can navigate differences in construct systems more effectively and build a sense of community. In summary, reducing confrontation between people resulting from differences in construct systems requires fostering empathy, open-mindedness, effective communication, seeking common ground, self-reflection, promoting education and awareness, engaging in conflict resolution, and building positive relationships. By embracing these strategies at a personal level, individuals can contribute to a more harmonious and inclusive society, where differences in construct systems are respected and valued. CHAPTER TWELVE B.F Skinner: Reinforcement Theory LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the life of Skinner. Review reinforcement and the basis of behavior. Analyze operant conditioning and the Skinner box. Enumerate the schedules of reinforcement. Explain successive approximations and how they shape behavior. Outline superstitious behavior. Describe the self-control of behavior. Explain the applications of operant conditioning. Evaluate assessment and research in Skinner’s theory. OUTLINE Rats, Pigeons and an Empty Organism The Life of Skinner Skinner was brought up under strict parenting in Pennsylvania. He spent hours constructing mechanical devices such as wagons, seesaws, carousels, slingshots, model airplanes, and a steam cannon that shot carrots and potato plugs over neighboring houses. He was interested in animal behavior and trained pigeons to play ping-pong. Skinner majored in English and became a novelist in which he was not successful. He decided to study human behavior by the methods of science rather than the methods of fiction. Skinner studied psychology at Harvard, taught there until 1936 and also taught at the University of Minnesota and Indiana University. Skinner returned to writing and projected his emotional and intellectual discontent onto the protagonist of a novel, Walden Two, letting the character vent his personal and professional frustrations. This book has sold over 2 million copies and it describes a society in which all aspects of life are controlled by positive reinforcement. Skinner worked well into his eighties. Reinforcement: The Basis of Behavior Skinner’s fundamental idea is that behavior can be controlled by its consequences, that is, by what follows the behavior. Respondent behavior involves a response elicited by a specific stimulus. Skinner studied the work of Ivan Pavlov and his emphasis on the importance of reinforcement and extinction. To Skinner, respondent behavior was less important than operant behavior. Skinner believed that the nature and frequency of operant behavior will be determined or modified by the reinforcement that follows the behavior. Operant Conditioning and the Skinner Box Operant-conditioning is a procedure by which a change in the consequences of a response will affect the rate at which the response occurs, according to Skinner. Skinner believed that most human and animal behavior is learned through operant conditioning. To Skinner, personality is a pattern or collection of operant behaviors. Schedules of Reinforcement Skinner decided to consider how behavior would change if he varied the rate at which it was reinforced, which are called reinforcement schedules. A fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement means that the reinforcement follows the behavior in consistent time intervals. This is much like a person’s weekly or bi-monthly salary. The fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement is where reinforcers are given only after the organism has made a specified number of responses. This type of reinforcer becomes an incentive to work harder, such as for a person who makes a commission, or fixed amount of money, for each car he might sell. With the variable-interval schedule of reinforcement, a person might be reinforced by preparing for a pop quiz at various intervals or time frames throughout a semester. A person would have to be alert and ready to respond well to the introduction of this type of reinforcer. The final schedule of reinforcement is the variable-ratio, which is based on an average number of responses between reinforcers, but there is great variability around the average. Various types of gambling operate under this schedule of reinforcement.
Successive Approximation: The Shaping of Behavior According to Skinner, conditioning a child or animal to make desired complex responses can be achieved with the use of successive approximations or shaping. The organism, as it goes through this process of shaping, is reinforced as its behavior comes in successive, or consecutive, stages to approximate the final behavior desired. This is called successive approximation. Skinner believed that this is how children learn the complex behavior of speaking. The parents continue to teach and encourage the child by pronouncing words correctly and having the child repeat the corrected word. Superstitious Behavior Skinner believed we are sometimes reinforced by accident after we have displayed a behavior. A baseball player who felt he had to wear his cap a certain way in order to hit the ball or having a certain routine that seems to be “lucky” would be called by Skinner as, superstitious behavior. A single reinforcer of this kind may be powerful enough for a person or an animal to repeat the accidentally reinforced behavior more frequently for a while. According to Skinner, in humans, such behaviors may persist throughout life and require only occasional reinforcement to sustain them. The Self-Control of Behavior To Skinner, self-control meant the ability to exert control over the variables that determines our behavior. In stimulus-avoidance, we control ourselves by removing our self from something that may be negative for us to do, such as an alcoholic removing liquor from their home to avoid the temptation of drinking. Through the technique of self-administered satiation, we exert control to cure ourselves of bad habits by overdoing the behavior. We may smoke until we get sick of smoking which may help eliminate the negative behavior. The aversive- stimulation technique of self-control involves unpleasant or repugnant consequences. In self-reinforcement, we reward ourselves for displaying good or desirable behaviors. To Skinner, then, the crucial point is that external variables shape and control behavior. Applications of Operant Conditioning Behavior modification has been successful with children and adults, with the mentally healthy and the mentally disturbed, and with individuals as well as group behavior. An application from behavior modification is the use of a token economy. This is where tokens can be exchanged for valued objects or privileges as a reward for a desirable behavior. However, token economies have been found to be effective only within the setting in which they are implemented. In general, the modified behaviors do not carry over to life outside the setting in which they are used. When these tokens are no longer given, reinforced behaviors usually revert to their original state. Operant-conditioning techniques have been applied to problems in business and industry. Reinforcers for business may include pay, job security, recognition from supervisors, and perks and status within a company. The focus is on changing overt behavior, defining the nature of the appropriate reinforcers, and determining their optimal rate of presentation to modify behavior. Skinner said that punishment, as a reinforcer, was ineffective in changing behavior from undesirable to desirable or from abnormal to normal. Skinner felt that positive reinforcement administered for desirable behaviors is much more effective than punishment. Negative reinforcement is an aversive or noxious stimulus, the removal of which is rewarding, such as a loud noise or an electric shock continues until the subject emits a desirable behavior. However, negative reinforcement does not always work whereas positive reinforcement is more consistently effective. I. Questions about Human Nature 1. Skinner believed people are primarily products of learning, shaped more by external variables than genetic factors. What is learned in childhood can be modified, and new behavior patterns can be acquired at any age. Skinner made no references to overcoming inferiority, reducing anxiety, or striving for self-actualization. In Walden Two, he discussed his notion of the ideal society and that individual behavior must be directed toward the type of society that has the greatest chance of survival. As far as free will versus determinism, Skinner felt that people functioned like machines in a lawful, orderly, predetermined manner. For Skinner, behavior is controlled by reinforcers, both positive and negative. Skinner considered change possible in our world and believed we are the ones who can act to change our environment. Assessment and Research in Skinner’s Theory Skinner’s approach to assessing behavior is called functional analysis and it involves three aspects of behavior: the frequency of behavior, the situation in which the behavior occurs, and the reinforcement associated with the behavior. Three approaches to assessing behavior are direct observation, self-reports, and physiological measurements. Observation has been used in a number of studies, while self-reports are carried out through interviews and questionnaires. Questionnaires for assessing behavior are similar in format to self-report inventories that assess personality. The difference lies in the way they are interpreted, as described by the sign-versus-sample approach. The sign approach is used to assess personality, while the sample approach is used to assess behavior. Physiological measurements may include heart rate, muscle tension, and brain waves. For Skinner, whatever the technique, the ultimate goal is to modify behavior, not change personality. Skinner preferred the intensive study of a single subject. He believed that the data on the average performance of groups is of little value in dealing with a particular case. Skinner believed that valuable and replicable results could be obtained without a statistical analysis, as long as sufficient data was collected from a single subject under well controlled experimental conditions. Skinner favored the ideographic method. Skinner’s single-subject experiments follow the reversal experimental design. This design has four stages. The first stage establishes a baseline for the subject’s behavior, the dependent variable, which is observed to determine the normal rate of response before any modification. Next is the conditioning, or experimental stage where the independent variables are introduced. The third stage is called reversal, which determines whether some factor other than the independent variable is responsible for the learned behavior. When the procedure is applied to behavior modification, a reconditioning stage is added. Skinner and his followers conducted thousands of operant-conditioning experiments with highly supportive results. LECTURE TOPICS Lecture Topic 12.1 The instructor may want to lecture on the differences between Skinner’s theory and other theorists, such as Freud, Adler, and Jung in terms of personality. Divide the class into four groups and have a brainstorming session with each group taking one of these four theorists. The students could then defend their theorist and their theory. Does this theorist have a logical and worthwhile theory? Does their theory have applicability in therapy and to what extent? Have a vote of which group presented the best case and which theorist and theory seems to make more sense to most of the students. The instructor could highlight strong points and deficiencies of each group’s defense of the theorist and their theories. Lecture Topic 12.2 The instructor may generate discussion with the use of questions on behavior modification or continue the comparison with other theorists. The questions could easily be divided for several groups to discuss and then the students would give their consensus and divergent opinions on the efficacy of each set of questions. This material could also be assigned individually or enacted in a role-playing situation using dialogue in place of the narrative in each of the case studies. A simulated counseling session could be done or each group could simulate a group meeting of therapists who are given this case to diagnose and assign assessment instruments and treatment techniques for each of these cases with the use of dialogue or the use of the book’s narrative. STUDENT PROJECTS Student Project 12.1 The student may want more information concerning Skinner, his theories, and more recent research on behavior modification. A student may want to write a paper on behavior modification strategies and changing their own study skills. Here are a few resources: Psychology Today, March-April 2004 v37 i2 p83 (1) Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century. (book highlight)(Brief Article)(Book Review) Erik Strand. Experiments of the Twentieth Century,” and also, look for the article Record Number A115344432 Internet Sites for Student Project 12.1: http://booksthatteach.com/articles/13steps.htm http://www.csbsju.edu/academic-advising/help/getmore.htm Student Project 12.2 Have students design a “Skinner Box” for a small animal. The students could use a shoe box and then diagram or put objects inside the box which would help “modify” the animal’s behavior. Note: no animal is needed or required for this project. Another variation is to have each group diagram a behavior modification program for a person struggling with a mild habit, such as occasional coffee drinking. Internet Sites for Student Project 12.2: www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA http://www.penny-arcade.com/patv/episode/the-skinner-box Student Project 12.3 Have the students work in groups and create a mild behavior modification experiment with other students at their university or college. Students could place a movable obstruction on a walkway and conduct an experiment on how various people contend with these barriers. A short interview of each participant could be conducted on how they contended with the barriers. Internet sites for Student Project 12.3: http://teachingedpsych.wikispaces.com/Behavior+Modification+Project--General+Directions Student Project 12.4 Students may want to research for papers or more information on Skinner and behavior management. Here are some web links for the further research. Internet sites for Student Project 12.4: http://www.ldonline.org/article/6030/ http://www.latitudes.org/behavioral_charts.html http://www.ucsfhealth.org/education/behavior_modification_ideas_for_weight_management/index.html Student Project 12.5 The following websites present a wealth of information for students to research for papers on behavioral management in the workplace and in everyday life. Students may want to devise a behavioral management system for everyday use in routines that they do on a regular basis which could use some change to be more effective in their lives. Internet sites for Student Project 12.5 http://www.bfskinner.org/BFSkinner/Home.html http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html PROJECTS IN BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Behavioral Modification Project 12.1 You and your group are to complete an experiment on human nature. Your group is to design and implement the experiment and report your results during the scheduled class time. Videotape your results, if you are able to do so. More information will be given in class. Here are some ideas for your experiment: Have your group put up some very modest “barriers” for people on a sidewalk. Observe what each person does with the obstacles. Develop different variables, such as type of barrier, how they overcame the obstacle(s); (if they did or not), gender differences, or age range differences. You should have enough people (around 20), to observe in order to make your observations generalizable to the larger group of students, faculty, staff, etc. (Caution: Let security and/or maintenance know if this could be a potential problem for them). Drop a picture or a wallet with a name on it, (“If found, please immediately give this picture to Sandy in James 101. REWARD FOR IMMEDIATE RETURN!” for example) and where it is supposed to go on a sidewalk. “Sally” would be from your group and would interview the person after the experiment. See what the person does with the picture or wallet and follow up with the person in the interview of “why” they did what they did. Variables could be age range, sex differences, and categories of what they did and why. Use crutches or a wheel chair, and attempt to get in a doorway. Fake a scene where you fall or lose your books. See what people do and interview them afterwards on why they helped or not. (Note: Please give any person the right NOT to respond to you). Glue or otherwise fasten some quarters on the steps leading to a building. See who attempts to pick them up and what their level of frustration is when they are unable to do so. Make up your own behavior modification experiment. Just be safe for yourself and your participants. Also, get permission from public safety or maintenance if you feel you need to. Behavioral Modification Project 10.2 The purpose of this experiment is to replicate a scientific experiment by John Darley and Daniel Bateson from 1973. They set up a situation for subjects to encounter a person who may need immediate medical help. This experiment follows the biblical account that Jesus gave as a parable. There are four corresponding hypotheses presented: 1. Persons in a hurry will be less likely to help than persons not in a hurry. 2. Individuals preoccupied with religious and ethical thoughts (as the priest and the Levite in the New Testament parable presumably were) will be no more likely to offer aid than other persons thinking of other things. 3. Persons who are “intrinsically religious,” or alternatively, whose religiousness is the expression of a quest for meaning, will more likely be helpful than persons whose religiousness resembles that of the priest or the Levite, for whom, according to Darley and Bateson, religion is only a means towards the ends. 4. Make up a further hypothesis about male/female differences in helping same gender and cross gender and predict the outcome in your hypothesis. Set up the experiment in a controlled setting where no one will call 911 or security. Tell your subjects after the experiment that this was staged and findings will not be used outside the classroom. You may need to let security know the general location, date and place of the experiment. The instructor needs to know the time and place and ‘set-up’ plans for each of the experiment groups before the experiment is done. Test a sufficient number of subjects. I suggest at least 10. Give each member of your group a role to play. Decide also, whether you will interview subjects on their reasons for ‘passing-by’ or for ‘stopping and helping’ after the experiment. If you can videotape the experiment and bring to class, this would be most helpful Instructor Manual for Theories of Personality Duane P. Schultz , Sydney Ellen Schultz 9781111834531
