CH-7 Selection – Human Resources Management in Canada : Chapter Notes

This document contains Chapters 7 to 9 PART TWO: MEETING HUMAN RESOURCES REQUIREMENTS CHAPTER 7 SELECTION LEARNING OUTCOMES • Define selection and discuss its purpose and importance. • Define reliability and validity and explain their importance in selection techniques. • Describe at least four types of testing used in selection, and analyze the conflicting legal concerns related to alcohol and drug testing. • Describe the major types of selection interview by degree of structure, type of content, and manner of administration. • Explain the importance of reference checking, describe strategies to make such checking effective, and analyze the legal issues involved. CHAPTER SUMMARY The chapter begins with an introduction in which selection is defined, its purpose and importance are explained, and the HR department’s role is discussed. A brief overview of the selection process is then presented. The focus then shifts to the importance of reliability and validity. The remainder of the chapter is devoted to a detailed discussion of the typical steps in the selection process: (1) preliminary reception and initial applicant screening (2) selection testing, including the types of testing used and the legal and ethical concerns related to medical examinations and drug testing (3) the selection interview, including the major types, their usefulness, legal issues, problems that can undermine their effectiveness, and some practical hints on designing and conducting an effective interview (4) background investigation and reference checking, including strategies to make such checking effective and the legal issues involved (5) the supervisory interview and realistic job preview (6) making the hiring decision and (7) candidate notification LECTURE OUTLINE • This chapter introduces the topic of selection from a group of job candidates. • Selection of the best candidates is critical to the successful implementation of the firm’s strategy. • Selection is the process of choosing among individuals with the relevant qualifications to fill existing or projected job openings. The purpose of selection is to find the “best” candidate for the job – an individual who possesses the required KSAs and personality, who will perform well, embrace the corporate mission and values, and fit the organizational culture. • Most firms use a sequential selection system involving a series of successive steps – a multiple-hurdle strategy. Only candidates clearing the “hurdle” (typically prescreening, testing, interviewing, and background/reference checking) are permitted to move on to the next step. • Proper selection is important because the quality of human resources determines: (1) its impact on company performance, (2) the costs involved, and (3) its legal implications. • Company Performance – More and more managers have come to the realization that the quality of the company’s human resources is often the single most important factor in determining whether the firm is going to survive, be successful in reaching the objectives specified in its strategic plan, and realize a satisfactory return on its investment. • Cost – In recent years, the cost of recruitment and selection has risen substantially. Since labour costs make up such a big percentage of overhead expenses in most Canadian organizations (up to 80 or 85 percent in service-sector firms), there are also tremendous costs associated with inappropriate selection decisions. The high cost of training and development makes it all the more critical that the selection process receives careful attention, such that subsequent training and development efforts will “fall on fertile soil.” • Legal Implications – Human rights legislation in every Canadian jurisdiction prohibits discrimination in all aspects and terms and conditions of employment on such grounds as race, religion or creed, colour, marital status, gender, age, and disability. Firms must ensure that all of their selection procedures are free of both intentional and systemic discrimination. Those organizations required by law to implement an employment equity plan must ensure that all of their employment systems, including selection, are bias-free and do not have an adverse impact on members of the four designated groups. Another legal implication is employer liability for negligent or wrongful hiring. Finally, there is the legal issue of wrongful dismissal. According to wrongful dismissal case law, employees who are unable to perform a job may be dismissed without any notice or severance. The selection process: • Figure 7.1 illustrates the steps commonly involved. • Even within a firm, the number and sequence of steps often varies with type and level of job, as well as source and method of recruitment. • The types of selection instruments and screening devices used are not standardized across organizations. • Guidelines for Avoiding Legal Problems – Concerns also require that employers exercise due diligence in employee screening and reference checking. Hints to ensure compliance include: (1) ensuring that all selection criteria and strategies are based on the job description and job specification; (2) adequately assessing the applicant's ability to meet performance standards or expectations; (3) carefully scrutinizing all information supplied on application forms and résumés; (4) obtaining written authorization for reference checking from prospective employees, and checking references very carefully; (5) saving all records and information obtained about the applicant during each stage of the selection process; and (6) rejecting applicants who make false statements on their application forms or résumés. • Step 1: Applicant Screening – First contact is often through the Web. Initial applicant screening is generally performed by members of the HR department. Application forms and résumés are reviewed. Those candidates not meeting the "must have" selection criteria are eliminated first. Then the remaining applications are examined, and those candidates who most closely match the remaining job specifications are identified and given further consideration. • Step 2: Selection Testing – The Canadian Psychological Association has developed and published comprehensive testing standards, covering such areas as test instrumentation, test use and administration, scoring, and reporting. • Hints to ensure legal compliance: (1) using tests as supplements to other techniques; (2) validating the tests in the organization; (3) using a certified psychologist; and (4) providing appropriate testing conditions. • Two critical issues related to legal compliance are reliability and validity. • The degree to which interviews, tests, and other selection procedures yield comparable data over a period of time is known as reliability. Reliability is thus concerned with the degree of dependability, consistency, or stability of the measures used. There are at least four sources of unreliability: (1) a poor job sampling; (2) chance response tendencies; (3) the conditions under which the instrument is administered; and (4) changes within the applicant. • Validity refers to the accuracy with which a predictor measures what it is supposed to measure. In the context of selection, validity is an indicator of the extent to which data from a selection technique, such as a test or interview, are related to or predictive of subsequent performance on the job. Without proof of validity, there is no logical or legally permissible reason to continue using the technique to screen job applicants. • There are three distinct types of validity: criterion-related; content; and construct. Construct validity is not frequently used in selection. • Criterion-Related Validity – The extent to which a selection tool predicts or significantly correlates with important elements of work behaviour is known as criterion-related validity. • Content Validity – When a selection instrument adequately samples the knowledge and skills needed to perform the job, content validity is assumed to exist. • Construct Validity – The extent to which a selection tool measures a theoretical construct or trait deemed necessary to perform the job successfully is known as construct validity. Intelligence, verbal skills, analytical ability, and leadership skills are all examples of constructs. Experts also recommend that separate validation studies be administered for different subgroups, such as visible minorities and women. If differential validity is not assessed, it is possible for a test or other procedure to be a valid predictor of job success for one group (such as white male applicants) but not for all candidates, thereby leading to systemic discrimination. • Types of Tests: A number of the tests commonly used in selection can conveniently be classified according to whether they measure cognitive (thinking) abilities, motor and physical abilities, personality and interests, or achievement. • Tests of Cognitive Abilities∫ – Included in this category are tests of general reasoning ability (intelligence), tests of emotional intelligence, and tests of specific thinking skills such as memory and inductive reasoning. • Intelligence Tests – Intelligence (IQ) tests are tests of general intellectual abilities. They measure not a single "intelligence" trait, but rather a number of abilities including memory, vocabulary, verbal fluency, and numerical ability. • Emotional Intelligence Tests – Emotional intelligence (EI) tests measure ability to monitor one’s own emotions and the emotions of others, and to use that knowledge to guide thoughts and actions. Someone with a high emotional quotient (EQ) is self-aware, can control his or her impulses, motivates him or herself, and demonstrates empathy and social awareness. • Specific Cognitive Abilities – There are also measures of specific thinking skills, such as inductive and deductive reasoning, verbal comprehension, memory, and numerical ability. Tests in this category are often called aptitude tests, since they purport to measure the applicant's aptitudes for the job in question – that is, the applicant's potential to perform the job once given proper training. • Tests of Motor and Physical Abilities – There are many motor abilities a firm might want to measure. These include finger dexterity, manual dexterity, speed of arm movement, and reaction time. Tests of physical abilities – such as static strength (lifting weights), dynamic strength (like pull-ups), body coordination (as in jumping rope), and stamina – may also be required. • Measuring Personality and Interests – Personality and interest inventories are sometimes used as predictors of such intangibles. • Personality Tests can measure basic aspects of an applicant's personality, such as introversion, stability, and motivation. Many of these tests are projective. • Interest Inventories compare a candidate's interests with those of people in various occupations. • Achievement Tests – An achievement test is basically a measure of what a person has learned. • Work Sampling for Employee Selection – Work samples and simulations such as assessment centres can be considered tests. However, they differ from most of the tests discussed because they focus on measuring job performance directly. • Management Assessment Centres – In a two- to three-day management assessment centre, the management potential of 10 or 12 candidates is assessed by expert appraisers who observe them performing realistic management tasks. Examples of the types of activities and exercises involved include: an in-basket exercise; a leaderless group discussion; management games; individual presentations; objective tests; and an interview. • Video-Based Situational Testing – In situational tests, candidates are presented with hypothetical situations representative of the job for which they are applying, and they are evaluated on their responses. Several of the assessment centre exercises listed above are examples. • Micro-Assessments – In a micro-assessment, each applicant completes a series of verbal, paper-based or computer-based questions and exercises that cover the range of activities required on the job for which he or she is applying. In addition to technical exercises, participants are required to solve a set of work-related problems that demonstrate their ability to perform well within the confines of a certain department or corporate culture. • Medical Examination – The use of medical examinations has decreased. They are only permitted after a written offer of employment has been extended. Three main reasons why firms may include a medical examination as a step in the selection process: (1) to determine that the applicant qualifies for the physical requirements of the position and, if not, to document any accommodation requirements; (2) to establish a record and baseline of the applicant’s health for the purpose of future insurance or compensation claims; and (3) to reduce absenteeism and accidents by enabling the applicant and physician to identify any health- or safety-related issues or concerns that need to be addressed. • Substance Abuse – Under human rights legislation, as with any other type of medical examination, pre-employment drug testing is only permitted after a written job offer has been extended. Drug testing is only permissible if the firm can demonstrate a bona fide occupational requirement. • There is an additional human rights issue pertaining to drugs and drug testing that employers must keep in mind: addiction to drugs or alcohol is considered to be a disability, which must be accommodated to the point of undue hardship. Thus, to deny or terminate employment to an individual with an addiction problem – whether unveiled through drug testing or through on-the-job performance-related concerns – would be construed as discrimination on the basis of disability, unless undue hardship can be proven. • Interviewer objectives include: assessing applicants' qualifications; observing relevant aspects of applicants' behaviour, such as verbal communication skills, degree of self-confidence, and interpersonal skills; gathering information about applicants that helps to predict future performance (how long they are likely to remain in the organization); providing candidates with information about the job; promoting the organization and highlighting its attractiveness; and determining how well the applicants would fit into the organization. • Typical objectives of job applicants include: presenting a positive image of themselves; selling their skills and marketing their positive attributes; and gathering information about the job and the organization so that they can make an informed decision. • Selection Interviews can be classified in three ways, according to: (1) degree of structure; (2) content; and (3) the way the interview is administered. • Structure of the Interview – Interviews can be classified according to the degree to which they are structured. In an unstructured (or nondirective) interview, questions are asked as they come to mind. The interview can also be structured. In the classical structured (or directive) interview, the questions and acceptable responses are specified in advance and the responses are rated for appropriateness of content. Between these two extremes is the mixed (semi-structured) interview. • Content of the Interview – Interviews can also be classified according to the content of their questions. • A situational interview is one in which the questions focus on the individual's ability to project what his or her behaviour would be in a given situation. The underlying premise is that intentions predict behaviour. The interview can be both structured and situational, with predetermined questions requiring the candidate to project what his or her behaviour would be. • The behavioural interview or behaviour description interview (BDI) involves describing various situations and asking interviewees how they behaved in the past in such situations. Thus, while situational interviews ask interviewees to describe how they would react to a situation, the BDI asks interviewees to describe how they did react to situations in the past, giving specific examples. The underlying assumption is that the best predictor of future performance is past performance in similar circumstances. • Administering the Interview – Interviews can also be classified based on how they are administered: one-on-one or by a panel of interviewers; sequentially or all at once; computerized, audio taped, videotaped, videoconferenced, teleconferenced, or conducted entirely in person. Applicants could get the impression that the prospective employer is rather impersonal. • Interviewing and the Law – As a selection procedure, interviews must comply with human rights legislation. To ensure compliance: • Interviewers cannot ask questions that would violate human rights legislation, either directly or indirectly. • All interviewees must be treated in the same manner. An interviewer cannot ask only female factory position applicants to demonstrate their lifting abilities, for example. • Cutting short an interview based on preconceived notions about the gender or race of the “ideal” candidate should also be avoided, since this is another example of illegal differential treatment. • A helpful phrase to keep in mind when designing interview questions is: “This job requires . . . ” Interviewers who focus on the job description and job specification can gather all of the information required to assess applicants. • Common Interviewing Mistakes – There are several common interviewing mistakes that undermine an interview's usefulness: • Poor Planning – An interview will be unsuccessful if the interviewer does not have specific selection criteria in mind or has failed to plan strategies for assessing the criteria chosen. Lack of planning often leads to a relatively unstructured interview, in which whatever comes up gets discussed. • Snap Judgments – One of the most consistent findings in the interviewing literature is that interviewers tend to jump to conclusions – make snap judgments – during the first few minutes of the interview or even before the interview begins, based on the candidates’ test scores or résumé data. • Negative Emphasis – Jumping to conclusions is especially troublesome when the information the interviewer has about the candidate is negative. • Halo Effect – It is possible, though, for a positive initial impression to distort an interviewer's rating of a candidate, such that subsequent information is judged with a positive bias. This is known as the halo effect. • Poor Knowledge of the Job – Interviewers who do not know precisely what the job entails, and what sort of candidate is best suited for it, usually make their decisions based on incorrect stereotypes about what a good applicant is. They then erroneously match interviewees with their incorrect stereotypes. • Contrast error or candidate-order error – The order in which candidates are seen can affect how they are rated. • Pressure to Hire – Pressure to hire also undermines an interview's usefulness, since interviewers often lower their standards in such situations. • Influence of Nonverbal Behaviour – Interviewers are also influenced by the applicant's nonverbal behaviour. In fact, nonverbal behaviours often account for more than 80 percent of the applicant's rating. This is of particular concern since nonverbal behaviour is tied to ethnicity and cultural background. An applicant's attractiveness and gender also play a role. • Telegraphing – Some interviewers are so anxious to fill a job that they help the applicant respond correctly to their questions by telegraphing the expected answer. • Too Much/Too Little Talking – If the applicant is permitted to dominate the interview, the interviewer may not have a chance to ask his or her prepared questions and often learns very little about the candidate’s job-related skills. At the other extreme, some interviewers talk so much that the interviewee is not given enough time to answer questions. • Similar-to-me Bias – Interviewers tend to provide more favourable ratings to candidates who possess demographic, personality, and attitudinal characteristics similar to their own. Designing An Effective Interview: • Deciding Who Will Be Involved in the Selection Process and Developing Selection Criteria – This requires a thorough examination of the job description and job specification. This step should occur prior to recruitment. Specifying selection criteria involves clarifying and weighting the various pieces of information assembled through perusal of the job description and job specification, and discussion among the interview-team members, especially those most familiar with the job and coworkers. • Specifying Musts and Wants and Weighting the Wants – Must criteria are those that are absolutely essential for the job. They include a measurable standard of acceptability or are absolute, and can be screened initially on paper. The want criteria are those that have been culled from the must list. They include skills and abilities that cannot be screened on paper (such as verbal communication skills), or are not readily measurable (such as leadership ability), as well as qualifications that are desirable but not critical (such as knowledge of the specific word processing software package used at the firm). Determining Assessment Strategies and Developing an Evaluation: • Developing Interview Questions to Be Asked of All Candidates – Open-ended questions – primarily situational and behavioural – should then be developed for each of the KSAs to be assessed during the interview. Situational questions ask candidates to indicate how they would respond to a hypothetical situation that could actually occur on the job. Behavioural questions request specific examples of past behaviour. Job-knowledge and worker-requirements questions should also be included. Job-knowledge questions assess whether candidates have the basic knowledge needed to perform the job. Often they deal with technical aspects of the job. Worker-requirements or willingness questions gauge the applicants’ motivation and willingness to perform under prevailing working conditions. • Developing Candidate-specific Questions – A few open-ended, job-related questions that are candidate-specific should be planned based on each candidate’s résumé and application form. Steps Involved in an Effective Interview: • Planning the Interview – Prior to the first interview, agreement should be reached on the procedure that will be followed. Immediately before each interview, the panel members should review the applicant’s application form and résumé, as well as the interview questions planned in advance. • Establishing Rapport – The main reason for an interview is to find out as much as possible about the candidate’s fit with the job specifications, something that is difficult to do if the individual is tense and nervous. The candidate should be greeted in a friendly manner and put at ease. • Asking Questions: The questions written in advance should then be asked in order. • Taking notes increases the validity of the interview process, since doing so: (1) reduces the likelihood of forgetting job-relevant information and subsequently reconstructing forgotten information in accordance with biases and stereotypes; (2) reduces the likelihood of making a snap judgment and helps to prevent the halo effect, negative emphasis and candidate-order errors; and (3) helps to ensure that all candidates are assessed on the same criteria. Detailed interview notes also provide documentation in the case of a human rights challenge. • Closing the Interview – Toward the end of the interview, time should be allocated to answer any questions the candidate may have and, if appropriate, to advocate the firm and position. While the potential of the job and opportunities at the firm should be discussed, care must be taken not to oversell or misrepresent. Providing a realistic job preview is recommended. All interviews should be ended on a positive note. The interviewee should be thanked and informed about subsequent steps in the selection process, as well as when he or she will be notified regarding whether or not he or she will be given further consideration. • Evaluating the Candidate Immediately following each interview, the applicant’s interview performance should be rated by each panel member independently, based on a review of his or her notes. • Background Investigation and Reference Checking – Reference checking serves two key purposes: (1) verifying the accuracy of the information pertaining to job related educational qualifications and experience provided by candidates on their application forms and résumés; and (2) validating the information obtained during the other steps in the selection process. • Whether requesting reference information in writing or asking for such information over the telephone, questions should be written down in advance. Legal Issues Involved in Obtaining and Providing Reference Information • Failure to check references can lead to negligent or wrongful hiring suits that may involve significant damages. In providing reference information, the concept of qualified privilege is important. Generally speaking, if comments are made in confidence for a public purpose, without malice, and are honestly believed, the defence of “qualified privilege” exists. Thus, if honest, fair, and candid references are given by an individual who is asked to provide confidential information about the performance of a job applicant, then the doctrine of qualified privilege generally protects the reference giver, even if negative information is imparted about the candidate. However, if a statement is made that is known to be untrue in an attempt to sabotage the employee’s chances of finding another job, or is contained in an employment evaluation or performance review, it is likely that malice will destroy the qualified privilege and the Court will not come to the rescue of the reference giver. • Supervisory Interview is important because: • the supervisor tends to know the technical aspects of the job best and is the most qualified to assess the applicants' job knowledge and skills. • the supervisor is typically best equipped to answer any job-specific questions. • the immediate supervisor generally has to work closely with the individual selected and must feel comfortable with that person. • if the supervisor is committed to the individual selected, he or she will try to provide assistance and guidance to the new hire for success. • the individual selected must fit with the current members of the department or team, something that the supervisor is often best able to assess. • the supervisor ultimately makes the final decision. • The supervisory interview is often supplemented with a realistic job preview (RJP). • An RJP presents realistic information about the jobs’ demands, the organization's expectations, and the work environment. Candidates thereby learn about both positive and negative aspects of the job and firm. This can improve employee satisfaction, reduce voluntary turnover, and enhance communication. • Making the Hiring Decision – To make the hiring decision, information from the multiple predictors used must be combined, and the applicant who is the best fit with the selection criteria must be identified. • Firms generally make a subjective evaluation of all the information gleaned about each candidate and arrive at an overall judgment. The validity and reliability of judgments made using the clinical strategy can be improved by using tests that are objectively scored, and by devising a candidate rating sheet based on the weighted want criteria. • There is also a statistical strategy, which involves combining all of the pieces of information according to a formula, and giving the job to the candidate with the highest score. Although research studies have indicated that the statistical strategy is generally more reliable and valid, most organizations use the clinical strategy. • Candidate Notification – Often the initial offer is made by telephone, but it should be followed up with a written employment offer that clearly specifies important terms and conditions of employment. • HR department staff members generally handle offers of employment. Candidates should be given a reasonable length of time to think over the offer, and not be pressured into making an immediate decision. • All finalists not selected should be notified. • Suggest the instructor discuss with the students what the appropriate selection criteria might be for an instructor. Can engage the students in discussion as to which criteria should be most important – must vs. want. • Lecture and then discuss Case Incident – If we Knew Then What We Know Now – on page 191 • Complete lecture and choose one of the critical thinking questions for discussion (page 190) – e.g. have any of the students had to undergo testing? DISCUSSION BOX SUMMARIES STRATEGIC HR: How BMO Financial Selects Employees (page 178) BMO Financial Group uses behavioural-focused interviewing to help assess candidates and ensure the best fit in the hiring process. This box describes the process of selection from initial posting of the position, including the screening carried out by external recruiters as one of the steps. In addition, hiring managers are specially trained to conduct behaviour-focused interview techniques effectively, with a lot of emphasis on preparing for the interview. Feedback from candidates suggests that this preparation makes them feel very valued from the start. ============================================================================= WORKFORCE DIVERSITY: Listening to the Needs of the Deaf (page 184) Given the impending labour shortage, hiring people with disabilities is not only good public relations but also a necessity. In spite of the fact that numerous people with hearing impairments are successfully employed in a wide variety of fields, serious underemployment of deaf individuals continues. This may be a result of deep-rooted discrimination and a lack of understanding. This box describes accommodations that may be required in the selection process, and interviews that are not very difficult or expensive. ============================================================================= ETHICAL DILEMMAS As the company recruiter, how would you handle a request from the CEO that you hire her son for a summer job, knowing that, given current hiring constraints, the sons and daughters of other employees will not be able to obtain such positions? (page 167) Some will argue that when the CEO makes a request, it cannot be ignored. After all, she is the boss! Others, however, will indicate that they feel it would be morally and ethically incorrect to give preferential treatment in the form of a summer job to the son of the CEO, when the sons and daughters of other employees will not have equal opportunity to attain such positions. While a request from the CEO cannot be ignored, perhaps a compromise is possible. After all, presumably her request is based on a desire to see her son working for the summer. Thus, helping her son to obtain employment – at another firm – would meet her needs and yet not compromise my ethics as the firm’s recruiter. As the HR manager, how would you balance your ethical responsibilities to those providing reference information and to the job applicant in a situation in which a candidate is being eliminated from a competition based on negative reference information from a number of sources? (page 187) Once again, some will argue that the best way to handle this task, especially given my ethical responsibility to protect the confidentiality of those providing me with honest reference information at my request, is to simply tell the candidate that he or she is not being selected for the position because another candidate more closely matches the firm’s job specifications. Others, however, will indicate that I have a moral and ethical responsibility to provide candidates with honest feedback, especially if several reference providers have identified areas of weakness in which the individual can improve, or development needs that the candidate may wish to address. On the other hand, if the information I’ve received indicates that the candidate is a less than desirable employee, and has been discharged from several previous jobs, simply stating that we cannot offer the individual the job on the basis of reference-checking information should not come as a surprise to him or her. They may argue that my ethical responsibility to those providing reference information is to ensure that I do not provide any feedback to the candidate in a manner that will reveal the identity of the person from whom it was received. As the HR manager, how much feedback should you provide to those individuals not selected for a position? (page 188) Some will strongly recommend that I should provide those individuals not selected for a position with as little feedback as possible and should rarely, if ever, discuss the underlying reasons for the firm’s decision. There are several sound arguments to support this viewpoint: • It is frequently awkward, if not tactically impossible, to tell the applicant the real reason for his or her rejection. • Trying to provide honest feedback may lead to a time-consuming argument that I, as the individual relaying the message, cannot win. Some experts feel strongly that candidates should never be rejected. Instead, the impression should be conveyed that the applicant was not found wanting, but that the candidate selected simply matches the selection criteria more closely. Others will argue that it is both appropriate and desirable for me to provide honest feedback to those candidates who were not selected, especially if the hiring decision is based on bona fide selection criteria and a series of valid and reliable steps. It can be very helpful to job seekers to receive tactfully worded and honest feedback, especially if it is developmental in nature. For example, listening to such feedback and acting upon it may enable them to correct a problem, such as the need to practice interview skills to present themselves more effectively, or to overcome a skills weakness by acquiring additional experience, training, or education. Such feedback is particularly desirable for internal applicants. Sometimes applicants who were not selected for the position in question may be worthy of consideration for future openings. If so, most will argue that they should be informed of this fact and reassured that their résumé and application form data will be filed appropriately. KEY TERMS Achievement Tests Tests used to measure knowledge and/or proficiency acquired through education, training, or experience. (page 174) Aptitude Tests Tests that measure an individual's aptitude or potential to perform a job provided he or she is given proper training. (page 171) Behavioural or Behaviour Descriptive Interview (BDI) A series of job-related questions that focus on relevant past job-related behaviours. (page 178) Construct Validity The extent to which a selection tool measures a theoretical construct or trait deemed necessary to perform the job successfully. (page 170) Content Validity The extent to which a selection instrument, such as a test, adequately samples the knowledge and skills needed to perform the job. (page 170) Contrast or Candidate-order Error An error of judgment on the part of the interviewer due to interviewing one or more very good or very bad candidates just before the interview in question. (page 180) Criterion-related Validity The extent to which a selection tool predicts or significantly correlates with important elements of work behaviour. (page 170) Differential Validity Confirmation that the selection tool accurately predicts the performance of all possible employee subgroups, including white males, women, visible minorities, persons with disabilities, and Aboriginal peoples. (page 170) Emotional Intelligence (EI) tests Tests that measure ability to monitor one’s own emotions and the emotions of others, and which use that knowledge to guide thoughts and actions. (page 171) Halo Effect A positive initial impression that distorts an interviewer’s rating of a candidate because subsequent information is judged with a positive bias. (page 180) Intelligence (IQ) Tests Tests that measure general intellectual abilities, such as verbal comprehension, inductive reasoning, memory, numerical ability, speed of perception, spatial visualization, and word fluency. (page 171) Interest Inventories Tests that compare a candidate’s interests with those people in various occupations. (page 174) Management Assessment Centre A strategy used to assess candidates’ management potential using a combination of realistic exercises, management games, objective testing, presentations, and interviews. (page 174) Micro-assessment A series of verbal, paper-based, or computer-based questions and exercises that a candidate is required to complete, covering the range of activities required on the job for which he or she is applying. (page 176) Mixed (Semi-structured) Interview An interview format that combines the structured and unstructured techniques. (page 177) Multiple-hurdle Strategy An approach to selection involving a series of successive steps or hurdles. Only candidates clearing the hurdle are permitted to move on to the next step. (page 168) Must Criteria Requirements that are absolutely essential for the job. They include a measurable standard of acceptability or are absolute, and can be screened initially on paper. (page 182) Panel Interview An interview in which a group of interviewers questions the applicant. (page 179) Personality Tests Instruments used to measure basic aspects of personality, such as introversion, stability, motivation, neurotic tendency, self-confidence, self-sufficiency, and sociability. (page 173) Realistic Job Preview (RJP) A strategy used to provide applicants with realistic information – both positive and negative – about the job demands, the organization's expectations, and the work environment. (page 188) Reliability The degree to which interviews, tests, and other selection procedures yield comparable data over a period of time; in other words, the degree of dependability, consistency, or stability of the measures used. (page 169) Selection The process of choosing individuals who have been recruited to fill existing or projected job openings. (page 167) Selection Interview A procedure designed to predict future job performance on the basis of applicants' oral responses to oral inquiries. (page 176) Selection Ratio The ratio of the number of applicants hired to the total number of applicants. (page 168) Situational Interview A series of job-related questions that focus on how the candidate would behave in a given situation. (page 177) Situational Tests Tests in which candidates are presented with hypothetical situations representative of the job for which they are applying and are then evaluated on their responses. (page 175) Statistical Strategy A more objective technique used to determine to whom the job should be offered. It involves identifying the most valid predictors and weighting them through statistical methods, such as multiple regression. (page 188) Structured Interview An interview following a set sequence of questions. (page 177) Unstructured Interview An unstructured, conversational-style interview. The interviewer pursues points of interest as they come up in response to questions. (page 177) Validity The accuracy with which a predictor measures what it is supposed to measure. (page 170) Want Criteria Those criteria that have been culled from the must list. They represent qualifications that cannot be screened on paper or are not readily measurable, as well as those that are highly desirable but not critical. (page 182) PART THREE: DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE HUMAN RESOURCES CHAPTER 8 ORIENTATION AND TRAINING LEARNING OUTCOMES • Explain how to develop an orientation program. • Describe the five-step training process. • Discuss two techniques used for assessing training needs. • Explain at least five traditional training techniques. • Describe the three types of e-learning. • Describe how to evaluate the training effort. • Explain seven common types of training for special purposes. CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter begins with a description of employee orientation programs including a discussion of the purpose, content, and responsibility of orientation programs. Next, special orientation situations are discussed including diverse workforce, mergers and acquisitions, union versus non-union employees, and multi-location organizations. This is followed by a discussion of problems with orientation programs, evaluation of orientation programs and ethical dilemmas in orientation programs. The rest of the chapter sets out the five-step training and development process including needs analysis, instructional design, validation, implementation and evaluation. Next there is a discussion of traditional training techniques including on-the-job-training, apprenticeship training, informal learning, job instruction training, lectures, audiovisual techniques, programmed learning, and vestibule or simulated training. This is followed by a discussion of e-learning including computer-based training, online training, and electronic performance support systems. The chapter concludes with examples of how to evaluate the training effort followed by a discussion of training for special purposes. LECTURE OUTLINE • This chapter introduces the topics of employee orientation and the five-step training and development process. • Orienting Employees • employee orientation provides new employees with basic background information about the employer, and specific information needed to perform their jobs satisfactorily • orientation is one component of a socialization process and reduces reality shock • Purpose of Orientation Programs • orientation may begin before first day of employment and continue as a “new hire development process” • Special Orientation Situations • orienting new employees from different backgrounds means a special challenge – new values, variety of reactions from current employees, and legal issues • in mergers, both old and new employees need orientation to a new company culture • new employees need a copy of the collective agreement, information specific to their jobs, and need to be introduced to union stewards and executive members • new employees need to be made aware of where other locations are and the business functions in each location • Problems with Orientation Programs • new employees are often overwhelmed with information • little or no orientation means employees must seek information as they work without an overall context • broad information from HR may not be meaningful • too much detail may not be remembered • Evaluation of Orientation • do the employees think the orientation is useful? • do new employees demonstrate understanding and acceptance of the beliefs, values and norms of the organization? • compare orientation costs with benefits • Executive Integration • lack of executive integration can result in problems with assimilation and effectiveness • ongoing process involving learning about unspoken dynamics, decision-making and power • The Training Process • training is a learning process where information and skills are provided to workers in order to perform their current jobs • employee and management development is training for future jobs • purpose of needs analysis: to identify specific job performance skills needed, analyze skills and needs of trainees, and to develop specific measurable knowledge and performance objectives • actual content of training program is compiled and produced • validation through a pilot training program implementation involves using specific training techniques • evaluation of pilot to determine successes or failures • Step 1: Needs Analysis • use task analysis to determine job performance skills needed, and performance analysis to determine individual knowledge and skill levels before training • know your audience, learning styles, needs, attitudes, and personal motivations • develop specific measurable knowledge and performance objectives • Task Analysis • what training is needed if any? • identifies the broad competencies and specific skills required to perform job-related tasks for new employees • Performance Analysis • determines the training needs of current employees • verifies a significant performance deficiency • should the deficiency be rectified through training or through some other means? • Step 2: Instructional Design • organize content into a curriculum that supports adult learning theory and provides a blueprint for program development • ensure training program achieves the objectives • Traditional Training Techniques • on-the-job: learn job by actually doing it – inexpensive, immediate feedback • apprenticeship: structured process by which individuals become skilled workers through a combination of classroom instruction and on-the-job training • informal learning: day-to-day unplanned interactions between the new worker and his or her colleagues • job instruction: taught step-by-step in a logical sequence • lectures: classroom training that is a quick and simple way of providing knowledge to large groups of trainees • audiovisual techniques: films, closed-circuit television, audiotapes, and videotapes are more expensive than lectures, but work well as an illustration of sequences, as a visual tour of something, and provide organization-wide training without the trainees travelling • programmed learning: uses textbook or computer to present questions, elicit responses, and provide feedback • vestibule/simulated training: trainees are trained off the job but learn on the actual or simulated equipment they will use on the job • computer-based/online: trainee uses computer-based system to interactively increase knowledge or skills, uses integrated computerized simulations and use of multimedia • Internet and Intranet: fastest growing; requires course management, sound educational strategy, learner support, and system administration for successful training outcomes. • On-the-Job Training • advantages of OJT include: inexpensive, available • disadvantages are that bad habits may be perpetuated • types of OJT include: coaching or understudy, job rotation, and special assignments • trainers must be trained and given materials • Programmed Learning • main advantage: reduces training time by about one-third • facilitates learning: lets trainees learn at their own pace, provides immediate feedback, reduces risk of error • disadvantage: trainees don’t learn much more than they would from a traditional textbook • E-Learning • CBT simulations used to teach behavioural skills and emotional intelligence • interactive multimedia more effective for training than text-based instruction • CBT is more cost-effective when travelling over great distance is an issue • other advantages include: instructional consistency, mastery of learning, increased retention, flexibility for the trainee, and increased trainee motivation • advantages of online training include: reduced cost by 50% when compared to traditional classroom-based training, ideal for adults • a disadvantage of online training is that learners don’t complete 50–90% of web-based courses • “blended learning” including personal interaction and online training tools may be the answer. • electronic performance support systems (EPSS) are computerized job aids or sets of computerized tools and displays that automate training, documentation, and phone support • EPSS maximizes impact of training, particularly when skills are not needed all the time; the learning material is always available. • Validation • run a pilot, evaluate outcomes, and make revisions • Implementation • train-the-trainer workshops ensure a transfer of knowledge into the organization to promote learning; presentation is just as important as content • Step 5: Evaluating the Training Effort • the results of training evaluation answer the questions: are trainees learning as much as they can, are they learning as fast as they can, and is there a better method for training them? • two issues in evaluation: design of the evaluation study and the training effect to be measured • controlled experimentation is the best design • training effects to measure: employees’ reactions regarding their feelings about the program, did they learn what they were supposed to learn, did their behaviour on the job change because of the training program, are organizational results improved, return on investment in dollars • Transfer of Training • use of training objectives based on results of needs analysis • objectives specify what the trainee can do differently after the training program • objectives provide a focus for the trainee and the trainer, and a benchmark for evaluating the success of the program • Training for Special Purposes • enhanced literacy improves career success and bottom line through time savings, lower costs, and improved quality of work • diversity training enhances cross-cultural sensitivity to create more harmonious relationships • cross-cultural communication training focuses on workplace cultural etiquette and interpersonal skills • cultural sensitivity training sensitizes employees to the views of different cultural groups toward work to increase effectiveness • customer-service training is needed to compete based on quality of service. • training for teamwork is needed as firms are increasingly using teams to improve effectiveness, and most people don’t know how to work together in teams. • training for first-time supervisors is needed because, with all the retirements, young people are rising to positions of authority quicker than before – they must deal with great generational diversity and have technical skills but lack interpersonal and communication skills • training for global business is needed in order to avoid lost business due to cultural insensitivity, to improve job satisfaction, retain overseas staff, and enable them to communicate with colleagues • during the first quarter of the class time, cover the topic of orientation and consider the first critical thinking question • in the second quarter of the class time, introduce the five-step training process, needs analysis and transfer of training • during the third quarter of the class time, review the material on traditional training techniques and e-learning; take up the running case and the case incident • in the final quarter of the class time, cover training for special purposes and the evaluation of the training effort • finish with experiential exercise #3 DISCUSSION BOX SUMMARIES ENTREPRENEURS AND HR: Family Business Training (page 209) Parents who hope to see their company led by a well-motivated, well-prepared next generation should begin early to nurture the necessary skills. Parents should encourage successors to see themselves as leaders whose job is to encourage, stimulate, and facilitate new ideas and entrepreneurial thinking. A certain amount of conflict is healthy, and should be welcomed during the period before and following a transition in leadership. ============================================================================= STRATEGIC HR: Measuring Effectiveness at TD Bank (page 214) A unit of six people inside the learning and development department at TD Bank Financial Group measures the value of the bank’s training. The questionnaire that the group developed for learners to fill out at the end of each training session was unique in that it went after indications of all four levels of measurement outlined in the classic training evaluation model – reaction, learning, behaviour, results. The unit head sees the questionnaire as a reinforcement tool: it reminds trainees that they are being trained to affect their performance and their ability so as to contribute to the achievement of business goals. ============================================================================= WORKFORCE DIVERSITY: Generational Diversity Leadership (page 219) Young supervisors have to deal with the challenge of generational diversity in their workers. Four generations are working side by side: veterans, baby boomers, Xers, and Nexters (Generation Y). It is important to focus on the strengths that each generation can bring to a business. Xers bring an ability to think outside the box with ease. Nexters bring their comfort with technology, innovation, and excitement. All employees have something to offer and, ultimately, leaders must use generational diversity to create synergy and generate new opportunities. ============================================================================= ETHICAL DILEMMAS Is it ethical to withhold information from an incoming executive about critical problems that he or she will face? (page 201) Most will argue that doing so is not only unethical, but is not in the best interests of the company or its employees. Withholding information about critical problems can have very high costs associated therewith, since it may lead to ineffective decisions, needless delays, interpersonal conflicts that could have been avoided, or even turnover shortly after hire. As pointed out on page 211, realistic job previews are particularly important for executive positions. Is it ethical to require employees to participate in weekend and evening training programs if they do not want to because it is going to take time that they would otherwise be spending on personal and family responsibilities? (page 218) Typically, training is provided on company time, since it is aimed at teaching employees the basic skills/competencies that they need to perform their current jobs. Development, however, often involves numerous off-the-job activities, many of which will be on an employee’s own time, such as attending night school classes. While individual employees should definitely not be forced to get involved in development activities, they should be made aware that failure to do so may mean that they cannot qualify for lateral moves or promotions in the future. KEY TERMS Controlled Experimentation Formal methods for testing the effectiveness of a training program, preferably with a control group and with tests before and after training. (page 214) E-Learning Delivery and administration of learning opportunities and support via computer, networked, and Web-based technology to enhance employee performance and development. (page 211) Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) Computer-based job aids, or sets of computerized tools and displays, which automate training, documentation, and phone support. (page 212) Employee Orientation A procedure for providing new employees with basic background information about the firm and the job. (page 197) Job Instruction Training (JIT) The listing of each job's basic tasks, along with key points, in order to provide step-by-step training for employees. (page 209) Performance Analysis Verifying that there is a performance deficiency, and determining whether that deficiency should be rectified through training or through some other means (such as transferring the employee). (page 205) Programmed Learning A systematic method for teaching job skills that involves presenting questions or facts, allowing the person to respond, and giving the learner immediate feedback on the accuracy of his or her answers. (page 210) Reality Shock The state that results from the discrepancy between what the new employee expected from his or her new job, and the realities of it. (page 197) Socialization The ongoing process of instilling in all employees the prevailing attitudes, standards, values, and patterns of behaviour that are expected by the organization. (page 197) Task Analysis A detailed study of a job to identify the skills and competencies it requires so that an appropriate training program can be instituted. (page 205) Training The process of teaching new employees the basic skills/competencies they need to perform their jobs. (page 201) Transfer of Training Application of the skills acquired during the training program into the work environment, and maintenance of these skills over time. (page 213) Vestibule or Simulated Training Training employees on special off-the-job equipment, as in airplane pilot training, whereby training costs and hazards can be reduced. (page 211) Videoconferencing Connecting two or more distant groups by using audiovisual equipment. (page 210) PART THREE: DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE HUMAN RESOURCES CHAPTER 9 CAREER DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OUTCOMES • Explain what is involved in career planning and development. • Analyze the factors that affect career choices. • Explain how to make a new employee’s first assignment more meaningful. • Recommend how to manage promotions and transfers more effectively. • Explain what management development is and why it is important. • Describe on-the-job and off-the-job management-development techniques. CHAPTER SUMMARY In the introductory section of this chapter, career planning and development is defined and its importance is discussed. The roles that the individual, manager, and organization play in an individual employee's career development are then described briefly. The factors that affect career choices are explained next, followed by helpful career development hints for managers and employers, and strategies for effectively managing promotions and transfers. The focus then shifts to management development, including an in-depth discussion of various management development techniques. The ways in which HRM techniques can be used to build a responsive learning organization are described next. The chapter concludes with a section on executive development. LECTURE OUTLINE • there is no longer a promise of job security. Now emphasis is on employability and skills to manage careers both inside and outside of a particular organization • three categories of skills needed: fundamental, personal management, and teamwork • career development activity: a way for organizations to try to retain employees, motivate employees, and keep them productive in an environment with limited opportunities for promotion. • Career Planning and Development • to retain knowledge workers, employers should include employees in external activities, involve them closely in the work of senior management, and provide money for developmental opportunities of their own choosing • encourage lifelong learning • Individual’s Role in Career Development • employees’ responsibilities for own careers require an entrepreneurial approach • networking is the foundation of effective career development • must be done in a sincere manner • you can never have too big a network • Manager’s Role in Career Development • manager acts as coach, appraiser, advisor, and referral agent • Employer’s Role in Career Development • role of employer helps determine employee’s job commitment and overall job satisfaction • Career Stages Affect Career Choices • growth stage develops a self-concept by identifying with and interacting with others • exploration stage: tentative broad occupational choices explored and made • establishment stage: person engages in activities leading to a permanent place in chosen field but continues to test capabilities and ambitions against occupational choice • decline stage: reduced levels of power and responsibility, learn to accept and develop new roles as mentor and confidante • Occupational Orientation Affects Career Choices • John Holland: person’s personality (values, motives, and needs) determines occupational orientation. 1. realistic: attracted to physical activities requiring skill, strength, and coordination 2. investigative: attracted to cognitive activities (thinking, organizing, and understanding) 3. social: attracted to interpersonal rather than intellectual or physical activities 4. conventional: attracted to structured, rule-related activities and putting needs of organization ahead of his own 5. enterprising: verbal activities aimed at influencing others 6. artistic: self-expression, artistic creation, expression of emotions and individualistic activities • success depends on both motivation and on ability • Career Anchors Affect Career Choices • Edgar Schein: career planning is a continuous process of discovery. - career anchors difficult to predict ahead of time because they are evolutionary - technical functional: avoid decisions which move them to management work - managerial competence: requires analytical, interpersonal, and emotional competencies - creativity: people have a need to build or create something that is entirely their own product - autonomy and independence: be free of the dependence when a person is subordinate to others for promotions, salary. and transfers. - security: willing to do what is required to maintain job security or organizational security - service/dedication: people feel a need to do something meaningful in a larger context, addressing global problems such as the environment, overpopulation, and poverty - pure challenge: some people define their career in terms of overcoming impossible odds, solving unsolved problems, and winning out over competitors - lifestyle: more self-focused and preoccupied with lifestyle, including flexible work arrangements, part-time work, sabbaticals, and other lifestyle support programs. • Responsibilities of the Organization • initial entry stage: important for employer to be career development oriented – period of reality testing • previews that provide both the attractions and possible pitfalls • the more the supervisor expects coupled with being confident and supportive, the better the employee performs • job rotation and job pathing: employee gets opportunity to assess aptitudes and preferences, and employer gets a manager with a multifunctional view of the organization • increase employees’ involvement and expertise in planning and developing own careers • builds trust, provides benefits to both sides of mentoring relationship • mentoring: transfers knowledge, keeps skilled employees motivated, loyal, and committed to the organization, supports corporate strategy by retaining future leaders • role of HR: to ensure the training and developmental opportunities necessary to become a learning organization • rotating assignments, self-managed work teams • review successes and failures and document lessons learned • systematically searching for and testing new knowledge • HR departments create incentive plans • outside training and development activities • benchmarking • scientific method of gathering data, using statistical tools to organize data and draw inferences • Managing Promotions • creates a pool of potential future managers with broad experience throughout the firm • management: competence is best • defining and measuring past performance and predicting the person’s potential • informal: availability and requirements kept secret • severs the link between performance and promotion, which reduces motivation • formal: ensures all qualified employees are considered, links performance closely with promotion • two parallel career paths, rewards technical specialists • develops new skills through horizontal promotions • Managing Transfers • a way to give employees opportunities for diverse job assignments, and personal and career growth • issue of cost of relocation • Management Development • particularly important today, as 60% of Canadian organizations are facing a shortage of middle managers • ultimate aim of management development programs is to achieve business strategy • Management Development Process • company-wide program • superior candidates fast-tracked • Succession Planning • management development program aimed at filling an executive position • inexpensive form of recognition • Management Replacement Chart • management: a discipline and an art; requires emphasis on people management rather than work management • needs honest communication, sensitivity to others, motivating, developing, and retaining staff • On-the-Job Management Development Techniques • moving management trainees from department to department to broaden their understanding of all parts of the business • the trainee works directly with the person who the trainee will replace • releases managers from their regular duties so they can work on full-time projects, analyzing and solving problems in departments other than their own • Off-the-Job Management Development Techniques • case study: realistic experience in identifying and analyzing complex problems in an environment in which the discussion is guided • management games: develop problem-solving skills, leadership skills, foster cooperation and teamwork • outside seminars: executive development programs, individualized courses, and degree programs • role-playing: create a realistic situation and have trainees assume roles of specific persons in the situation to trigger spirited discussion, solve problems, and develop skills • behaviour modelling: uses the steps of modelling, role-playing, social reinforcement, and transfer of training • in-house development centres combine classroom learning with other techniques such as assessment centres • Organization Development • team building • survey feedback (use of data from attitude surveys) • Executive Development • Canadian companies believe they have a shortage of leadership capability, which they need for current and future challenges • challenges due to: new opportunities from economic growth; unplanned early retirements; global “brain drain”; decade of neglected succession planning; lack of organizational commitment to developing talent; problems with traditional job rotation in learning organizations; mixed success with external recruitment • executive development requires time and opportunity to acquire knowledge, try it out, and be coached and supported • refer to Figure 9.5 – Banff Centre Competency Model • in the first half of the class, introduce the material on career planning and development, the responsibilities of the manager and the employer, and managing promotions and transfers • use sample tests for career stage, occupational orientation, and career anchor to help students understand these concepts; the Case Incident illustrates career issues • in the second half of the class, cover management and executive development • the LearnInMotion case illustrates these issues in a small employer setting DISCUSSION BOX SUMMARIES STRATEGIC HR: Career Development a Huge Priority for TD Bank (page 225) TD has realized that part of becoming an employer of choice is striking a balance between organizational development and personal development. Recognizing that employees have assumed the responsibility of managing their own careers, TD established a Career Advisor site on the Web that helps employees in the areas of self-awareness, choosing a career path, restoring work/life balance, and career strategies, among other related topics. Managers are finding that they are having completely different conversations with employees, who are better able to articulate what they want and where they need to go to be happy and productive. GLOBAL HRM: International Transfers at Siemens Canada (page 235) This box discusses the issues involved in international transfers at Siemens. With a global workforce of 420 000, of which 6600 are in Canada, there is no shortage of foreign opportunities. The selection of high potentials for assignment is part of the overall corporate approach to succession planning. People raise issues on their assignment on return to Canada, as well as family and safety issues in the foreign assignment. WORKFORCE DIVERSITY: Career Development for Older Workers (page 238) If an employer doesn’t pay attention to the career development of staff as they approach age 60, it won’t have the benefit of their productivity during their second middle age. As second middle-agers could be organizational gold, this box describes some practical career development strategies that will help keep employees fully engaged, including: adopting a new attitude; provision of career counselling; investing in training and development; and honouring the need for work/life balance. ============================================================================= ETHICAL DILEMMAS Is it ethical for employers to keep promotion policies and procedures secret in an era of flattened organizations where so many employees who aspire to higher positions will not get them, but might achieve them elsewhere? (page 235) Most will argue that doing so is not only unethical, but is not in the best interests of the company or its employees. Withholding such information may result in the turnover of high-performing employees, who are unaware of opportunities that will be arising in the immediate future. If there are no such opportunities, failing to encourage high performers to move on, should they wish to do so in order to achieve growth and fulfilment, may result in bitter, unhappy, and uncommitted employees, thereby having a negative impact on both morale and productivity. Another concern is that when employees are not made aware of jobs that are available, the criteria for promotion, and how promotion decisions are made, the link between performance and promotion is severed. There are a number of advantages associated with adopting a promotion-from-within policy: (1) Employees see that competence is rewarded, thus enhancing commitment, morale, and performance. (2) Having already been with the firm for some time, current employees may be more committed to the company’s goals and less likely to leave than individuals recruited externally. (3) Managers are provided with a longer-term perspective when making business decisions. (4) The firm is likely to have a more accurate assessment of the person’s skills and performance level if an internal candidate is selected for a transfer or promotion than if an external candidate is chosen. (5) Inside candidates require less orientation than outsiders. There are also a number of advantages associated with openly posting all vacancies arising within the firm: (1) Every qualified candidate is provided with a chance for a transfer or promotion. (2) The likelihood of special deals and favouritism is reduced. (3) The company’s commitment to career growth and development is conveyed. (4) Doing so ensures that all qualified employees have equal access to vacant positions. Is it ethical to require employees to participate in role-playing exercises when they are uncomfortable in these situations? (page 242) Since there are typically several training and development techniques that can be used to accomplish the same objective, requiring employees to participate in role-playing exercises when they are uncomfortable in these situations is likely neither ethical nor wise. A reluctant, embarrassed participant will definitely not learn a great deal from the experience. His or her attitude and behaviour could, in fact, have a detrimental impact on the learning and enjoyment of all other participants. It is quite likely that the same objectives could be attained through a case study exercise, a management game, developmental job rotation, and/or coaching/understudy. While discomfort might be related to shyness, it could also be linked to racial and/or cultural values, beliefs, and norms. Making participation mandatory might thus constitute a subtle and unintentional form of harassment on the basis of race, creed, place of origin, etc. KEY TERMS Action Learning (page 239) A training technique by which management trainees are allowed to work full time, analyzing and solving problems in other departments. Behaviour Modelling (page 242) A training technique in which trainees are first shown good management techniques, then asked to play roles in a simulated situation, and finally given feedback regarding their performance. Boundaryless Career (page 225) A career that spans several organizations and/or industries. Career Anchor (page 229) A concern or value that you will not give up if a choice has to be made. Career Cycle (page 227) The stages through which a person's career evolves. Career Planning and Development (page 225) The deliberate process through which a person becomes aware of personal career-related attributes and the lifelong series of activities that contribute to his or her career fulfilment. Career-planning Workshop (page 235) A planned learning event in which participants are expected to be actively involved in career-planning exercises and career-skills practice sessions. Case Study Method (page 239) A development method in which a trainee is presented with a written description of an organizational problem to diagnose and solve. Decline Stage (page 228) The period during which many people are faced with the prospect of having to accept reduced levels of power and responsibility. Developmental Job Rotation (page 239) A management-training technique that involves moving a trainee from department to department to broaden his or her experience and identify strong and weak points. Employee Retention (page 226) The extent to which employees are retained by the organization over relatively long periods of time. Establishment Stage (page 228) The period, roughly from ages 24 to 44, which is the heart of most people's work lives. Exploration Stage (page 227) The period from around ages 15 to 24 during which a person seriously explores various occupational alternatives, attempting to match these alternatives with his or her interests and abilities. Growth Stage (page 227) The period from birth to age 14 during which the person develops a self-concept by identifying with and interacting with other people such as family, friends, and teachers. In-house Development Centre (page 242) A company-based method for exposing prospective managers to realistic exercises to develop improved management skills. Job Pathing (page 232) Selecting carefully sequenced job assignments to enable employees to test their aptitudes and preferences. Learning Organization (page 234) An organization focused on creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights. Lifelong Learning (page 226) Providing extensive continuing training throughout employees' careers. Maintenance Stage (page 228) The period from about ages 45 to 65 during which the person secures his or her place in the world of work. Management Development (page 236) Any attempt to improve current or future management performance by imparting knowledge, changing attitudes, or increasing skills. Management Game (page 240) A computerized development technique in which teams of managers compete with one another by making decisions regarding realistic but simulated companies. Mentoring (page 232) The use of an experienced individual (the mentor) teaching and training another person who has less knowledge in an area. Organizational Development (OD) (page 243) A method aimed at changing the attitudes, values, and beliefs of employees so that employees can improve the organization. Occupational Orientation (page 228) The theory developed by John Holland that there are six basic personal orientations that determine the sorts of careers to which people are drawn. Role-playing (page 241) A training technique in which trainees act out the parts of people in a realistic management situation. Succession Planning (page 236) A process through which senior-level openings are planned for and eventually filled. Survey Feedback (page 243) A method that involves surveying employees' attitudes and providing feedback so that problems can be solved by the managers and employees. Team Building (page 243) Improving the effectiveness of teams through the use of consultants, interviews, and team-building meetings. Instructor Manual for Human Resources Management in Canada Gary Dessler, Nina D. Cole 9780132270878, 9780134005447