CHAPTER SEVEN Gordon Allport: Motivation and Personality LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the life of Allport. Review the nature of personality. Outline Allport’s personality traits. Discuss and review motivation, according to Allport. Analyze personality development. Evaluate assessment of Allport’s theory. Interpret research with Allport’s theories. 8. Reflect on Allport’s theory. OUTLINE Gordon Allport The Life of Allport (1897 - 1967) Gordon Allport reports being isolated from children and did not fit in with his older three brothers as a child. However, little more is revealed by him about his childhood besides having a father who was a physician and a mother who had rigid spiritual beliefs. Allport was later to believe that childhood events do not affect normally healthy adults. Gordon Allport felt inferior to others on into adulthood, even when he became a noted psychologist. Allport attended Harvard and was active as a volunteer for a boy’s club, a group of factory workers, and a contingent of foreign students. Allport met Freud in Vienna while visiting one of his brothers. Freud took the meeting as an opportunity to offer Allport a quick analysis for Allport. Allport resented this intrusion by Freud and later believed that psychoanalysis probed too deeply into the unconscious. Allport’s theory would reflect this opinion; he believed we should pay more attention to conscious or visible motivations. Allport completed his Ph.D. at Harvard in 1922 and studied further in Germany and England. He spent forty years teaching at Harvard and received many distinguished honors for his contributions to the field of psychology. The Nature of Personality Allport gave this definition of personality: “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine…characteristic behavior and thought,” according to the text. Allport believed that heredity provides the personality with physique, intelligence and temperament; which can be shaped, expanded, or limited by the conditions of our environment. Our genetic endowment then works with our social environment, where no two people are exactly alike. Therefore, Allport concluded that to study personality, psychology must deal with the individual. Allport found no continuum of personality between childhood and adulthood, so the adult personality is not restrained by childhood experiences. Personality Traits According to Allport, traits are consistent, enduring ways of reacting to our environment. Traits are real and exist within ourselves. Traits determine or cause behavior and can be demonstrated empirically. Traits are interrelated, and may overlap, even though they represent different characteristics. Traits can also vary by the situation. Allport was to re-label traits as personal dispositions in three categories. A cardinal trait was described by Allport as a “ruling passion.” Everyone may possess central traits, such as aggressiveness, self-pity, and cynicism. The least influential individual traits are secondary traits, such as preferences for a particular food or for certain kinds of music. Habits have a more limited impact than traits and personal dispositions because they are relatively inflexible and involve a specific response to a specific stimulus. Sometimes the concepts of attitudes and traits can be closely related. However, an attitude has some specific object of reference and can be positive or negative. An attitude involves a judgment or evaluation. Motivation: The Functional Autonomy of Motives Allport believed that whatever happened in the past (like toilet training, schooling, or some other childhood crisis) is no longer current and does not explain adult behavior unless it exists as a current motivating force. Allport’s concept of functional autonomy proposes that the motives of mature, emotionally healthy adults are not functionally connected to the prior experiences in which they initially appeared. Perserverative functional autonomy is concerned with such behaviors as addictions and repetitive physical actions such as habitual ways of performing some everyday task. Allport considered propriate functional autonomy more important than perseverative functional autonomy and is essential to the understanding of adult motivation. Our propriate motives are organizing processes that maintain our sense of self. This determines how we perceive our world, what we remember from our experiences, and how our thoughts are directed. This is an organizing process that includes organizing, mastery and competence, and patterning which describes a striving for consistency and integration of the personality. Reflexes, fixations, neurosis, and other behaviors may not arise through functional autonomy but are from biological drives. Personality Development in Childhood: The Unique Self Allport proposed seven stages of the nature and development of the proprium from infancy through adolescence. The infant begins to emerge, without the proprium, with no awareness of self. Allport described infants as pleasure seeking, destructive, selfish, impatient, and dependent. They are simply driven by reflexes to reduce tension and maximize pleasure. During the first three stages from infancy to age four, the bodily self develops when infants begin to be aware of what Allport referred to as the (1) “bodily me.” Children then gain (2) self-identity when they learn their name and (3) self-esteem develops when they discover that they can accomplish things on their own. The (4) extension-of-self stage involves the growing awareness of objects and people in the environment and the identification of them as belonging to the child. The self-extension and (5) self-image stage typically occur between the ages of 4 and 6. A child develops an actual and an ideal image of themselves in this stage. The (7) self as rational stage occurs between ages 6 and 12 while the (8) propriate striving stage follows, when adolescents begin to formulate plans and goals for the future. Parent-child interaction is vitally important throughout the stages of development of the proprium. In adulthood, we function independently from childhood motives. We become rational, aware and consciously make lifestyle choices. Parent-child interactions are vitally important throughout the stages of development. The infant-mother bond is crucial for affection and security. If a child becomes frustrated, they may become insecure, aggressive, demanding, or self-centered. The self will not develop into adulthood and may stay undifferentiated. F. The Healthy Adult Personality 1. We change from a biologically dominated organism in infancy to a mature psychological organism in adulthood. In adulthood, we are no longer dominated by childhood drives. Allport described six criteria for the normal, mature, emotionally healthy, adult personality: The mature adult (a) extends their self to people and to activities beyond themselves and then (b) relates warmly to other people. A mature adult’s self-acceptance (c) helps to achieve emotional security. The mature adult holds a (d) realistic view of life, (e) has a sense of humor and self-objectification, and (f) subscribes to a unifying philosophy of life. G. Questions About Human Nature 1. According to Allport, in the act of becoming; all humans can become rational, and therefore are able to plan for the future. Allport believed in the uniqueness of each person. Tension is used by a person to help in setting goals and achieving them. His viewpoint was humanistic, liberal, and was part of his own personality as a caring person. Assessment and Research in Allport’s Theory 1. Allport believed that the personality is very complex. We can evaluate personality through the use of 11 major methods. The Personal-document technique is used to study a person’s written or spoken records. Allport opposed the use of case studies and projective techniques with emotionally disturbed persons and opted for the study of emotionally healthy persons. Allport favored the ideographic approach - the study of the individual case - as indicated by personal documents. Allport conducted research on expressive behavior, which is described as behavior that expresses our personality traits. With coping behavior, Allport identified a behavior orientation that has a specific purpose and is consciously planned and carried out. Expressive behavior is spontaneous, difficult to change, has no specific purpose, and is usually displayed without awareness. Considerable research and experimental work on expressive behavior has become popular today. This research has shown that personality can be assessed from audiotapes, films, and videotapes. Reliable research has been done with expressive behaviors linked to specific traits. Studies have shown that observers can accurately assess personality factors (such as anxiety) from watching brief films of a person, or form impressions of strangers by photographs. In further research findings, Type A behavior patterns can be discerned from Type B behavior by their expressions of disgust, glaring, grimacing, and scowling. However, cultural differences have been found in the study of facial expressions and personality between Chinese infants who showed consistently less facial expression than American infants. Research into facial recognition, and transmission of emotional states in simulated chat rooms concludes that people express emotions in computer-mediated communication in a similar way as in face-to-face situations. G. Reflections on Allport's Theory 1. Allport's theory of ideographic research and his study of emotionally healthy adults ran counter to the prevailing position, at the time, of studying the neurotic and psychotic patient. Other criticisms have been made on his theory of functional autonomy and on the exclusivity of the individual. However, Allport's theory has been well received in the academic community. His viewpoints that people are shaped more by future expectations than by past events is congenial with a hopeful and humanistic philosophy. LECTURE TOPICS Lecture Topic 7.1 Have a discussion concerning the meeting of Freud and Allport. Detail the story that Allport gave about the little boy who was on the train with him to Vienna. Also, repeat Freud’s analysis of this story. Did Freud really believe that this story was a dream or fantasy of Allport, or did he perceive this story by Allport to be an accurate and detailed report of an incident from Allport’s real-life experiences? Even if Freud perceived this as an accurate and authentic story from Allport, was he correct in assuming Allport fit this profile of a “little boy.” What would have happened if Allport received this report as a genuine “analysis” of himself by Freud? Would Allport have changed his theory to say childhood memories do indeed, impact adulthood? Allport seems to have gone in a completely opposite direction than Freud on the impact of childhood, except for biological predispositions. Have the students discuss the impact of what they might spontaneously say or perceive about a person when meeting them for the first time. Was Freud being presumptuous in his analysis of Allport? Have a further discussion of how Allport believes we can tell more about a person by their facial expressions than analyzing their past. Have a debate over Freud’s perspective and Allport’s perspective on personality development. Lecture Topic 7.2 Apply various traits and personal dispositions to match people you know. Can these profiles be perceived as accurately reflecting the problems in which these people are identified with in the first place? Would these people be better identified with projective tests and interpretation from psychoanalysis? Justify why or why not. Are the theories of Allport and his use of more spontaneous and apparent measures, (such as judging facial expressions); a reliable measure across groups of people? Why or why not? Internet site for Lecture Topic 7.2: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/trait-theory.htm Lecture Topic 7.3 Devise a list of Allport’s traits and read some case studies in a journal or diary to analyze the person. In the use of Allport’s traits and personal dispositions, do we understand and know these people more accurately than would be known by administering projective techniques? Have a discussion on the merits of projectives as opposed to Allport’s use of measures like his Study of Values or other personal-document techniques for normally healthy people. Internet Sites for Lecture Topic 7.3: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/valuestest.html http://shrike.depaul.edu/~kmerz/study_of_values.htm STUDENT PROJECTS Student Project 7.1 Students may want further resources in relation to Allport’s Theory on traits and personal dispositions as they become adjusted into college life. Have students analyze the ideal traits and personal dispositions to look for when choosing teachers for courses or for selecting a counselor. Here are some resources for students: Internet Sites for Student Project 7.1: http://psychcentral.com/classics/Allport/Traits/ http://ldc.upenn.edu/myl/llog/AllportRinehart.pdf http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0341/is_3_55/ai_58549257/ Student Project 7.2 The following two articles allow students to understand Allport and the “Open” system he created: Journal of Social Issues, Fall 1999 v55 i3 p415 Gordon Willard Allport: A Tribute. Thomas F. Pettigrew. Record number A58549253 The Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Summer 1997 v37 n3 p61 (19) Humanistic psychology and intellectual identity: the 'open' system of Gordon Allport. Ian Nicholson. Record number A19632999 Student Project 7.3 Students may use the following websites to understand more about Allport and to create their own projective tests, using pictures or photos of people in various situations. They can use the format outlined by Allport to ask questions of fellow students concerning what they perceive in these pictures to see if the student responses accurately portray themselves (projection) into the photos or pictures. Internet Sites for Student Project 7.3: http://psychology.okstate.edu/faculty/jgrice/4333/AllportTraitTheorist.pdf http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/allport.html http://www.psych.westminster.edu/psy311/allport/ppframe.htm CHAPTER EIGHT Raymond Cattell, Hans Eysenck, and Other Trait Theorists LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the life of Cattell. Review Cattell’s approach to personality traits. Analyze source traits: the basic factor of personality. Outline dynamic traits: the motivating forces. Compare the influences of heredity and environment. Illustrate the stages of Cattell’s personality development. Evaluate assessment in Cattell’s theory. Interpret research in Cattell’s theory. Describe the dimensions of personality according to Eysenck. Contrast the use of the Five-Factor Model by McCrae and Costa. Analyze temperament theory by Buss and Plomin. OUTLINE Raymond Cattell The Life of Cattell (1905 - 1998) Raymond Cattell came from a happy home in Staffordshire, England. At 16, Cattell enrolled at the University of London to study physics and chemistry, where he graduated three years later with honors. Cattell studied with psychologist-statistician Charles E. Spearman, who had developed the technique of factor analysis. Cattell received his Ph.D. in 1929 and decided to apply the factor analysis method to the structure of personality. Cattell eventually moved to Harvard University where his colleagues included Henry Murray, Gordon Allport, and William Sheldon. Further, at the University of Illinois, Cattell was employed as a research professor for more than 20 years while publishing over 500 articles. Cattell taught at the University in Hawaii in his seventies after achieving many awards in the field of psychology. Cattell’s Approach to Personality Traits Cattell defined traits as relatively permanent reaction tendencies that are basic structural units of the personality. A common trait is one that is possessed by everyone to some degree, such as intelligence or extraversion. People differ because of their unique traits, which are those aspects of the personality shared by few other people. Ability traits help us work efficiently towards goals, while temperament traits describe the general style and emotional tone of our behavior, such as being easygoing or irritable. Dynamic traits define our motivations, interests, and ambitions, according to Cattell. Surface traits are personality characteristics that correlate with one another but do not constitute a factor because they are not determined by a single source. Anxiety, indecision, and irrational fear combine to make or form the surface trait Cattell labeled neuroticism. Source traits are those individual factors derived from factor analysis that combine to account for surface traits. Constitutional traits originate in biological conditions, such as a propensity to consume alcohol leads to behaviors such as carelessness, talkativeness, and slurred speech. Environmental-mold traits are learned characteristics and behaviors that impose a pattern on the personality. Source Traits: The Basic Factors of Personality Through factor analysis, Cattell identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality. Cattell called this objective personality test the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF). A person can score high, low, or somewhere in between on these basic personality factors. Cattell added additional factors, which he called temperament traits, such as excitability, zest, self-discipline, politeness, and self-assurance. Dynamic Traits: The Motivating Forces Cattell proposed two kinds of dynamic, motivating traits. The word erg was used to denote the concept of instinct or drive. Cattell identified 11 ergs: anger, appeal, curiosity, disgust, gregariousness, hunger, protection, security, self-assertion, self-submission, and sex. A sentiment is an environmental-mold source trait and is a pattern of learned attitudes that focus on an important aspect of life, such as a person’s community, spouse, occupation, religion, or hobby. A sentiment can be unlearned and can disappear when it is no longer needed in a person’s life. Attitudes are defined as our interests in and our emotions and behaviors toward some person, object, or event. To Cattell, an attitude is not just an opinion; an attitude encompasses all our emotions and actions toward an object or situation. Each person’s pattern of sentiments is organized by a master sentiment called the self-sentiment. This is our self-concept, reflected in virtually all of our attitudes and behaviors, which further control all of the structures in the personality. The Influences of Heredity and Environment Cattell’s data suggests that 80% of intelligence (Factor B) and 80% of timidity-versus-boldness (Factor H) can be accounted or by genetic factors. Further, Cattell concluded that, overall, one-third of our personality is genetically based, and two-thirds is determined by social and environmental influences. Stages of Personality Development Cattell covered the entire life span with six stages of development. The first period of infancy which spans from birth to 6, is a time to be influenced by parents and siblings, while ages 6 to 14, mark the second stage of independence from parents and an increasing identification with peers. The third stage is from 14 to 23, and is marked by emotional disorders and possible delinquency as young people experience conflicts centered on the drives for independence, self-assertion, and sex. Ages 23 to 50 mark the fourth stage which is generally a productive, satisfying time in terms of career, marriage, and family situations. Late maturity is from the age of 50 to 65 and involves personality developments in response to physical, social, and psychological changes. The final stage is old age, according to Cattell. A person in this stage has adjustments to different kinds of losses, such as the death of a spouse, relatives, and friends, loss of a career, loneliness, and insecurity. Questions about Human Nature and Assessment in Cattell’s Theory Cattell used three primary assessment techniques. L-data, (life records); is a technique which involves observers’ ratings of specific behaviors exhibited by research participants in real-life settings such as a classroom or office. L-data involve overt behaviors that can be seen by an observer and occur in a naturalistic setting rather than in the artificial situation of a psychology laboratory. Q-data, (Questionnaires); calls for observers to rate the research participants. Q-data requires research participants to rate themselves, however, Cattell warned that Q-data must not be automatically assumed to be accurate. T-data, Personality, involves the use of what Cattell called “objective” tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated. Cattell developed the 16 PF, which is based on 16 major source traits. The 16 PF is widely used to assess personality for research, clinical diagnosis, and predicting occupational success. There are variations of the 16 PF that measure such specific aspects of personality as anxiety, depression, and neuroticism. The test has been translated into more than 40 languages and can be used with adults, adolescents, and children. Research and Reflections on Cattell’s Theory Of the three ways to study personality in research, Cattell chose the multivariate approach, which yields specific data through the statistical procedure of factor analysis. Cattell collected large amounts of data with the R technique, where correlations among all scores are made to determine personality factors or traits. With the P technique, Cattell collected a large amount of data from a single subject over a long period. Cattell and his associates conducted hundreds of factor-analytic studies. Cattell claimed factor analysis was an objective, precise technique, while critics asserted that subjectivity could affect the outcome. The quantity and complexity of the factor-analytic method are among the reasons for a general lack of acceptance for his theory. He is, however, generally accepted as the father of the personality trait approach and a very influential psychologist. The Dimensions of Personality: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism Hans Eysenck was born in Germany but immigrated to England to flee Hitler in 1934. Eysenck published over 79 books and over 1,097 journal articles. Eysenck developed several personality assessment devices including the Eysenck Personality Inventory, The Maudsley Medical Questionnaire, and the Maudsley Personality Inventory. He conducted research on the measurement of personality at the University of London’s Maudsley Hospital and Institute of Psychiatry. Eysenck used factor analysis to uncover personality traits and supplemented the method with personality tests and experimental studies that considered a wide range of variables. Eysenck’s theory of personality is based on three “super factors,” defined as combinations of traits or factors. Dimension E is extraversion versus introversion, Dimension N which is neuroticism versus emotional stability, and Dimension P, psychoticism versus impulse control (or superego functioning). Research has shown that traits and dimensions proposed by Eysenck remain stable throughout the life span from childhood through adulthood. Robert McCrae and Paul Costa: The Five-Factor Model McCrae and Costa, who worked for the Gerontology Research Center of the National Institutes of Health in Baltimore, identified five so-called robust or Big Five factors in their research. The five factors are: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. These factors were confirmed through a variety of assessment techniques including self-ratings, objective tests, and observers’ reports. In studies of twins, four of the five factors show a strong hereditary component. Agreeableness was found to have a stronger environmental component. These five factors have been consistently observed in both Eastern and Western cultures, which supports a genetic component. The five factors are found in children as well as adults and in longitudinal studies, these five factors demonstrated a high level of stability for all five traits. In several studies, extraversion was positively related to emotional well being, whereas neuroticism was negatively related to emotional well being. From the evidence of research, it is clear that the five-factor model of personality has a high predictive value. McCrae and Costa’s findings have been replicated and continue to inspire considerable research. In research, people who score high in openness have a wide range of intellectual interests and like challenges. Those high in conscientiousness set high goals, initiate desirable work behaviors, and receive high performance ratings. Factors of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness also correlated positively with academic performance. Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee: HEXACO: The Six-Factor Model
Ashton and Lee have proposed a six-factor model of personality. Two of the factors -extroversion and conscientiousness- are similar to the five =factor model, while the other four are: honesty/humility, emotionality, agreeableness, and openness to experience. Research is ongoing to determine the behavioral and emotional correlates of the six-factor model. Research in college students in New Zealand has found those with low openness and high emotionality demonstrated more right-wing authoritarianism and prejudice toward dissident groups. Employed Americans who had high scores in honesty/humility received higher job performance than those who scored low. L. Personality Traits and the Internet 1. As shown in previous chapters, the internet, particularly social networking sites, can both influence and reflect personality. Studies have shown that students are becoming more addicted to the Internet. They score high in neuroticism and are excessively focused on themselves. High Internet usage was shown for those scoring high in compulsiveness, while others were less likely to post information about personal matters such as substance abuse or sexual behavior on Facebook. Shopping online has increased when college students have scores high in openness (for convenience) or neuroticism (in order to avoid other people). 11 to 16 year-olds who scored high in openness to new experiences spent more time using computers and playing video games than those who scored low in openness to experience. M. Reflections on the Trait Approach 1. Evidence is greatest for the factors of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism, but every other dimension studied by personality researchers indicates a strong biological component. This suggests the genetic effect far outweighs the environmental effect. The various components of personality remain products of both our genetic makeup and the experiences of our life. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS Lecture Topic 8.1 A lecture should be given detailing the individual factors for the 16 PF. The instructor may wish to make either a power point graphic or a chart on the board showing how to diagram each of the 16 personality factors with the use of a Likert 1 to 5 scaling chart. The professor could then proceed to profile a famous person, (living or dead); using the 16 PF. After the students hear the profile concerning the famous person, they could chart the person as having a high, low, or mid-propensity for each of the specific factors. This same exercise could be used as a quiz or part of an exam. Students could even profile themselves or a family member. STUDENT PROJECTS Student Project 8.1 Students may want to apply the various trait factors to real-life situations. Students consistently choose teachers or a personal counselor by their traits, along with a comparison of the student’s own perceived traits. Have students discuss what traits they look for in a teacher, counselor, or other type of mentor. Internet Sites for Student Project 8.1: http://www.usca.edu/essays/vol102004/thompson.pdf http://myfla.ws/blog/2008/05/24/top-5-qualities-of-good-teachers/ http://712educators.about.com/od/teachingstrategies/tp/sixkeys.htm Student Project 8.2 Students could use their knowledge of Cattell’s trait theory to seek out their own learning style, ways to strategize and use their traits to survive in college, and to recognize how their traits can become strengths in family relationships. This could be a discussion in the classroom, online or an assignment. Here are some helpful links: Internet Sites for Student Project 8.2: http://www.learning-styles-online.com/overview/ http://customers.hbci.com/~jackp/survival.html http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FCR/is_4_41/ai_n27484165/ http://savannahnow.com/accent/2010-10-31/family-relationships-parent-worries-about-college-students-drinking Student Project 8.3 This article was written by Cattell and may be of use for students to understand the value of ipsative measures of personality structure: American Journal of Psychology, Summer 1994 v107 n2 p261 (14) Finding personality structure when ipsative measurements are the unavoidable basis of the variables. Raymond B. Cattell; Jerry Brennan. Record number A15658135 Internet site for Student Project 8.3: https://oprablog.wordpress.com/2010/10/12/great-blog-but-what-are-ipsative-tests/ http://www.documentingexcellence.com/stat_tool/measurement_processes.htm Student Project 8.4 Students may want to research trait theory and more about the life of Raymond Cattell. Included in the link below are some of his theories, a list of prominent books on Cattell and trait theory, the 16PF, and an interview with Cattell. Internet Site for Student Project 8.4 http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/rcattell.shtml Student Project 8.5 Students may desire to use the following link as a resource for researching Cattell’s method of trait theory. Students could design their own analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of using trait theory to classify people. Internet Site for Student Project 8.5: http://faculty.css.edu/dswenson/web/LEAD/GreatTrait.html http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-03172005-101139/unrestricted/00dissertation.pdf Instructor Manual for Theories of Personality Duane P. Schultz , Sydney Ellen Schultz 9781111834531
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