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CHAPTER 7 DEVIANCE, CRIME, AND SOCIAL CONTROL CHAPTER OUTLINE WHAT IS DEVIANCE? Deviance and Social Stigma Deviance and Technology SOCIAL CONTROL Conformity and Obedience Informal and Formal Social Control LAW AND SOCIETY SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE Functionalist Perspective Interactionist Perspective Labeling Perspective Conflict Perspective Feminist Perspective CRIME: A SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH Victimless Crimes Professional Crime Organized Crime White-Collar and Technology-Based Crime Hate Crimes Transnational Crime CRIME STATISTICS Index Crimes and Victimization Surveys Crime Trends International Crime Rates SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIAL CONTROL: GUN CONTROL Boxes Sociology on Campus: Binge Drinking Research Today: Does Crime Pay? Sociology on Campus: Campus Crime Taking Sociology to Work: Stephanie Vezzani, Special Agent, U.S. Secret Service LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 7 1. Define and explain the elements of social control. 2. Compare and contrast formal and informal social control. 3. Explain why sociologists see the creation of laws as a social process. 4. Explain the ways in which deviance both challenges and reinforces social norms. 5. Explain why deviant behavior is not always negative. 6. Compare and contrast the understanding of deviance offered by the three major perspectives and by labeling theory and the feminist perspective. 7. Differentiate between deviance and crime. 8. Compare and contrast white-collar crime and street crime. • Discussion of the stigmatization of people with mental illness as potentially violent and criminal, despite evidence to the contrary • Updated Mapping Life Nationwide map, “The Status of Medical Marijuana” • Updated table, “National Crime Rates and Percentage Change” • Figure, “Victimization Rates, 1993–2012” • Social Policy section on gun control, including (a) recent shootings in Aurora, Colorado, and Newtown, Connecticut; (b) statistics on gun ownership in the United States compared to other countries; (c) expanded coverage of the cutoff of funding for research on gun violence; and (d) the public health perspective on gun control • Two Thinking Critically exercises CHAPTER SUMMARY Sociologists define deviance as behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society. Deviance involves the violations of group norms that may or may not be formalized into law. It is a comprehensive concept that includes not only criminal behavior, but also many actions not subject to prosecution. Deviance can be understood only within its social context. The term stigma was coined by Erving Goffman to describe the labels society uses to devalue the members of certain social groups. People are often stigmatized for deviant behaviors they may no longer engage in. Advances in technology have also allowed many people to engage in uncivil behaviors with less worry of repercussions from violating norms or regulations. The term social control refers to techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior. Social control occurs in families, peer groups, and bureaucratic organizations. Members of society are expected to act in accordance with social norms. Sanctions, which may be either penalties or rewards, help to induce behavior consistent with social norms. Conformity is defined as going along with one’s peers even though they have no special right to direct our behavior. Obedience is defined as compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchal structure. Social controls may occur casually and informally through such means as smiles, laughter, and ridicule. Authorized agents, such as police officers, physicians, school administrators, employers, and military officers, carry out formal social control. The Milgram experiment was extremely influential in studying the behavior of people and the lengths they would go to in response to the requests of authority figures. Law is defined as governmental social control and reflects continually changing standards of what is right and wrong. Sociologists representing varying theoretical perspectives agree that the legal order reflects the values of those in a position to exercise authority, which means law creation is often controversial. Socialization is the primary source of obedience to the law. Control theory suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society’s norms. According to the functionalist view, deviance is a normal part of human existence. Functionalists suggest that deviance helps to define the limits of proper behavior. Robert Merton adapted Émile Durkheim’s notion of anomie to explain why people accept or reject the goals of a society. Merton’s theory posits five basic forms of adaptations: (1) conformity, (2) innovation, (3) ritualism, (4) retreatism, and (5) rebellion. Merton’s anomie theory, though popular, has had relatively few applications. The interactionist perspective is reflected in theories based on cultural transmission and social disorganization. Cultural transmission, associated with criminologist Edwin Sutherland, suggests that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others. He used the term differential association to describe the process through which exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts leads to violation of rules. Social disorganization theory suggests that deviance increases when communal relationships in neighborhoods and social networks are weakened or absent. Labeling theory emphasizes how a person comes to be labeled as deviant or to accept the label. Labeling theory is also referred to as the societal-reaction approach. The popularity of labeling theory is evident in the emergence of the social constructionist perspective, which purports that deviance is the product of the culture in which we live. Social constructionists focus on the decision-making process that creates the deviant identity. The conflict perspective of deviance suggests that people with power protect their own interests and define deviance to suit their own needs. Relating to differential justice, Richard Quinney argued that lawmaking is often an attempt by the powerful to coerce others into their own brand of morality. Akin to the roots of conflict theory, the feminist perspective suggests that many of the existing approaches to deviance and crime were developed with only men in mind. Feminists suggest that cultural views and attitudes toward women influence how women are perceived and labeled. Crime represents a deviation from formal social norms administered by the state. Types of crime include victimless crime, professional crime, organized crime, white-collar and technology-based crime, corporate crime, transnational crime, and hate crime. There has been a significant decline in violent crime in the United States. The accuracy of measuring crime and tabulating crime statistics varies widely. The National Crime Victimization Survey was initiated in 1972 to provide better crime statistics through questioning of ordinary people about crime victimization. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from Cop in the Hood: My Year Policing Baltimore’s Eastern District by Peter Moskos I. What Is Deviance? • Deviance is defined as behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society. Examples: criminals, alcoholics, compulsive gamblers, and the mentally ill • Deviance involves violation of group norms. • Deviance is not always negative. Example: whistle blowers • Deviance is subject to social definition within a particular society and at a particular time. A. Deviance and Social Stigma • Erving Goffman coined the term stigma to refer to a label used to devalue members of certain social groups. Example: redheads or short people • Stigmatization affects people who look different from others in the eyes of their peers. • People may be stigmatized for past behaviors. Examples: ex-con, recovering alcoholic B. Deviance and Technology • Some technological innovations can redefine social interactions and the standards of behavior related to them. • Anonymity of the Internet allows for uncivil behaviors. Example: hate speech • Some deviant uses of technology are criminal. Examples: software piracy and other black-market activities such as the possession or distribution of child pornography • Early explanations centered on supernatural or genetic factors. II. Social Control • Social control refers to the techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society. • Family and peers socialize individuals to social norms. Example: Dress codes mandate specific forms of dress for persons of different ages, social classes, etc. • Government legislates and enforces social norms. • Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. • Functionalists contend that people must respect social norms for society to function. By contrast, conflict theorists maintain that the functioning of society benefits the powerful and that social norms reflect the interests of the dominant class. A. Conformity and Obedience 1. The Milgram Experiment • Stanley Milgram defined conformity as going along with peers who have no particular right to direct our behavior. Milgram defined obedience as compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchal structure. Example: a military recruit who must follow the orders given by his or her commander • In some circumstances, conformity and especially obedience can cause immense damage. Example: Milgram’s electric shock experiment: “Behavior that is unthinkable in an individual…acting on his own may be executed without hesitation when carried out under orders.” 2. Reflecting on the Milgram Experiment • Milgram pointed out that in the modern industrial world, we are accustomed to submitting to impersonal authority figures whose status is indicated by a title or by a uniform. • Subjects in follow-up studies were less likely to inflict the supposed shocks as they were moved physically closer to their victims. B. Informal and Formal Social Control • Informal social control is carried out casually to enforce norms through such means as laughter, smiles, and ridicule. Example: Parents may use spanking or verbal reprimands as punishment. • Formal social control is carried out by authorized agents, such as police officers, judges, school administrators, and employers. It can serve as serve as a last resort when socialization and informal sanctions do not bring about desired behavior. Examples: imprisonment, speeding tickets, the death penalty III. Law and Society • Law is defined as governmental social control. • Some laws are directed at all members of society. Example: laws prohibiting murder • Some laws affect particular categories of people. Example: hunting and fishing regulations • Other laws govern social institutions. Example: corporate laws • Creation of law is a social process in response to perceived needs for formal social control. Laws reflect continually changing standards of what is right and wrong, on which there can be great disagreement, leading to controversy over existing laws. Examples: laws against gay marriage; laws against prostitution • Hirschi’s control theory suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society’s norms. IV. Sociological Perspectives on Deviance • Early explanations for deviance relied on genetics and the supernatural; sociologists in general now reject any emphasis on genetic roots of crime and deviance. A. Functionalist Perspective • Deviance is a common part of human existence. 1. Durkheim’s Legacy • Durkheim viewed social control mechanisms as necessary to define acceptable behavior and contribute to social stability. He introduced the term anomie to describe a feeling one experiences when losing direction in society. Example: aggression and depression during times of economic collapse • Kai Erikson’s study of Puritans illustrated boundary-maintenance functions of deviance. 2. Merton’s Theory of Deviance • Merton adapted Durkheim’s notion of anomie to explain why people accept or reject the goals of society, and/or the socially approved means for fulfilling their aspirations. • People adapt in certain ways by either conforming to or deviating from cultural expectations. • Merton’s anomie theory of deviance posits five basic forms of adaptation: conformity, retreatism, innovation, ritualism, and rebellion. See Table 7-1. • Merton’s theory has not been systematically applied to real-world crime. B. Interactionist Perspective • Emphasis on the everyday behavior that is the focus of the interactionist perspective offers two explanations of crime: cultural transmission theory and routine activities theory. 1. Cultural Transmission • Humans learn how to behave in social situations. • Edwin Sutherland’s differential association describes the process through which exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts leads to violation of rules. • Sutherland views improper behavior as the result of the types of groups to which one belongs and the kinds of friendships one has. • Critics charge Sutherland’s theory fails to explain first-time, impulsive deviance. 2. Social Disorganization Theory • This contends that deviance and crime increase due to a breakdown in or absence of communal relationships and other social institutions such as the family, school, church, and local government. Example: higher rates of social problems in areas with declining population and deteriorating buildings • The theory does not account for viable, healthy organizations that persist in many troubled neighborhoods and appears to “blame the victim.” C. Labeling Perspective • The labeling perspective seeks to explain why certain people are viewed as deviant, while others engaging in the same behavior are not. Example: Chambliss’s study of the Saints and Roughnecks • This perspective is also called the societal-reaction approach. It is the response to an act, not the behavior itself, that determines deviance. Examples: assigning a “troublemaker” to a program for the learning disabled; labeling someone an “addict,” or a “slow learner” 1. Labeling and Agents of Social Control • Labeling theory focuses on regulatory agents (police, probation officers, psychiatrists, judges, teachers, etc.), who play a significant role in creating the deviant identity by designating certain people as deviant. Examples: racial profiling; laws that designate certain persons as “illegal” (i.e., laws regulating undocumented citizens) • Labeling does not fully explain why some people accept a label and others do not. • Labeling theory influenced the emergence of the social constructionist perspective, which suggests deviance is the product of the culture we live in. Examples: being a “deadbeat dad” or a “single mother.” D. Conflict Perspective • People with power protect their own interests and define deviance to suit their own needs. • Richard Quinney suggests the criminal justice system serves the interests of the powerful. Lawmaking is an attempt by the powerful to coerce others into their own morality. • Differential justice: Conflict theory suggests criminal suspects are treated differently on the basis of race, ethnicity, or social class. African Americans and Latinos are at a disadvantage in the justice system, both as juveniles and as adults. E. Feminist Perspective • Some suggest that existing approaches to deviance and crime were developed with only men in mind. Example: earlier legal views on spousal rape, reflecting overwhelming male composition of state legislatures at the time • Feminist scholarship will continue to grow, particularly on topics such as white-collar crime, drinking behavior, drug abuse, and differential sentencing rates between the genders, as well as on the fundamental question of how to define deviance. V. Crime: A Sociological Approach • Crime is a violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties. • This section will examine six types of crime differentiated by sociologists: victimless crimes, professional crime, organized crime, white-collar and technology-based crime, hate crimes, and transnational crime. A. Victimless Crimes • The willing exchange among adults of widely desired, but illegal, goods and services. Examples: Prostitution, drug abuse, gambling. • Proponents of decriminalization are troubled by attempts to legislate a moral code for adults. These crimes are impossible to prevent, and an overburdened criminal justice system should concentrate on offenses with real victims. • Critics of decriminalization object to the notion that these crimes are “victimless.” Examples: Over-drinking, compulsive gambling, and illegal drugs cause personal and property damage. Prostitution reinforces the idea that women are “toys” or objects to be used for men’s pleasure. Alcohol and drug abuse can lead to drunk driving, etc. B. Professional Crime • A professional criminal (career criminal) is a person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation. Example: burglary or safecracking • They devote their entire working time to planning and executing crimes. They develop skilled techniques and enjoy a certain degree of status among other criminals. • Edward Sutherland (1937) offered pioneering insights into the behavior of professional criminals by publishing an annotated account written by a professional thief. C. Organized Crime • The work of a group that regulates relations between various criminal enterprises involved in illegal activities, including smuggling and sale of illegal drugs, prostitution, and gambling • Organized crime is a secret activity that evades law enforcement. It takes over legitimate business, gains influence over labor unions, corrupts public officials, intimidates witnesses, and taxes merchants for protection services. • It can serve as a means of upward mobility for groups of people struggling to escape poverty. The process of ethnic succession can occur in some organized crime industries, bringing new ethnic groups into dominant positions over a certain type of criminal activity. D. White-Collar and Technology-Based Crime • White-collar crime consists of illegal acts committed in the course of business activities by affluent, “respectable” people. Examples: income tax evasion, embezzlement, bribery • Edwin Sutherland coined the term white-collar crime in 1939 in reference to individuals. The term has been broadened to include offenses by businesses and corporations. • Corporate crime is any criminal act by a corporation that is punishable by the government. It takes many forms and includes individuals, organizations, and institutions among its victims. Examples: stock fraud and manipulation, accounting fraud, production of unsafe goods, environmental pollution, anticompetitive behavior, public health violations, and bribery and corruption • Computer crime is a new kind of crime that is only growing due to society’s increasing reliance on computer technology and Internet use. Identity theft is a growing aspect of this kind of crime; it does not necessarily require technology, but the exchange of information online has aided its growth. • Technological advances and the Internet allow criminals to carry out embezzlement or electronic fraud, often leaving few traces. A study by the FBI and the National White Collar Crime Center found over 300,000 Internet crimes are reported every year. • Convictions for such illegal acts do not generally harm a person’s reputation, status, or career aspirations as much as conviction for a street crime. E. Hate Crimes • Hate crimes are defined both by the perpetrator’s action and the purpose for their conduct. • The government considers an ordinary crime to be a hate crime when the offender is motivated to choose a victim based on race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation, and when evidence shows that hatred prompted the offender to act. • The federal government and law enforcement have increased attempts to record data on the incidence of hate crimes. F. Transnational Crime • This is crime that occurs across multiple national borders. Rather than concentrating on specific countries, international crime spans the globe. Examples: terrorism, trafficking in human beings (includes sex trade), trafficking in endangered species, drugs, and stolen art/antiquities • See Table 7-3 for types of transnational crime. • Not exclusive of other types of crime. Organized criminal networks are increasingly global. Technology facilitates illegal activities. Example: child pornography VI. Crime Statistics • Crime statistics are not as accurate or reliable as social scientists would like. A. Index Crimes and Victimization Surveys • Typically, the crime data reported in the United States are based on index crimes, or the eight types of crime tabulated each year by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. • The Crime Index is published annually by the FBI as part of the Uniform Crime Reports and includes statistics on murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. It is disproportionately devoted to property crimes. • A serious limitation of official crime statistics is that they include only crimes actually reported to law enforcement agencies. • The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), initiated in 1972, is an annual report compiled by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. Based on interviews of U.S. households, it asks ordinary people whether they were victims of specific crimes during the preceding year. B. Crime Trends • There has been a significant decline in violent crime nationwide. Some suggest the reasons for the decline may be new surveillance technologies, community-oriented policing, gun control laws, and an increase in the prison population. • The proportion of major crimes committed by women has increased. Feminist scholars draw our attention to one significant countertrend: The proportion of major crimes committed by women has increased. However, violent crimes committed by women, which have never been common, have declined. C. International Crime Rates • Violent crime rates are higher in the United States than in western Europe. The U.S. may place a greater individual emphasis on economic achievement; and the culture of the U.S. has long tolerated many forms of violence. The U.S. also has a much higher prevalence of guns than western Europe. • England, Ireland, Denmark, and New Zealand have higher rates of car theft. VII. (Box) Social Policy and Social Control: Gun Control A. Looking at the Issue • Guns and ammunition are big business in the U.S.; currently about 35% of U.S. households possess a firearm. The U.S. has 888 firearms per 100 people. • Demand for stricter gun control has declined over the past two decades. Although crime has decreased, the role of firearms in crime has remained steady. • Gun control legislation began with the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, which mandated background checks for firearm purchases. Proponents of strong gun control have argued that the law does not go far enough; gun control opponents argue that it only hurts law-abiding citizens. • Beginning in 2008, the Supreme Court handed gun control rights advocates two major decisions that overturned restrictions on gun use. B. Applying Sociology • Sociologists have had difficulty securing funding or authorization for major studies on controversial issues, including gun violence. Federal funding has been largely cut from any studies on the causes of gun violence. • Conflict theorists contend that powerful groups like the NRA can dominate the legislative process in this way because of their ability to mobilize resources in opposition to the will of the majority. • Interactionists note that both opponents and proponents of gun control use symbols to their advantage. They have also studied how gun rights organizations like the NRA present their argument to their own members. C. Initiating Policy • Advocates for stricter gun control recommend strengthening the tools for law enforcement, extending Brady background checks to all sales, regulating assault weapons and larger capacity magazines, and stopping large-volume gun sales. • Firearm manufacturers and the NRA oppose these measures strongly and have been very successful in defeating political candidates that favor them. • Public health advocates have sought to make guns themselves safer to use. KEY TERMS Anomie Durkheim’s term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective. Anomie theory of deviance Robert Merton’s theory of deviance as an adaptation of socially prescribed goals or of the means governing their attainment, or both. Conformity Going along with peers—individuals of our own status who have no special right to direct our behavior. Control theory A view of conformity and deviance that suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society’s norms. Crime A violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties. Cultural transmission A school of criminology that argues that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions. Deviance Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society. Differential association A theory of deviance that holds that violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts. Differential justice Differences in the way social control is exercised over different groups. Formal social control Social control that is carried out by authorized agents, such as police officers, judges, school administrators, and employers. Hate crime A criminal offense committed because of the offender’s bias against a race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation. Also referred to as bias crime. Index crimes The eight types of crime tabulated each year by the FBI in the Uniform Crime Reports: murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Informal social control Social control that is carried out casually by ordinary people through such means as laughter, smiles, and ridicule. Labeling theory An approach to deviance that attempts to explain why certain people are viewed as deviants while others engaged in the same behavior are not. Law Governmental social control. Obedience Compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure. Organized crime The work of a group that regulates relations among criminal enterprises involved in illegal activities, including prostitution, gambling, and the smuggling and sale of illegal drugs. Professional criminal A person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation, developing skilled techniques and enjoying a certain degree of status among other criminals. Sanction A penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm. Social constructionist perspective An approach to deviance that emphasizes the role of culture in the creation of the deviant identity. Social control The techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society. Social disorganization theory The theory that crime and deviance are caused by the absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social institutions. Societal-reaction approach Another name for labeling theory. Stigma A label used to devalue members of certain social groups. Transnational crime Crime that occurs across multiple national borders. Victimization survey A questionnaire or interview given to a sample of the population to determine whether people have been victims of crime. Victimless crime A term used by sociologists to describe the willing exchange among adults of widely desired but illegal goods and services. White-collar crime Illegal acts committed by affluent, “respectable” individuals in the course of business activities. CHAPTER 8 STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY IN THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER OUTLINE SYSTEMS OF STRATIFICATION Slavery Castes Estates Social Classes SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON STRATIFICATION Karl Marx’s View of Class Differentiation Max Weber’s View of Stratification Interactionist Perspective IS STRATIFICATION UNIVERSAL? Functionalist Perspective Conflict Perspective Lenski’s Viewpoint STRATIFICATION BY SOCIAL CLASS Objective Method of Measuring Social Class Gender and Occupational Prestige Multiple Measures INCOME AND WEALTH POVERTY Studying Poverty Who Are the Poor? Feminization of Poverty The Underclass Explaining Poverty LIFE CHANCES SOCIAL MOBILITY Open versus Closed Stratification Systems Types of Social Mobility Social Mobility in the United States SOCIAL POLICY AND STRATIFICATION: MINIMUM WAGE LAWS Boxes Research Today: Precarious Work Sociology on Campus: Social Class and Financial Aid LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 8 1. Describe the four general systems of stratification 2. Describe the class model in the United States. 3. Analyze stratification using the three major sociological perspectives, including the views of Karl Marx and Max Weber. 4. Compare and contrast the functionalist and conflict perspectives on the existence and necessity of social stratification. 5. Summarize the factors used to measure stratification. 6. Describe the distribution of income and wealth in the United States. 7. Explain poverty in the United States using the conflict and functionalist perspectives. 8. Explain how life chances are linked to stratification. 9. Describe social mobility 10. Explain the relationship of various social factors on social mobility in the United States. • Chapter-opening excerpt from “Cost of Homelessness” by the National Alliance to End Homelessness • Expanded subsection on the supposed existence of class warfare in the United States, with discussion of the Occupy Wall Street movement • Expanded discussion of conspicuous consumption, including ostentatious displays on Facebook, with key term treatment • Discussion of the growing inequality in household wealth • Discussion of precarious workers’ use of social media to gain political recognition • Updated coverage of the impact of race and ethnicity on intergenerational mobility • Social Policy section, “Minimum Wage Laws,” including discussions of (a) wage theft; (b) President Obama’s proposal to raise the minimum wage; and (c) the concept of a living wage, with key term treatment CHAPTER SUMMARY The term social inequality describes a condition in which members of a society have different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. When a system of social inequality is based on a hierarchy of groups, sociologists refer to it as stratification. This is a structured ranking of entire groups of people. To help understand stratification systems, one must discern between ascribed and achieved statuses. An ascribed status is a social position assigned to a person without regard for that person’s unique characteristics or talents. Race, gender, and ethnicity are examples of ascribed statuses. An achieved status is a social position attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts, such as becoming a corporate executive or graduating from college. The most extreme form of legalized social inequality is slavery. Castes are hereditary systems of social inequality. They are usually religiously dictated. Social mobility (or movement between economic levels) is severely restricted in a caste system. The estate system, also known as feudalism, was a stratification system in which peasants were required to work the land of a noble in exchange for military protection and other services. A class system is a social ranking based primarily on economic position. Some sociologists have suggested that only 1 to 2 percent of the people in the United States are in the upper class, whereas the lower class consists of approximately 20 to 25 percent of the population. The lower class is disproportionately composed of Blacks, Hispanics, single mothers, and people who cannot find work. Karl Marx viewed class differentiation as the crucial determinant of social, economic, and political inequality. Marx focused on the two classes that emerged as the estate system declined: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie is the capitalist class that owns and controls the means of production, and the proletariat comprises working-class people who are exploited by the capitalist class. Unlike Marx, Max Weber insisted that no single characteristic totally defines a person’s social position. Weber identified three components of stratification: class, status, and power. Interactionists are interested in how class shapes a person’s lifestyle at the micro level. Thorstein Veblen introduced the concept of conspicuous consumption to describe how the well-off convert some of their income into extravagant consumer goods. The functionalist view of stratification suggests that society must distribute its members among a variety of social positions or jobs. Social stratification is deemed necessary so that qualified people will be motivated to fill functionally important positions. Contemporary conflict theorists believe that human beings are prone to conflict over scarce resources such as wealth, status, and power. Conflict theorists argue the powerful work to maintain their status through control of resources and even culture; the term dominant ideology describes a set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. Conflict theorists argue that that stratification will inevitably lead to instability and social change. Sociologist Gerhard Lenski proposed a view of society in which technological increases cause greater stratification as a society ages, and that those with wealth, status, and power primarily control the allocation of resources. In the objective method of measuring social class, class is viewed largely as a statistical category. A researcher decides the individual’s position by using indicators or causal factors like prestige or esteem. Studies of social class have for years ignored the occupations or income of women as a measure of social rank; feminist sociologists have worked to change that imbalance. When researchers use multiple measures, they typically speak of socioeconomic status (SES), a measure of social class that is based on income, education, and occupation. By all measures, income in the United States is unevenly distributed, and the income gap between the richest and poorest groups in the United States is widening. During one recent 25-year period, the top 1 percent of income earners after taxes saw their incomes rise 228 percent, compared to only 21 percent for households in the middle quintile. Approximately 15 percent of people in the United States live below the poverty line. Women and other minority groups are overrepresented in the lower income groups and underrepresented at the top. Absolute poverty refers to a minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below. Relative poverty is a floating standard of deprivation by which people at the bottom of a society are judged to be disadvantaged in comparison with the nation as a whole. Some sociologists have used the term underclass to describe long-term poor people who lack training and skills. Max Weber saw class as being closely related to people’s life chances—with the lower classes having considerably fewer life chances than those of the upper classes. Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society’s stratification system to another. Theoretically, in an open system, the position of each person is influenced by his or her achieved status. In a closed system (such as a caste system), there is little or no possibility of individual social mobility. The belief in upward social mobility is an important aspect of U.S. society. Vertical mobility can be both upwards and downwards. Occupational mobility such as intergenerational or intragenerational mobility has been common among White males. Education, gender, and race are important factors in shaping one’s chances for upward mobility. Occupational mobility has been common among males in the United States. There has been a great deal of mobility in the United States, though it remains very minor when it happens. Education is a major enabler of mobility; race and gender also have a major influence on mobility. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from “Cost of Homelessness” by the National Alliance to End Homelessness • Social inequality denotes a condition in which members of a society have different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. • Stratification is a structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society. • Income refers to salaries and wages. • Wealth is an inclusive term encompassing all of a person’s material assets, including land, stocks, and other types of property. I. Systems of Stratification • Ascribed status is a social position assigned to a person by society without regard for that person’s unique talents or characteristics. • Achieved status is a social position attained by a person largely through his or her own efforts. A. Slavery • Slavery is a system of enforced servitude in which enslaved individuals are owned by other people. • Slaves in ancient Greece were captives of war or piracy, but their status was not necessarily permanent or passed on to the next generation. In the U.S., slavery was an ascribed status, and racial and legal barriers prevented slaves from being freed. • More people are enslaved today in the world than at any point in human history. B. Castes • A caste system is a hereditary system of rank usually religiously dictated. Example: There are four major castes, or varnas, in India. • Urbanization and technological advancement have brought more change to India’s caste system in the past two decades than the government was able to effect since formally outlawing the practice in 1950. C. Estates • An estate system is also known as feudalism and is associated with feudal societies in the Middle Ages. • In the estate system, peasants worked land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection or other services. D. Social Classes • A class system is a social ranking, based primarily on economic position, in which achieved status can affect or influence social mobility. • One can move from one stratum to another. • Unequal distribution of wealth and power is a basic characteristic of a class system. • Daniel Rossides’s five-class model of the class system in the U.S.: the upper class, the upper-middle class, the lower-middle class, the working class, and the lower class. 1. Upper and Lower Classes • Upper: about 1 or 2 percent of the population of the U.S. • Lower: about 20 to 25 percent; disproportionally consists of Blacks, Hispanics, single mothers with dependent children, and people who cannot find regular work or must make do with low-paying work • Both reflect importance of ascribed status and achieved status. • Galbraith: The rich are the most noticed and the least studied. 2. Middle Class • Upper-middle class: 10 to 15 percent of population; lower-middle class: about 30 to 35 percent of population • The middle class is under great pressure and shrinking. Causal factors include disappearing opportunities for those with little education, global competition and technological advance, growing dependence on the temporary workforce, and the rise of new growth industries and nonunion workplaces. 3. Working Class • About 40 to 45 percent of population; people who hold regular manual or blue-collar jobs • Most noticeably declining in size 4. Class Warfare • The Occupy Wall Street movement sparked greater talk of class conflict. Conflicts over tax rates of the wealthy in the United States have grown sharper. • The gulf between the rich and everyone else has grown for the last 50 years. II. Sociological Perspectives on Stratification • Karl Marx viewed class differentiation as the crucial determinant of social, economic, and political inequality. Max Weber was critical of Marx’s emphasis on economic factors and argued that stratification had many dimensions. A. Karl Marx’s View of Class Differentiation • Differential access to scarce resources shapes the relationship between groups. Controlling the primary mode of economic production is key. • Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are largely privately held; profit is the major incentive for economic activity. • The bourgeoisie—the capitalist class—owns the factories and machinery and controls most production. • The proletariat—the working class—are exploited by the capitalist bourgeoisie. • Marx predicted the exploited proletariat would eventually revolt and destroy the capitalist system. First, they would need to develop class consciousness (a subjective awareness of their plight and of the need for collective action to effect change). Often, this meant overcoming false consciousness (an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect its objective position; often false consciousness involves an individualistic viewpoint). • Marx failed to anticipate the emergence of labor unions and did not foresee individual workers striving for improvement within free societies offering substantial mobility. B. Max Weber’s View of Stratification • Weber was a critic of Marx’s class model. He identified three distinct components of stratification: class, status, and power. • Weber argued that the actions of individuals and groups could not be understood solely in economic terms. • The level of income or wealth is not the only dimension along which persons may be stratified. • Weber used the term class to refer to a group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income. • Status may accompany occupation or position, not necessarily income or wealth. Example: A successful thief might achieve the same income level as a college professor, but the college professor has a much higher status. • Power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others. Individuals gain power through membership in a desirable group. C. Interactionist Perspective • Marx and Weber examined primarily from a macrosociological perspective; interactionists are interested in microsociology as well. • Interactionists want to understand how social class influences a person’s lifestyle. • Thorsten Veblen’s concepts of conspicuous consumption and conspicuous leisure can still be applied to the behavior of wealthy people today. III. Is Stratification Universal? • Stratification is universal, in that all societies maintain some form of social inequality among members. A. Functionalist Perspective • A differential system of rewards and punishments is needed for society to operate efficiently. • Society must distribute its members among a variety of social positions (Davis and Moore). Positions are filled with people with the appropriate talents and abilities. The most important positions must be filled by the most capable persons. • Money and rewards are based on the scarcity of qualified personnel. • Stratification motivates people to fill critical positions. • Functionalists fail to explain the wide disparity between rich and poor or to account for stratification systems that are largely inherited. B. Conflict Perspective • Competition for scarce resources results in significant political, economic, and social inequality. The writings of Marx are at the heart of this perspective. • Contemporary conflict views include conflict as also based on gender, race, age, and other dimensions. Example: See Ralf Dahrendorf’s work on authority. • Dominant ideology refers to a set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. • Stratification is a major source of societal tension and conflict, and will inevitably lead to instability and social change. C. Lenski’s Viewpoint • Economic systems change as the level of technology becomes more complex. • The emergence of surplus resources, and their allocation by those with wealth and power, expands the inequality in status, influence, and power. This allows for a well-defined rigid social class system. IV. Stratification by Social Class A. Objective Method of Measuring Social Class • Class is viewed largely as a statistical category. Researchers assign individuals to social classes on the basis of criteria such as occupation, education, income, and residence. • Prestige rankings of occupations are commonly used for class position. See Table 8-2. • Esteem refers to the reputation a person has earned within an occupation. • A person may have esteem but lack high levels of prestige. B. Gender and Occupational Prestige • There has been a debate over how to judge or assess class or status for women in dual-career families. New methods include a focus on the individual (rather than the family or household) as the basis for categorizing a woman’s class position. • There is a tradition of undercounting the unpaid labor performed mostly by women (largely in child care, housework, and agriculture) and its contribution to a family and the economy. Therefore, feminists argue that that virtually all measures of stratification need to be reformed. C. Multiple Measures • Sociologists use the term socioeconomic status, or SES, when describing class based on income, education, and occupation. • Criteria such as value of homes, sources of income, assets, years in present occupation, neighborhoods, and dual careers have been added to income and education as objective determinants of class. V. Income and Wealth • Income in the United States is distributed unequally. See Figure 8-2. • Between 1980 and 2010, the real net worth of middle income earners rose only 2 percent, while that of low-income families dropped 7 percent; for upper-income families, net worth climbed 87 percent. • There is a dramatic disparity in the wealth of African Americans and Hispanics compared to that of Whites. • Wealth in the U.S. is much more unevenly divided between rich and poor than income; the wealth of the top 1 percent exceeds the collective wealth of the bottom 90 percent. See Figure 8-3. VI. Poverty • About 15 percent of people in the U.S. live below the poverty line. Example: In 2012, no fewer than 46.5 million people were living in poverty. • A contributing factor is the large number employed at minimum wage. In terms of real value, adjusted for inflation, the minimum wage has often failed to keep pace with the cost of living. A. Studying Poverty • Absolute poverty refers to a minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below. • The poverty line serves as an official indicator of which people are poor. • In 2012, a family of four with a combined income of $23,283 or less fell below the poverty line. • Relative poverty is a floating standard of deprivation by which people are judged to be disadvantaged when compared to the nation as a whole. • There is debate over the federal definition of poverty, which has remained unchanged since 1963. In 2010 the federal government launched a statistic called the Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM), used to estimate economic hardship. B. Who Are the Poor? • Many believe the poor can work but choose not to, a stereotype that leads to the criminalization of the poor. • Many of the poor live in urban slums, but the majority live outside these poverty areas. C. Feminization of Poverty • Since World War II, an increasing number of poor people have been women. • In 1959, female householders accounted for 26 percent of the nation’s poor; by 2012, that figure had risen to 50 percent. See Table 8-4. • Households headed by single mothers are more likely to be living in poverty, as compared to married couples. About half of all women in poverty are dealing with an economic crisis resulting from the departure or loss of a husband. • The feminization of poverty is not just a U.S. phenomenon, but a worldwide one. D. The Underclass • William Julius Wilson describes the long-term poor as the underclass who lack training and skills. • In 2012, 43 percent of poor people in the United States were living in central cities. • Blacks and Latinos are more likely than Whites to be persistently poor. Both Latinos and Blacks are less likely than Whites to leave the welfare rolls as a result of welfare reform. • The overall composition of the poor changes continuously, as some move above the poverty line and others slip below it. African Americans and Latinos are more likely than Whites to be persistently poor. E. Explaining Poverty • Using the functionalist analysis, Herbert Gans suggests that poverty serves a number of social, economic, and political functions. In his view, the poor actually satisfy positive functions for many non-poor groups in the United States. VII. Life Chances • Max Weber saw class as related to life chances—the opportunities to provide themselves with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experiences. Poor people spend more limited resources on the necessities of life. • In times of danger, the affluent and powerful have a better chance of surviving. • Class position affects people’s vulnerability to natural disasters. Example: Hurricane Katrina’s impact on the poor of New Orleans VIII. Social Mobility • Refers to the movement of individuals or groups from one position of a society’s stratification system to another A. Open versus Closed Stratification Systems • Open systems encourage competition and imply that a person’s position is influenced by achieved status. • Closed systems, such as slavery or caste systems, allow little or no possibility of moving up. Social placement is based on ascribed status. B. Types of Social Mobility • Horizontal mobility refers to a person moving from one social position to another of the same rank. • Vertical mobility is the movement from one social position to another of different rank. This may be upward or downward. • Intergenerational mobility involves changes in social position relative to one’s parents. Example: college professor whose parents were farmers • Intragenerational mobility involves social changes within one’s adult life. Example: teacher’s aide becoming a superintendent C. Social Mobility in the United States 1. Occupational Mobility • More common among males than females. Sixty to 70 percent of sons are employed in higher-ranked occupations than their fathers. • Although mobility in the United States is high, much of it is minor, with individuals only moving one or two levels away from that of their parents. 2. The Impact of Education • Education has a greater impact than family background (although, family background influences the likelihood that one will receive a higher education). • Education is a very important means of intergenerational mobility. • B.A./B.S. degrees serve less as a guarantee of upward mobility than in the past, because more people have them. 3. The Impact of Race and Ethnicity • Black men with good jobs are less likely than White men to see their children attain the same status. • Black children are less likely to receive financial support from parents. • Downward mobility is significantly higher for Blacks than for Whites. • The median wealth of White non-Hispanic households is 18 times that of Hispanic households. Continuing immigration accounts for part of the disparity, as most new arrivals are very poor. 4. The Impact of Gender • Women are more likely to withdraw from the labor force if their job skills exceed the jobs offered them. • The large range of clerical occupations open to women offer modest salaries and little chance to advance. • Women find it harder to secure financing to start self-employment ventures than men do. • Women are unlikely to move into their father’s positions. • Women’s earnings have increased faster than their mothers’ did at a comparable age, so that their incomes are substantially higher. IX. (Box) Social Policy and Stratification: Minimum Wage Laws A. Looking at the Issue • By itself, the minimum wage is not high enough to support workers. The shortfall causes a large number of minimum wage workers to contribute to high poverty rates in the U.S. and the presence of an underclass. • The minimum wage shrinks in value over time, losing spending power. • There are many jobs for which the federal minimum wage does not apply. B. Applying Sociology • Conflict theorists point out that minimum wage laws are often not enforced and workers may fear to protest if they are not paid minimum wage. • Low-wage workers are vulnerable to wage theft—deliberate withholding of their wages. • Interactionists note the personal rewards of workplaces, such as social contact. This applies especially for young minimum wage workers, but some minimum wage workers exhibit high levels of alienation. C. Initiating Policy • The effects of changes to the minimum wage are very complex; studies into past effects have not been conclusive. • There is disagreement among economists over impact; some argue that minimum wage rises correspond with economic slowdowns; others disagree. • President Obama in 2013 proposed a minimum wage hike to $9. Critics have charged it would cause higher labor costs, but public opinion seems to favor a raise. • Some argue for a living wage for low-wage workers instead of a minimum wage; this would maintain a certain standard of living and take into account regional differences. Critics again charge that it would result in higher labor costs and a net loss of jobs. KEY TERMS Absolute poverty A minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below. Achieved status A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts. Ascribed status A social position assigned to a person by society without regard for the person’s unique talents or characteristics. Bourgeoisie Karl Marx’s term for the capitalist class, comprising the owners of the means of production. Capitalism An economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits. Caste A hereditary rank, usually religiously dictated, that tends to be fixed and immobile. Class A group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income. Class consciousness In Karl Marx’s view, a subjective awareness held by members of a class regarding their common vested interests and the need for collective political action to bring about social change. Class system A social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility. Closed system A social system in which there is little or no possibility of individual social mobility. Conspicuous consumption Purchasing goods not to survive but to flaunt one’s superior wealth and social standing. Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. Estate system A system of stratification under which peasants were required to work land leased to them by nobles in exchange for military protection and other services. Also known as feudalism. Esteem The reputation that a specific person has earned within an occupation. False consciousness A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective position. Feminization of poverty A trend in which women constitute an increasing proportion of the poor people of both the United States and the world. Horizontal mobility The movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank. Income Salaries and wages. Intergenerational mobility Changes in the social position of children relative to their parents. Intragenerational mobility Changes in social position within a person’s adult life. Life chances The opportunities people have to provide themselves with material goods, positive living conditions, and favorable life experiences. Living wage A wage that meets workers’ basic needs, allowing them to maintain a safe, decent standard of living within their community. Objective method A technique for measuring social class that assigns individuals to classes on the basis of criteria such as occupation, education, income, and place of residence. Open system A social system in which the position of each individual is influenced by his or her achieved status. Power The ability to exercise one’s will over others. Precarious work Employment that is poorly paid, and from the worker’s perspective, insecure and unprotected. Prestige The respect and admiration that an occupation holds in a society. Proletariat Karl Marx’s term for the working class in a capitalist society. Relative poverty A floating standard of deprivation by which people at the bottom of a society, whatever their lifestyles, are judged to be disadvantaged in comparison with the nation as a whole. Slavery A system of enforced servitude in which some people are owned by other people. Social inequality A condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. Social mobility Movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society’s stratification system to another. Socioeconomic status (SES) A measure of social class that is based on income, education, and occupation. Status group People who have the same prestige or lifestyle, independent of their class positions. Stratification A structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society. Underclass The long-term poor who lack training and skills. Vertical mobility The movement of an individual from one social position to another of a different rank. Wealth An inclusive term encompassing all a person’s material assets, including land, stocks, and other types of property. CHAPTER 9 GLOBAL INEQUALITY CHAPTER OUTLINE THE GLOBAL DIVIDE STRATIFICATION IN THE WORLD SYSTEM The Legacy of Colonialism Worldwide Poverty Multinational Corporations Modernization STRATIFICATION WITHIN NATIONS: A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE Distribution of Wealth and Income Social Mobility SOCIAL POLICY AND GLOBAL INEQUALITY: RETHINKING WELFARE IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA Boxes Sociology in the Global Community: Walking the Last Mile in Uganda: The Avon Approach Sociology in the Global Community: Stratification in Brazil LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 9 1. Summarize the global divide. 2. Explain stratification in the world system especially with respect to the legacy of colonialism. 3. Compare and contrast the three major sociological perspectives on global inequality. 4. Explain the relationship between worldwide poverty and modernization in regard to stratification in the world. 5. Explain stratification within nations, especially the significance of wealth and income distribution and social mobility. 6. Compare and contrast social mobility in industrial versus developing nations for both men and women. 7. Describe stratification in Mexico, and the ways in which this stratification affects immigration to the United States. • Expanded coverage of the Millennium Project • Revised figure, “Foreign Aid per Capita in Nine Countries” • Sociology in the Global Community Box, “Walking the Last Mile in Uganda: The Avon Approach” • Revised figure, “Multinational Corporations Compared to Nations” CHAPTER SUMMARY Colonialism is the maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a people by a foreign power for an extended period of time. By the 1980s, colonialism had largely disappeared. Neocolonialism is the dependence of former colonies on foreign countries. Drawing on the conflict perspective, Immanuel Wallerstein views the global economic system as divided between nations that control wealth and nations from whom capital is taken. Wallerstein advanced a world systems analysis to describe the unequal economic and political relationships in which core nations exploit periphery nations. Wallerstein’s world systems analysis is the most widely used version of dependency theory. Dependency theory proposes that even as developing countries make economic advances, they remain weak and subservient to core nations and corporations, and this interdependency allows industrialized nations to continue to exploit them. Closely related to these issues is globalization, the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. In developing countries, poverty is an extreme problem; any deterioration in the economic well-being of the least well-off threatens their very survival. There are disagreements over how to measure poverty; some developing nations define poverty based on the minimum income needed to survive. The United Nations launched the Millennium Project in 2000 to halve extreme poverty worldwide by the year 2015, a goal achieved two years early. The U.S. typically contributes much less as a percentage of GDP than other developed nations. The term multinational corporation refers to commercial organizations that are headquartered in one country but do business throughout the world. Functionalists view multinational corporations as helping developing nations, whereas conflict theorists view multinational corporations as exploiters of a nation’s cheap labor. Modernization refers to the far-reaching process by which peripheral nations move from traditional to more developed societies. Modernization theory, a functionalist approach, proposes that modernization and development will gradually improve the lives of people in developing countries. In contrast, conflict theorists view modernization as a dominating force over core nations, which facilitates further exploitation. The gap between the rich and poor nations is widening. In at least 22 nations around the world, the most affluent 10 percent of the population receives at least 40 percent of all income. Studies of intergenerational mobility in industrialized nations have found substantial similarities in the ways that the stratified position of parents is transmitted to their children. Structural factors and immigration continue to be significant in shaping a society’s intergenerational mobility. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from Portfolios of the Poor: How the World’s Poor Live on $2 a Day by Daryl Collins, Jonathan Morduch, Stuart Rutherford, and Orlanda Ruthven I. The Global Divide • World inequality is significant. Disparities in life chances are so extreme that in some areas of the world, the poorest of the poor may not even be aware of them. • Rising productivity, economic growth, and living standards that began with the Industrial Revolution were not evenly distributed across the world. II. Stratification in the World System A. The Legacy of Colonialism • Colonialism occurs when a foreign power maintains political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a people for an extended period of time. Example: the British Empire in North America and India • By the 1980s, colonialism had largely disappeared; but colonial domination had established patterns of economic exploitation that continued after nationhood was achieved. • Neocolonialism is the subservient status of continuing dependence on foreign nations, including former colonial masters. • Immanuel Wallerstein’s world systems analysis describes the domination of industrialized nations (e.g., U.S., Japan, Germany), and their global corporations over countries with marginal economic status. • In that world systems analysis, the core nations control and exploit developing nations. • Periphery nations are those exploited by the world system. Example: Peripheral nations include Asia, Africa, and Latin America. • The division between core and periphery nations is remarkably stable. • Dependency theory suggests that, as subservient countries make economic advances, they remain weak compared to the core nations. The vast share of their resources is redistributed to core nations. • Globalization is the integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. It is viewed both positively and negatively, depending on the nature of the analysis. • Emergence of World Bank and the International Monetary Fund as major players in the global economy. B. Poverty Worldwide • In developing countries poverty is so extreme for those at the bottom that their survival is threatened. • There is disagreement over how to measure global poverty. Some countries base their poverty line on a certain standard of living, and some on the simple ability to survive. • In 2000 the United Nations launched the Millennium Project, whose objective is to halve extreme poverty worldwide in part through contributions by developed countries. The goal was reached in 2013. • The U.S. gives far less in terms of a percentage of GDP than other developed countries. • Malnourishment is a major problem for developing countries; conflict theorists point to inequality, but functionalists point to malnourishment’s role in the growth of inequality over time. • Microfinance has shown that small investments in developing markets can show big gains. C. Multinational Corporations • Multinational corporations are commercial organizations that are headquartered in one country, but do business throughout the world. • They don’t just buy and sell overseas; they also produce goods all over the world. • The total revenues of multinational businesses are on a par with the total value of the total goods and services exchanged in entire nations. 1. Functionalist Perspective • Multinational corporations help developing nations by bringing jobs and industry. • They provide a combination of skilled technology and management. • They facilitate the exchange of ideas and technology around the world, making the world more interdependent and more cohesive. 2. Conflict Perspective • Multinational corporations exploit local workers to maximize profits. Example: Starbucks • The pool of cheap labor in the developing world encourages multinationals to move factories out of core countries, destabilizing labor there. • Trade unions are discouraged in the developing world. If labor demands become too threatening, multinationals just move elsewhere. Example: Nike • Over all, multinationals have a negative social impact on workers in both industrialized and developing nations. • The upper and middle classes benefit the most in developing nations. 3. Modernization • The term is used to describe the far-reaching process by which periphery nations move from traditional or less developed institutions to those characteristic of more developed societies. • Modern society is more urban, literate, and industrial, and has sophisticated transportation and media systems. • Modernization theory suggests that modernization will gradually improve the lives of people in developing nations. • Critics, especially dependency theorists, suggest that modernization perpetuates the dependency of exploited nations and is an example of contemporary neocolonialism. • Current modernization studies generally take a convergence perspective. III. Stratification within Nations: A Comparative Perspective • The gap between rich and poor nations is widening, as is the gap between rich and poor within nations. • Foreign investment tends to increase economic inequality. A. Distribution of Wealth and Income • In at least 22 nations around the world, the most affluent 10 percent of the population receives at least 40 percent of all income. • Worldwide, the richest 2 percent of adults own more than 50 percent of the world’s household wealth. B. Social Mobility 1. Mobility in Industrialized Nations • Studies indicate similarities in the ways that parents’ positions in stratification systems are transmitted to their children. • Structural factors such as changes leading to the rise or decline of an occupational group in the social hierarchy influence mobility opportunities. • Immigration continues to be a significant factor in shaping intergenerational mobility. 2. Mobility in Developing Nations • Macro-level social and economic changes often overshadow micro-level movement from one occupation to another. • In large developing nations, the most significant mobility is the movement out of poverty. Examples: China and India 3. Gender Differences and Mobility • Women in developing countries find life especially difficult. • The effects of development on women’s social standing and mobility are not necessarily positive. • As a country modernizes, women’s vital role in food production deteriorates, jeopardizing women’s autonomy, material well-being, and status relative to men. (Contributions to survival are critical in the maintenance of social standing or prestige.) IV. (Box) Social Policy and Global Inequality: Rethinking Welfare in Europe and North America A. Looking at the Issue • In late 1996, the U.S. Congress passed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, ending the long-standing federal guarantee of assistance to every poor family that meets eligibility requirements. It set lifetime limits on welfare eligibility and required work from those on welfare longer than two years. • The U.S. government safety net now falls far short of that in Europe. In Great Britain, for example, 83 percent of health expenditures are paid for by the government. B. Applying Sociology • Many sociologists view welfare reform in industrialized nations from a conflict perspective: the “haves” in positions of policymaking listen to the interests of other “haves,” while the cries of the “have-nots” are drowned out. • Critics of welfare reform note that “welfare scapegoating” conveniently ignores the lucrative federal handouts that go to affluent individuals and families. • Conflict perspective theorists would rather look at corporate welfare than at handouts to the poor. C. Initiating Policy • There are fewer people on welfare rolls in the U.S. now, and although they have modestly more income, their breadwinners still overwhelmingly work unskilled, poor-paying jobs. • Of those adults who remain on welfare, nearly 70 percent are not in school or in welfare-to-work programs, as the law requires them to be. • European governments have encountered many of the same citizen demands as in North America: keep our taxes low, even if it means reducing services to the poor. Eastern Europe faces particularly extreme problems with the post-communist collapse of state assistance combined with still-struggling economies. KEY TERMS Colonialism The maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a people by a foreign power for an extended period. Corporate welfare Tax breaks, bailouts, direct payments, and grants that the government gives to corporations. Dependency theory An approach that contends that industrialized nations continue to exploit developing countries for their own gain. Globalization The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. Modernization The far-reaching process by which periphery nations move from traditional or less developed institutions to those characteristic of more developed societies. Modernization theory A functionalist approach that proposes that modernization and development will gradually improve the lives of people in developing nations. Multinational corporation A commercial organization that is headquartered in one country but does business throughout the world. Neocolonialism Continuing dependence of former colonies on foreign countries. World systems analysis The global economy as an interdependent system of economically and politically unequal nations. Instructor Manual for Sociology: A Brief Introduction Richard T. Schaefer 9780078027109, 9781259374630, 9781259252242, 9781259912436
