CH-7 Class and Stratification in the United States – Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials : Exam Guide

CHAPTER 7 – CLASS AND STRATIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. __________ is the hierarchical arrangement of large social groups based on the control over basic resources. A. Social distinction B. Individual distinctiveness C. Social stratification D. Social layering Answer: C 2. Sociologist Max Weber’s term __________ refers to the extent to which individuals have access to important societal resources such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care. A. life chances B. cultural opportunity C. social opportunity D. social prospects Answer: A 3. __________ is/are anything valued in a society, ranging from money and property to medical care and education. It is considered to be scarce because of unequal distribution among social categories. A. Assets B. Resources C. Capital D. Wealth Answer: B 4. One of the most important characteristics of systems of stratification is their degree of flexibility. In an open system of stratification, _______________. A. there is no social mobility B. people’s positions are influenced by achieved statuses C. the boundaries between levels in the hierarchies of social stratification are rigid D. people’s positions are determined by ascribed statuses alone Answer: B 5. __________ is the movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another. This movement can be either upward or downward. A. Social movement B. Unilateral generational mobility C. Open system movement D. Social mobility Answer: D 6. __________ mobility is the social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next. A. Intergenerational B. Structural C. Intragenerational D. Exchange Answer: A 7. When Carlos’s grandfather migrated to the United States, he had completed six years of schooling and worked as a grape-picker in California. Carlos’s father completed high school and worked for twenty years as a clerk in a large state agency. Through the efforts of his father and grandfather, Carlos was able to graduate from college and medical school, and he now has a thriving medical practice in southern California. Carlos’s family exemplifies __________ mobility. A. intragenerational B. exchange C. intergenerational D. structural Answer: C 8. __________ mobility is the social movement of individuals within their own lifetime. A. Intergenerational B. Structural C. Intragenerational D. Exchange Answer: C 9. Camryn started her career as a high-tech factory worker and through increased experience and taking specialized courses in her field became an entrepreneur, starting her own highly successful “dot.com” business. Camryn’s advancement is an example of __________ mobility. A. exchange B. intergenerational C. structural D. intragenerational Answer: D 10. One of the most important characteristics of systems of stratification is their degree of flexibility. In a closed system of stratification __________. A. people's positions are set by achieved statuses B. there is little or no social mobility C. the boundaries between levels in the hierarchies of social stratification are relatively fluid D. many opportunities exist for people who are willing to work hard Answer: B 11. Systems of stratification are characterized by different hierarchical structures and varying degrees of mobility. Which of the following systems of stratification is not discussed in the text? A. slavery B. caste C. class D. league Answer: D 12. __________ is an extreme form of stratification in which some people are owned by others. It is a closed system in which people are treated as property and have little or no control over their lives. A. League B. Slavery C. Class D. Caste Answer: B 13. As practiced in the United States, which of the following was not a characteristic of slavery? A. it was for life and was inherited B. slaves were considered to be human beings as well as property C. slaves were denied rights D. coercion was used to keep slaves "in their place" Answer: B 14. A __________ is a system of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at birth based on their parent’s ascribed status. It is a closed system of stratification. A. class system B. slavery system C. league system D. caste system Answer: D 15. India’s caste system is based in part on __________, thus families typically perform the same type of work from generation to generation. A. religious affiliation B. racial classification C. occupation D. wealth Answer: C 16. Until the 1990s, the white South Africans controlled the government, the police, and the military by enforcing __________ the term used in South Africa for “the separation of the races." A. closed racial system B. apartheid C. racial segregation D. horizontal declassification Answer: B 17. In a __________, marriage is endogamous, meaning that people are allowed to marry only within their own group. A. slavery system B. league system C. caste system D. class system Answer: C 18. The __________ system is a type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on the type of work people do. A. caste B. slavery C. league D. class Answer: D 19. __________ occurs when people experience a gain or loss in position and/or income that does not produce a change in their place in the class structure. A. Horizontal mobility B. Situational mobility C. Vertical mobility D. Structural mobility Answer: A 20. A university instructor is promoted to the position of professor. This results in her being granted tenure and she receives a small increase in salary. This person has experienced __________ mobility. A. situational B. vertical C. horizontal D. structural Answer: C 21. __________ occurs when people experience movement either up or down the class structure. A. Structural mobility B. Vertical mobility C. Situational mobility D. Horizontal mobility Answer: B 22. Becky's mother is an architect and her father is a college professor. Becky left home at age 16 to live with her boyfriend. When their relationship ended, Becky no longer communicated with her parents and did not return to high school. After working briefly at a fast food restaurant, Becky started panhandling (asking for money from passersby) at a shopping area located adjacent to a large university. Becky's situation is an example of __________ mobility. A. vertical B. horizontal C. structural D. situational Answer: A 23. Both sociologists Karl Marx and Max Weber identified ___________ as an important determinant of social inequality and social change. A. religion B. class C. gender D. race Answer: B 24. According to sociologist Karl Marx, the __________ (capitalist class) consists of those who own the means of production—the land and capital necessary for factories and mines. A. entrepreneurs B. proletariat C. rentiers D. bourgeoisie Answer: D 25. According to sociologist Karl Marx, the __________ (working class) consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive. A. proletariat B. rentiers C. bourgeoisie D. entrepreneurs Answer: A 26. Sociologist Karl Marx believed that the workers are exploited as capitalists maximize their profit by paying the workers less than the resale values of what they produce but do not own. Marx believed that a deep level of antagonism exists between capitalists and workers because of extreme differences in the __________ of the people in these two classes. A. cultural interests B. societal interests C. material interests D. national interests Answer: C 27. According to sociologist Karl Marx, continual exploitation results in workers’ __________—a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself. It develops as workers manufacture goods that embody their creative talents, but the goods do not belong to them. A. accommodation B. meritocracy C. assimilation D. alienation Answer: D 28. According to sociologist Karl Marx, the capitalist class maintains its position at the top of the class structure by control of the society’s __________, which is composed of the government, schools, churches, and other social institutions. A. substructure B. superstructure C. Eco structure D. infrastructure Answer: B 29. According to sociologist Karl Marx, when the workers realized that capitalists were the source of their oppression, they would overthrow the capitalists and their agents of social control, leading to the end of capitalism. The workers would then take over the government and create a(n) __________ society. A. class B. caste C. egalitarian D. stratified Answer: C 30. According to sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf, which of the following is not a reason why workers have not overthrown capitalism as sociologist Karl Marx had predicted? A. Many workers have experienced a rising standard of living. B. Workers have gained more legal protection in the form of rights and benefits. C. Individual capitalists still own and control factories and other means of production. D. Many people have become so engrossed in the process of consumption that they are less likely to engage in a workers rebellion. Answer: C 31. Sociologist __________ developed a multidimensional approach to social stratification that reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige, and power. A. Karl Marx B. Emile Durkheim C. Herbert Spencer D. Max Weber Answer: D 32. __________ is the value of all of a person’s or family’s economic assets, including income, personal property, and income-producing property. A. Power B. Wealth C. Prestige D. Class Answer: B 33. Sociologist Max Weber placed categories of people who have a similar level of wealth and income in the same class. He identified a privileged commercial class of __________ —wealthy bankers, ship owners, professionals, and merchants who possess similar financial resources. A. entrepreneurs B. rentiers C. independents D. consumers Answer: A 34. Sociologist Max Weber placed categories of people who have a similar level of wealth and income in the same class. He identified a class of __________—wealthy individuals who live off their investments and do not have to work. A. entrepreneurs B. rentiers C. independents D. consumers Answer: B 35. Sociologist Max Weber divided those who work for wages into two classes. The __________ consists of white-collar workers, public officials, managers, and professionals. A. divisional class B. working class C. tertiary class D. middle class Answer: D 36. Sociologist Max Weber divided those who work for wages into two classes. The __________ class consists of skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled workers. A. working B. middle C. divisional D. tertiary Answer: A 37. Based on sociologist Max Weber’s system of stratification, __________ is the respect or regard with which a person or status position is regarded by others. It includes fame, respect, honor, and esteem. A. wealth B. power C. status D. prestige Answer: D 38. Sociologist Max Weber suggested that a person who has a high level of prestige is assumed to receive deferential and respectful treatment from others. Which of the following aspects related to prestige was not identified by Weber? A. They tend to socialize with one another. B. They tend to marry outside their own group of social equals. C. They tend to spend their leisure time together. D. They tend to safeguard their status by restricting outsiders’ opportunities to join their ranks. Answer: B 39. According to sociologist Max Weber’s system of stratification, __________ is the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others. A. wealth B. power C. status D. prestige Answer: B 40. Sociologists often use the term __________ to refer to a combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of factors such as income, occupation, and education to determine class location. A. power status B. socioeconomic status C. prestige status D. wealth status Answer: B 41. Sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl expanded on Weber’s analysis of class structure. Which of the following elements was not identified by their social class model? A. education B. occupation of family head C. the family's reputation in the community D. family income Answer: C 42. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, the __________ members (about 1 percent of the U. S. population) own substantial income-producing assets and operate on both the national and international levels. People in this class have an influence on the economy and society far beyond their numbers. A. upper-middle class B. upper class C. middle-middle class D. middle class Answer: B 43. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, members of the __________ class come from prominent families which possess great wealth that they have held for several generations. Family names such as Rockefeller and Kennedy are well known and often held in high esteem. A. lower-upper B. middle-upper C. upper-upper D. upper middle Answer: C 44. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, members of the __________ have earned most of their money in their own lifetime as entrepreneurs, presidents of major corporations, sports or entertainment celebrities, or top-level professionals. A. middle-upper class B. upper-upper class C. upper-middle class D. lower-upper class Answer: D 45. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, persons in the __________ class (about 14 percent of the U. S. population) are often highly educated professionals who have built careers as physicians, attorneys, stockbrokers, or corporate managers. A. upper upper B. lower upper C. upper middle D. middle Answer: C 46. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, a combination of three factors qualifies people for the __________ class: university degrees, authority and independence on the job, and high income. A. upper-upper B. middle-middle C. lower-middle D. upper-middle Answer: D 47. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, the __________ is the one that is most shaped by formal education. A. upper class B. upper-upper class C. upper-middle class D. middle class Answer: C 48. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, two-year or four-year college degrees have replaced the high school diploma as an entry-level requirement for employment in many __________ occupations, including medical technicians and nurses. This social class represents an estimated 30 percent of the U. S. population. A. middle-class B. upper class C. upper-upper class D. upper-middle class Answer: A 49. According to your text, several factors have eroded the American Dream for the middle-class. Which of the following factors was not identified in the text? A. escalating housing prices B. blocked mobility on the job C. the cost of living squeeze D. negative media exposure Answer: D 50. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, the core of the __________ (an estimated 30 percent of the U. S. population) is made up of semiskilled machine operators who work in factories. Members may also include people in the service sector, as well as clerks and salespeople. A. upper-middle class B. working class C. middle class D. working poor Answer: B 51. The text points out that some people in the working class are employed in __________ occupations—relatively low-paying, non-manual, semiskilled positions primarily held by women, such as day-care workers, checkout clerks, cashiers, and waitpersons. A. pink-collar B. blue-collar C. white-collar D. frayed collar Answer: A 52. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, members of the __________ (about 20 percent of the U. S. population) live from just above to just below the poverty line. They typically hold unskilled jobs, seasonal migrant jobs in agriculture, lower-paid factory jobs, and service jobs (such as counter help at restaurants). A. working class B. underclass C. middle class D. working poor Answer: D 53. Social critic and journalist Barbara Ehrenreich conducted research to see if it was possible for the __________ to live on the wages that they were being paid. She demonstrated that people who work full time, year-round, for poverty-level wages must develop survival strategies that include such things as help from relatives or constantly moving from one residence to another in order to have a place to live. A. working class B. middle class C. working poor D. underclass Answer: C 54. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, people in the __________ are poor, seldom employed, and caught in long-term deprivation that results from low levels of education and income and high rates of unemployment. A. working class B. underclass C. middle class D. working poor Answer: B 55. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, single mothers are overrepresented in the __________ because of the lack of jobs, lack of affordable child care, and many other impediments to the mother’s future and that of her children. They must rely on public or private assistance programs for their survival. A. middle class B. working poor class C. underclass D. working class Answer: C 56. According to the social class model developed by sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl, about __________ percent of the United States population is included in the underclass. Also, the chances of their children moving out of poverty are about fifty-fifty. A. 3 to 5 B. 6 to 8 C. 9 to 10 D. 11 to 12 Answer: A 57. Contemporary Marxian (or conflict) theorists would examine class in terms of __________. A. the ownership or no ownership of the means of production B. people’s relationship with others in the production process C. wealth inequality D. a multidimensional approach of wealth, prestige and power Answer: B 58. __________ attempt to determine what degree of control that workers have over the decision-making process and the extent to which they are able to plan and implement their own work. A. Postmodern theorists B. Functionalist theorists C. Symbolic interactionist theorists D. Conflict theorists Answer: D 59. According to sociologist Erik Wright's Marxian model, several criteria were involved for placement in the class structure. Which of the follow factors was not identified in Wright’s model? A. ownership of the means of production B. purchase of the labor of others C. inherited wealth D. sale of one's own labor Answer: C 60. Sociologist Erik Wright, in his Marxian model, identified four classes. Which of the following classes was not included in Wright’s model? A. capitalist class B. managerial class C. small-business class D. middle class Answer: D 61. According to sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, the __________ is composed of individuals who have inherited fortunes, own major corporations, or are top corporate executives with extensive stock holdings or control of company investments. A. capitalist class B. managerial class C. small-business class D. working class Answer: A 62. According to Forbes magazine's 2005 list of the richest people in the world, Bill Gates (co-founder of Microsoft Corporation) was the wealthiest with a fortune of nearly $46.5 billion. According to sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, Bill Gates would be in the __________ class. A. managerial B. capitalist C. small-business D. working Answer: B 63. According to sociologist Erik Wright's Marxian model, persons in the ___________ have substantial control over the means of production and over workers. However, these upper-level supervisors and professionals typically do not participate in key corporate decisions such as how to invest profit. A. capitalist class B. small-business class C. working class D. managerial class Answer: D 64. According to sociologist Erik Wright's Marxian model, the __________ class consists of business owners and craftspeople that may hire a small number of employees but largely do their own work. A. capitalist B. working C. managerial D. small-business Answer: D 65. According to sociologist Erik Wright's Marxian model, the __________ is made up of a number of subgroups, including blue-collar workers, some of whom are highly skilled and well paid and others of who are unskilled and poorly paid. A. small-business class B. capitalist class C. working class D. managerial class Answer: C 66. Based on sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, the __________ class is made up of skilled blue-collar workers which include electricians, plumbers, and carpenters, and unskilled blue-collar workers which include janitors and gardeners. A. working B. managerial C. small-business D. capitalist Answer: A 67. __________ is the economic gain derived from wages, salaries, income transfers (government aid), and ownership of property. A. Wealth B. Prestige C. Power D. Income Answer: D 68. Sociologist Dennis Gilbert compares the distribution of income to a national pie that has been sliced into portions. In 2004, the wealthiest 20 percent of households received approximately __________ percent of the total income pie. A. 25 B. 50 C. 75 D. 90 Answer: B 69. Sociologist Dennis Gilbert compares the distribution of income to a national pie that has been sliced into portions. In 2004, the poorest 20 percent of households received approximately __________ of the total income pie. A. 4 B. 9 C. 12 D. 17 Answer: A 70. According to sociologist Dennis Gilbert, the top 5 percent of households alone received more than 20 percent of all income—an amount greater than that received by the bottom __________ of all households. A. 25 percent B. 50 percent C. 65 percent D. 75 percent Answer: B 71. The gulf between the rich and poor continues to widen in the United States. Between 1993 and 2003, the income of the top one-fifth of U. S. families increased by 31 percent; during that same period of time, the income of the bottom one-fifth of U. S. families __________. A. decreased by 10 percent B. increased by only 5 percent C. decreased by 5 percent D. increased by only 16 percent Answer: D 72. __________ include(s) property such as buildings, land, farms, houses, factories, and cars, as well as other assets such as bank accounts, corporate stocks, bonds, and insurance policies. It is computed by subtracting all debt obligations and converting the remaining assets into cash. A. Income B. Benefits C. Wealth D. Endowments Answer: C 73. Wealth inequality has increased in recent decades. A study by the Joint Economic Committee of Congress, divided population into four categories. Which of the following was not a category identified by the Joint Economic Committee of Congress? A. the underclass B. the super-rich C. the rich D. the very rich Answer: A 74. Disparities in wealth are more pronounced when compared across racial and ethnic categories. According to the Census Bureau, the net worth of the average white household in 2000 was more than __________ that of the average African American household. A. 5 times B. 10 times C. 20 times D. 25 times Answer: B 75. In relation to health characteristics of poor people in the United States, which of the following is not accurate? A. The poor have shorter life expectancies. B. Children born into poor families are at much greater risk of dying during their first year of life. C. Through welfare benefits, most of the poor receive preventive medical and dental checkups. D. The poor are at greater risk for heart disease and cancer than more affluent persons. Answer: C 76. For many of the working poor, medical insurance is out of the question. Approximately __________ million people in the United States were without health insurance coverage in 2006. A. 10 B. 21 C. 31 D. 47 Answer: D 77. Of all age groups, persons aged __________ are the most likely to be uninsured. A. under 18 B. 18 to 24 C. 35 to 44 D. 65 and over Answer: B 78. The term ___________ housing refers to facilities that have inadequate heating, air conditioning, plumbing, electricity, or structural durability. A. affordable B. slum C. substandard D. tenet Answer: C 79. __________ theorists view education as the “elevator” to social mobility. Improvements in the educational achievement levels (measured in number of years of schooling completed) of the poor, people of colour, and white women have been cited as evidence that students’ abilities are now more important than their class, race, or gender. A. Postmodern B. Conflict C. Functionalist D. Symbolic interactionist Answer: C 80. __________ theorists stress that schools are agencies for reproducing the capitalist class system and perpetuating inequality in society. Parents with limited income are not able to provide the same educational opportunities for their children as are families with greater financial resources. A. Conflict B. Symbolic interactionist C. Postmodern D. Functionalist Answer: A 81. Today, great disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources. Because funding for education comes primarily from __________, school districts in wealthy suburban areas generally pay higher teachers’ salaries, have newer buildings, and provide state-of-the-art equipment. A. federal government taxes B. local property taxes C. state taxes D. a combination of state and federal taxes Answer: B 82. The U.S. Social Security Administration has established an official poverty line. The poverty line is computed by __________. A. intercorrelations with the cost-of-living index B. determining the cost of a minimally nutritious diet (short-term) and multiplying this figure by three to allow for non-foods costs C. estimating the annual cost of living D. surveys to determine how much people spend on housing Answer: B 83. In 2006, __________ million people lived below the official government poverty level of $20,794 for a family of four. A. 20 B. 37 C. 45 D. 66 Answer: B 84. __________ poverty exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. A. Absolute B. Relative C. Official D. Subjective Answer: A 85. __________ often has life-threatening consequences, such as when a homeless person freezes to death on a park bench. A. Subjective poverty B. Relative poverty C. Absolute poverty D. Official poverty Answer: C 86. __________ poverty exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living. A. Absolute B. Relative C. Official D. Objective Answer: B 87. According to some analysts, we should replace the minimum wage with the minimum A. living wage. B. standard of living. C. absolute level wage. D. floor income. Answer: A 88. By July of 2009, the minimum wage per hour will be A. $5.85. B. $6.15. C. $7.25. D. $8.75. Answer: C 89. Critics of the living wage concept argue that a living wage requirement, or even an increase in the federal minimum wage will lead to all except: A. a rise in inflation B. a rise in the cost of living for everyone C. an increase in unemployment D. a rise in the federal and social security tax Answer: D 90. In the discussion of poverty and children in the United States, which of the following statements was not cited? A. Poor children are mainly from two parent households. B. Children in single-parent households headed by a woman are more likely to live in poverty. C. Many governmental programs established to alleviate childhood poverty have been cut back or eliminated. D. Children as a group are better off now than in any previous decade. Answer: D 91. About two-thirds of all adults living in poverty are women. In 2006, single-parent families headed by women had a __________ percent poverty rate as compared with a 10 percent poverty rate for two-parent families. A. 12 B. 17 C. 28 D. 45 Answer: C 92. According to sociologist Diana Pearce, __________ refers to the trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty. A. the feminization of poverty B. matriarchal poverty C. pink collar poverty D. gendered poverty Answer: A 93. Which age group (of all races) has the highest percentage living in poverty A. Under 18 B. 18 - 24 C. 45 - 64 D. 65 and above Answer: B 94. When considering age, _______ have the highest percentage living in poverty no matter which age group one looks at. A. Whites B. African-Americans C. Asian-Americans D. Hispanics Answer: B 95. Educationally, no matter which racial group, those with _______ have the highest rates living in poverty. A. no high school diploma B. 4 years of high school C. some college D. a college degree Answer: A 96. Which statement concerning poverty and stratification is false? A. People no longer believe the American Dream. B. Americans tend to attribute poverty to personal traits and characteristics. C. Many social programs for children have been increased. D. Women account for two out of three impoverished American adults. Answer: C 97. According to the text's discussion of race, ethnicity, and poverty __________. A. most of the poor and virtually all welfare recipients are people of color B. white Americans account for less than one-third of those below the official poverty line C. a disproportionate percentage of the impoverished in the United States is made up of African Americans, Latinos/as, and Native Americans D. it is difficult to determine the relationship between race, ethnicity, and poverty because of welfare programs Answer: C 98. Regarding the relationship between race/ethnicity and poverty, which of the following statistical data is not accurate? A. 50 percent of African Americans were among the officially poor in 2004 B. 8 percent of whites (non-Latinos/as) were among the officially poor in 2004 C. 22 percent of Latinos/as fell below the official poverty line in 2004 D. 33 percent of Native Americans lived below the official poverty line in 2004 Answer: A 99. Social inequality and poverty have both economic and structural sources. According to your text, the major cause of poverty is __________. A. people's unwillingness to work B. governmental programs, such as welfare, that have kept families impoverished for generations C. the low wages paid for many jobs D. people's desire for immediate gratification and overuse of credit cards Answer: C 100. Structural problems contribute to both unemployment and underemployment. Corporations have been disinvesting in the United States, displacing millions of people from their jobs. Economists refer to this displacement as the __________ of America. A. deinstitutionalization B. deindustrialization C. disengagement D. abandonment Answer: B TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. The American Dream is the belief that if people work hard and play by the rules, they will have a chance to get ahead. Moreover, each generation will be able to have a higher standard of living than that of its parents. Answer: True 2. Intragenerational mobility is the social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next. Intragenerational mobility may be downward as well as upward. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is intergenerational’ by contrast, intragenerational mobility is the social movement of individuals within their own lifetime. 3. According to some social analysts, throughout recorded history only five societies have been slave societies. Those in which the social and economic impact of slavery was extensive include ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the United States, the Caribbean, and Brazil. Answer: True 4. According to sociologist Karl Marx, class position and the extent of our income and wealth are determined by our work situation, or our relationship to the means of production. Answer: True 5. Sociologist Karl Marx stated that capitalistic societies consist of two classes—the proletariat class that consists of those who own the means of production and the bourgeoisie class that consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive. Answer: False Rejoinder: Marx stated that the bourgeoisie (capitalist) class consists of those who own the means of production (the land and capital necessary for factories), and the proletariat (working) class consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive. 6. According to sociologist Karl Marx, the capitalist class maintains its position at the top of the class structure by control of the society’s superstructure, which is composed of the government, schools, churches, and other social institutions that produce and disseminate ideas perpetuating the existing system of exploitation. Answer: True 7. In discussing wealth, sociologist Max Weber identified entrepreneurs as a class of wealthy individuals who live off their investments and do not have to work. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is rentiers; entrepreneurs are a privileged commercial class of wealthy bankers, ship owners, professionals, and merchants who possess similar financial resources. 8. Sociologists often use the term socioeconomic status (SES) to refer to a combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of factors such as income, occupation, and education to determine class location. Answer: True 9. Sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl developed a widely used model of social classes based on three elements: religion, occupation of family head, and family income. Answer: False Rejoinder: Sociologists Gilbert and Kahl identified education, occupation of family head, and family income as three elements that determine position in the United States social class structure. 10. A combination of three factors qualifies people for the upper-middle class: university degrees, authority and independence on the job, and high income. Answer: True 11. Recently, four factors have eroded the American Dream for the middle class: escalating housing prices, occupational insecurity, blocked mobility on the job, and the cost-of-living squeeze that has penalized younger workers, even when they have more education and better jobs than their parents. Answer: True 12. According to sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model of the U.S. class structure, the major sources of income for the managerial class are profits, interests, and very high salaries. Members of this class make important decisions about the workplace, including which products and services to make available to consumers and how many workers to hire or fire. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct response is the capitalist class. The managerial class includes upper-level managers, supervisors, and professionals who typically do not participate in key corporate decisions such as how to invest profits. These individuals may control the structure of their own work; however, they typically do not own the means of production and may not have supervisory authority over more than a few people. 13. Between 1993 and 2003, the income of the top one-fifth of U.S. families decreased by 15 percent; during that same period of time, the income of the bottom one-fifth of families decreased by only 5 percent. Answer: False Rejoinder: Actually between the period of 1993 and 2003, both groups of U.S. families experienced an increase in income. The income of the top one-fifth of U.S. families increased by 31 percent, during that same period of time, the income of the bottom one-fifth of families increased by only 13 percent. 14. According to a study by the Joint Economic Committee of Congress, the super-rich (0.5 percent) of households) own 35 percent of the nation’s wealth with net assets averaging almost $9 million. Answer: True 15. According to the Census Bureau, married couples have a higher net worth than the unmarried while households headed by people over the age of 65 are wealthier than those households headed by those who are younger than age 55. Answer: True 16. Of all age groups, persons aged 65 and over are the most likely to be uninsured in the United States. Answer: False Rejoinder: Based on statistics, persons aged 18 to 24 are the most likely to be uninsured. Medicare and other benefit programs provide medical care to most persons aged 65 and over. 17. Lack of affordable housing is one central problem brought about by economic inequality. Another concern is substandard housing, which refers to facilities that have inadequate heating, air conditioning, plumbing, electricity, or structural durability. Answer: True 18. Educational opportunities and life chances are directly linked. Symbolic interactionists view education as the “elevator” to social mobility. Improvements in the educational achievement levels of the poor, people of colour, and white women have been cited as evidence that students’ abilities are now more important than their class, race, or gender. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is a functionalist perspective education and the consequences of inequality. 19. Conflict theorists stress that schools are agencies for reproducing the capitalist class system and perpetuating inequality in society. Great disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources because funding for education primarily comes from local property taxes. Answer: True 20. When sociologists define poverty, they define absolute poverty and state that it exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living. Answer: False Rejoinder: Absolute poverty exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. By contrast, relative poverty exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living. 21. Congress has not passed an increase in the federal minimum wage in 20 years. Answer: False Rejoinder: In 2007, Congress passed a bill increasing the minimum wage. 22. Many writers believe that the federal minimum wage should be replaced with a federal living wage. Answer: True 23. Four critical services that need to be addressed because of their price increases are: health care, higher education, child care, and housing. Answer: True 24. About two-thirds of all adults living in poverty are women. Sociologist Diana Pearce coined the term, “feminization of poverty” which refers to the trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty. Answer: True 25. Asian Americans are among the most severely disadvantaged persons in the United States. About one-third are below the poverty line, and some of these individuals live in extreme poverty. Answer: False Rejoinder: Actually, the text indicates that Native Americans are among the most severely disadvantaged persons in the United States. SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Describe what is meant by the American Dream. Answer: The American Dream is the belief that if people work hard and play by the rules, they will have a chance to get ahead. Moreover, each generation will be able to have a higher standard of living than that of its parents. The American Dream is based on the assumption that people in the United States have equality of opportunity regardless of their race, creed, colour, national origin, gender, or religion. For middle- and upper-income people, the American Dream typically means that such subsequent generation will be able to acquire more material possessions and wealth than people in the preceding generations. To some people, achieving the American Dream means having a secure job, owning a home, and getting a good education for their children. To others, it is the promise that anyone may rise from poverty to wealth (from “rags to riches”) if he or she works hard enough. 2. Describe the concept of global systems of stratification. Answer: Around the globe, one of the most important characteristics of systems of Stratification is their degree of flexibility. Sociologists distinguish among such systems based on the extent to which they are open or closed. In an open system, the boundaries between levels in the hierarchies are more flexible and may be influenced (positively or negatively) by people’s achieved statuses. Open systems are assumed to have some degree of social mobility. Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another. This movement can be either upward or downward. Intergenerational mobility is the social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next. By contrast, intragenerational mobility is the social movement of individuals within their own lifetime. In a closed system, the boundaries between levels in the hierarchies of social stratification are rigid, and people’s positions are set by ascribed status. Open and closed systems are ideal-type constructs; no actual stratification system is completely open or closed. 3. Outline the three major systems of stratification. Answer: Slavery is an extreme form of stratification in which some people are owned by others. It is a closed system in which people designated as “slaves” are treated as property and have little or no control over their lives. As practiced in the United States, slavery had four primary characteristics: (1) it was for life and was inherited (children of slaves were considered to be slaves); (2) slaves were considered property, not human beings; (3) slaves were denied rights; and (4) coercion was used to keep slaves “in their place.” Despite the fact that slavery in this country officially ended many years ago, sociologists believe that its legacy is deeply embedded in current patterns of prejudice and discrimination against African Americans. The caste system is also a closed system of social stratification. A caste system is a system of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at birth based on their parents’ ascribed characteristics. In India, caste is based in part on occupation. By contrast, the caste system in South Africa was based on racial classifications and the belief of white South Africans that they were morally superior to the black majority. Until the 1990s, the white South Africans controlled the government, the police, and the military by enforcing apartheid (the separation of the races). The class system is a type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on the type of work people do. At least theoretically, a class system is more open than a caster system because the boundaries between classes are less distinct than the boundaries between castes. In a class system, status comes at least partly through achievement rather than entirely by ascription. 4. Explain sociologist Karl Marx’s perspective on class position and class relationships. Answer: According to sociologist Karl Marx, class position and the extent of our income and wealth are determined by our work situation, or our relationship to the means of production. Marx stated that capitalistic societies consist of two classes—the capitalists and the workers. The capitalist class (bourgeoisie) consists of those who own the means of production—the land and capital necessary for factories and mines. The working class (proletariat) consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive. According to Marx, class relationships involve inequality and exploitation. The workers are exploited as capitalists maximize their profits by paying workers less than the resale value of what they produce but do not own. Marx suggests, exploitation involves ongoing interactions between the two antagonistic classes that are structured by a set of social relations that binds the exploiter and the exploited together. Continual exploitation results in workers’ alienation—a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself. According to Marx, the capitalists maintains its positions at the top of the class structure by control of the society’s superstructure, which is composed of the government, schools, churches, and other social institutions that produce and disseminate ideas perpetuating the existing system of exploitation. Marx predicted that the exploitation of workers by the capitalist class would ultimately lead to class conflict—the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class. According to Marx, when the workers realized that capitalists were the source of their oppression, they would overthrow the capitalists and their agents of social control, leading to the end of capitalism. The workers would then take over the government and create a more egalitarian society. 5. Outline sociologist Max Weber’s multidimensional approach to social stratification and explain how people are ranked on all three dimensions. Answer: According to sociologist Max Weber, no single factor (such as economic divisions between capitalists and workers) was sufficient for defining the location of categories of people within the class structure. Weber stated that the access that people have to important societal resources (such as economic, social, and political power) is crucial in determining life chances. Weber developed a multidimensional approach to social stratification that reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige, and power. Wealth is the value of all of a person’s or family’s economic assets, including income, personal property, and income-producing property. Weber placed categories of people who have a similar level of wealth and income in the same class. He identified a privileged commercial class of entrepreneurs—wealthy bankers, ship owners, professionals, and merchants who possess similar financial resources. He also described a class of rentiers—wealthy individuals who live off their investments and do not have to work. According to Weber, entrepreneurs and rentiers have much in common. Both are able to purchase expensive consumer goods, control other people’s opportunities to acquire wealth and property, and monopolize costly status privileges (such as education) that provide contacts and skills for their children. Weber divided those who work for wages into two classes: the middle class and the working class. The middle class consists of white-collar workers, public officials, managers, and professionals. The working class consists of skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled workers. The second dimension of Weber’s system of stratification is prestige—the respect or regard with which a person or status position is regarded by others. Fame, respect, honour, and esteem are the most common forms of prestige. A person who has a high level of prestige is assumed to receive deferential and respectful treatment for others. Weber suggested that individuals who share a common level of social prestige belong to the same status group regardless of their level of wealth. They tend to socialize with one another, marry within their own group of social equals, spend their leisure time together, and safeguard their status by restricting outsiders’ opportunities to join their ranks. Style of life, formal education, and occupation are often significant factors in establishing and maintaining prestige in industrial and post-industrial societies. The other dimension of Weber’s system is power—the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others. The powerful can shape society in accordance with their own interests and direct the actions of others. Weber stated that wealth, prestige, and power are separate continuums on which people can be ranked from high to low. Individuals may be high on one dimension while being low on another. In Weber’s multidimensional approach, people are ranked on all three dimensions. 6. Summarize sociologists Dennis Gilbert’s and Joseph Kahl’s analysis of the class structure in the United States. Answer: Sociologists Dennis Gilbert and Joseph Kahl developed a widely used model of social classes based on three elements: (1) education, (2) occupation of family head, and (3) family income. They identified six different categories. (1) the upper (capitalist) class – which is the wealthiest and most powerful in the United States. About 1 percent of the population is included in this class, whose members own substantial income-producing assets and operate on both the national and international levels. (2) the upper-middle class—persons in this class are often highly educated professionals who have built their careers as physicians, attorneys, etc. About 14 percent of the population is in this category. A combination of three factors qualifies people for the upper-middle class: university degrees, authority and independence on the job, and high income. Of all the class categories, the upper-middle class is the one that is most shaped by formal education. (3) the middle class—today, two-year and four-year college degrees are necessary for entry-level requirements for employment in any middle-class occupations, including medical technician, nurses, etc. An estimated 30 percent of the population is in this category. (4) the working class—an estimated 30 percent of the population is in this category. The core of this class is made up of semiskilled machine operators who work in factories. Working class families not only earn less than middle-class families, but they also have less financial security, particularly because of high rates of layoffs and plant closings. Few people in this class have more than a high school diploma, and many have less, which makes job opportunities scarce for them in a “high-tech” society. (5) the working poor—account for about 20 percent of the population. Members of this class live from just above to just below the poverty line; they typically hold unskilled jobs, seasonal migrant jobs in agriculture, lower-paid factory jobs, and service jobs (such as counter help at restaurants). Employed single mothers often belong to this class. For this category, living from pay check to pay check makes it impossible to save money for emergencies. (6) the underclass—people in this category are poor, seldom employed, and caught in long-term deprivation that results from low levels of education and income and high rates of unemployment. Single mothers are overrepresented in this class because of the lack of jobs, the lack of affordable child care, and many other impediments to the mother’s future and that of her children. About 3 to 5 percent of the population is in this category. 7. Discuss sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian Model of the U.S. class structure. Answer: Sociologist Erik Wright outlined four criteria for placement in the class structure: (1) ownership of the means of production, (2) purchase of the labor of others (employing others), (3) control of the labor of others (supervising others on the job), and (4) sale of one’s own labor (being employed by someone else). Wright assumes that these criteria can be used to determine the class placement of all workers, regardless of race/ethnicity in a capitalist society. Wright identified four classes: (1) the capitalist class—this class holds most of the wealth and power in society through ownership of capital—banks, corporations, factories, etc. The “ruling elites” or “ruling class,” within this category hold political power and are often elected or appointed to influential political positions. The capitalist class is composed of individuals who have inherited fortunes, own major corporations, or are top corporate executives with extensive stock holdings of control of company investments. The major sources of income for the capitalist class are profits, interest, and very high salaries. Members of this class make important decisions about the workplace, including which products and services to make available to consumers and how many workers to hire or fire. (2) the managerial class—people in this class have substantial control over the means of production and over workers. However, these upper-level managers, supervisors, and professionals typically do not participate in key corporate decisions such as how to invest profits. Top professional may control the structure of their own work; however, they typically do not own the means of production and may not have supervisory authority over more than a few people. Members of the managerial class occupy a contradictory class location between the capitalist and working classes. (3) the small-business class—consists of small-business owners and craftspeople that may hire a small number of employees but largely do their own work. It is the small-business class that we find many people’s hopes of achieving the American Dream. Recent economic trends, including corporate downsizing, telecommuting, and the movement of jobs to other countries, have encouraged more people to think about starting their own business. As a result, more people today are self-employed or own a small business than at any time in the past. (4) the working class – is made up of a number of subgroups, one of which is blue-collar workers, some of whom are highly skilled and well paid and others of whom are unskilled and poorly paid. Skilled blue-collar workers include electricians and plumbers; unskilled blue-collar workers include janitors and gardeners. White-collar workers are another subgroup of the working class; they include secretaries, other clerical workers, and sales workers. These workers are at the bottom of the class structure in terms of domination and control in the workplace. The working class contains about half of all employees in the United States. 8. Describe consequences of inequality in relation to physical and mental health and nutrition. Answer: People who are wealthy and well educated and who have high-paying jobs are much more likely to be healthy than are poor people. As people’s economic status increases, so does their health status. The poor have shorter life expectancies and are at greater risk for chronic illnesses such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer, as well as infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. Children born into poor families are at much greater risk of dying during their first year of life. Most of the poor do not receive preventive medical and dental check-ups; many do not receive adequate medical care after they experience illness or injury. Many high-poverty areas lack an adequate supply of doctors and medical facilities. Some “charity” clinics and hospitals may provide indigent patients (those who cannot pay) with minimal emergency care but make them feel stigmatized in the process. For many of the working poor, medical insurance is out of the question. Approximately 45.8 million people in the United States were without health insurance coverage in 2004. Many lower-paying jobs are often the most dangerous and have the greatest health hazards. Analysts suggest that people with higher income and wealth tend to smoke less, exercise more, maintain a healthy body weight, and eat nutritious meals. As a category, more-affluent persons tend to be less depressed and face less psychological stress, conditions that tend to be directly proportional to income, education, and job status. Good health is basic to good life chances; in turn, adequate nutrition is essential for good health. Hunger is related to class position and income inequality. Between 33 and 50 percent of all children living in poverty consume significantly less than the federally recommended guidelines for caloric and nutritional intake. Lack of adequate nutrition has been linked to children’s problems in school. 9. Discuss consequences of inequality in relation to housing. Answer: Homelessness is a major problem in the United States. The lack of affordable housing is a pressing concern for many low-income individuals and families. With the economic prosperity of the 1990s, low-cost housing units in many cities were replaced with expensive condominiums and luxury single-family residences for affluent people. As unemployment rose dramatically beginning in 2001, partly due to terrorism and a faltering economy, housing costs remained high compared to many families’ ability to pay for food, shelter, clothing, and other necessities. Another concern is substandard housing, which refers to facilities that have inadequate heating, air conditioning, plumbing, electricity, or structural durability. Structural problems, due to faulty construction or lack of adequate maintenance, exacerbate the potential for other problems such as damage from fire, falling objects, or floors and stairways collapsing 10. In relation to consequences of inequality in education, compare functionalist and conflict perspectives. Answer: Educational opportunities and life chances are directly linked. Some functionalist theorists view education as the “elevator” to social mobility. Improvements in the educational achievement levels (measured in number of years school completed) of the poor, people of colour, and white women have been cited as evidence that students’ abilities are now more important than their class, race, or gender. From this perspective, inequality in education is declining and students have an opportunity to achieve upward mobility through achievements at school. Functionalists generally see the education system as flexible, allowing most students the opportunity to attend college if they apply themselves. In contrast, most conflict theorists stress that schools are agencies for reproducing the capitalist class system and perpetuating inequality in society. From this perspective, education perpetuates poverty. Parents with limited income are not able to provide the same educational opportunities for their children as are families with greater financial resources. Today, great disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources. Because funding for education primarily comes from local property taxes, school district in suburban areas generally pay higher teachers’ salaries, have newer buildings, and provide state-of-the-art equipment. By contrast, schools in poorer areas have a limited funding base. 11. Define the official poverty line and differentiate between absolute poverty and relative poverty. Answer: The U.S. Social Security Administration has established an official poverty line, which is based on what is considered to be the minimum amount of money required for living at a subsistence level. The poverty line is computed by determining the cost of a minimally nutritious diet (a low-cost food budget on which a family could survive nutritionally on a short-term, emergency basis) and multiplying this figure by three to allow for non-foods costs. In 2004, 37 million people lived below the official government poverty level of $19,484 for a family of 4. Absolute poverty exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. Absolute poverty often has life-threatening consequences, such as when a homeless person freezes to death on a park bench. By comparison, relative poverty exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living. 12. Discuss the changes in the minimum wage and the debate concerning whether or not our laws should guarantee people a living wage. Answer: Although the federal government has raised its minimum wage the low hourly wage paid by many employers combined with the high wages and compensation packages given to many chief executive officers lead to one of the major causes of social inequality in the U.S. In July of 2007 the minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and the rate will rise to $6.55 per hour in July of 2008 and $7.25 per hour in July of 2009. Although this will be an increase it still means that a person working forty fours a week, fifty-two weeks a year, would still earn approximately $15,000 per year which is an amount just slightly above the official poverty line. To deal with this, and to make the American Dream more attainable, some argue for the elimination of the minimum wage toward a minimum living wage. The minimum living wage would be an income, based on a forty-hour week, that would provide the necessities which are essential for an acceptable standard of living in the city or community in which the individual lives. Proponents argue that it is not only more humane but makes good financial sense because it will do such things as lower the amount of money the government must pay for services provided to the poor. Critics say that an increase in the minimum wage or the movement to a minimum living wage will cause inflation, increase the cost of living and increase unemployment. 13. Describe the poor in the United States, referencing age, gender, and race/ethnicity elements. Answer: Poverty in the United States is highly concentrated according to age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Age—today, children are at a much greater risk of living in poverty than are older persons. The age category most vulnerable to poverty today, is the very young. One out of every three persons below the poverty line is under 18 years of age. The precarious position of African American and Latino/a children is even more striking. In 2004, about 33.6 percent of all African Americans under the age of 18 lived in poverty; 28.9 percent of Latino/a children were also poor, as compared with 10.5 percent of non-Latino/a white children. Children as a group are poorer now than they were at the beginning of the 1980s, whether they live in one- or two-parent families. The majority live in two-parent families in which one or both parents are employed. However, children in single-parent households headed by women have a much greater likelihood of living in poverty. In 2004, approximately 29 percent of white (non-Latino/a) children under age 18 in female-headed households lived below the poverty line, as sharply contrasted with about 50 percent of Latino/a and 49 percent of African American children in the same category. Gender—about two-thirds of all adults living in poverty are women. In 2004, single-parent families headed by women had a 35 percent poverty rate as compared with a 10 percent rate for two-parent families. Sociologist Diana Pearce coined a term to describe this problem. The feminization of poverty refers to the trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty. According to Pearce, women have a higher risk of being poor because they bear the major economic and emotional burdens of raising children when they are single heads of households but earn between 70 and 80 cents for every dollar a male worker earns. Race/ethnicity—according to some stereotypes, most of the poor and virtually all welfare recipients are people of colour. However, this stereotype is false; white Americans (non-Latinos/as) account for approximately two-thirds of those below the official poverty line. Native Americans are among the most severely disadvantaged persons in the United States. About one-third are below the poverty line, and some of these individuals live in conditions of extreme poverty. 14. Distinguish between functionalist perspectives and conflict perspectives in regards to explaining social inequality in the U.S. Answer: According to sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore, inequality is not only inevitable but also necessary for the smooth functioning of society. The Davis-Moore thesis is summarized as follows: (1) all societies have important tasks that must be accomplished and certain positions that must be filled, (2) some positions are more important for the survival of society than others, (3) the most important positions must be filled by the most qualified people, (4) the positions that are the most important for society and that require scarce talent, extensive training, or both, must be the most highly rewarded, and (5) the most highly rewarded positions should be those that are functionally unique (no other position can perform the same function) and on which other positions rely for expertise, direction, or financing. The Davis-Moore thesis assumes that social stratification results in meritocracy—a hierarchy in which all positions are rewarded based on people’s ability and credentials. From a conflict perspective, people with economic and political power are able to shape and distribute the rewards, resources, privileges, and opportunities in society for their own benefit. Conflict theorists do not believe that inequality serves as a motivating force for people; they argue that powerful individuals and groups use ideology to maintain their favoured positions at the expense of others. According to conflict theorists, certain stereotypes suggest that wealthy people might be smarter than others. Conflict theorists also note that laws and informal social norms support inequality in the United States. According to conflict theorists the reason inequality is growing in the United States partially lies in the concept of surplus value—the value produced, or the profit created when the cost of labor is less than the cost of the goods or services that are produced by the workers. Thus, surplus value is created by the workers’ labor power, which is bought and employed by members of the capitalist and managerial classes, who work on behalf of the capitalist class. When profits are made, they are either reinvested in the business or used for the enrichment of members of the capitalist class, which includes wealthy shareholders. 15. Discuss U. S. stratification in the future. Answer: Many social scientists believe that existing trends point to an increase in social inequality in the United States. (1) the purchasing power of the dollar has stagnated or declined since the early 1970s. As families started to lose ground financially, more family members (especially women) entered the labor force in an attempt to support themselves and their families. (2) wealth continues to become more concentrated at the top of the U.S. class structure. As the rich have grown richer, many people have found themselves among the ranks of the poor. (3) federal tax laws in recent years have benefited corporations and wealthy families at the expense of middle- and lower-income families. (4) structural sources of upward mobility are shrinking whereas the rate of downward mobility has increased. It has been said that a chain is no stronger than its weakest link. It is to our advantage to see that those who cannot find work or do not have a job that provides a living wage receive adequate training and employment. Innovative programs can combine job training with producing something useful to meet the immediate needs of people living in poverty. Children of today, (the adults of tomorrow) need nutrition, education, health care, and safety as they grown up. Some social scientists believe that the United States will become a better nation if it attempts to regain the American Dream by attacking poverty. ESSAY SECTION 1. Summarize global systems of stratification. Answer: Global systems of stratification refer to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in societies around the world, based on various forms of social inequality. These systems categorize people into different strata or layers, influencing their access to resources, opportunities, and privileges. Major types of global stratification systems include: 1. Slavery: The most extreme form of stratification where individuals are owned by others as property. Though illegal in most countries, modern forms of slavery, such as human trafficking and forced labor, still exist. 2. Caste System: A rigid and hereditary system where social status is ascribed at birth and individuals are expected to marry within their caste. Prominent in India, the caste system divides people into hierarchical groups based on occupation and family lineage. 3. Estate System: Also known as feudalism, this system was prevalent in medieval Europe, where society was divided into three estates: the nobility, the clergy, and the commoners. Social mobility was limited, with the majority of wealth and power concentrated in the hands of the nobility. 4. Class System: A more fluid system based on economic position, where social mobility is possible. In capitalist societies, classes are primarily determined by the ownership and control of resources, with major classes including the upper class, middle class, and working class. 5. Global Inequality: Refers to the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities between countries. This can be observed in disparities in income, health, education, and living standards, often dividing the world into wealthy, developed nations and poorer, developing ones. 2. Outline sociologist Karl Marx’s theory on the relationship to the means of production and apply the theory to contemporary America. Answer: Karl Marx’s Theory: Karl Marx's theory of social stratification centres on the relationship to the means of production, which includes the resources and tools used to produce goods and services. According to Marx, society is divided into two main classes: 1. Bourgeoisie (Capitalists): The owners of the means of production. They control the factories, land, and resources, and exploit the labor of the working class to generate profit. 2. Proletariat (Workers): Those who do not own the means of production and must sell their labor to the bourgeoisie in exchange for wages. Marx argued that the relationship between these two classes is inherently exploitative, as the bourgeoisie extracts surplus value from the labor of the proletariat. This creates class conflict, which Marx believed would ultimately lead to the overthrow of the capitalist system and the establishment of a classless, communist society. Application to Contemporary America: In contemporary America, Marx’s theory can be observed through the growing economic inequality and the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small elite. The following points illustrate this application: 1. Wealth Inequality: A small percentage of the population controls a significant portion of the nation's wealth, with billionaires and large corporations exerting considerable influence over the economy and politics. 2. Corporate Control: Large corporations dominate key industries, and their owners and executives (the modern bourgeoisie) accumulate substantial profits, often at the expense of workers’ wages and job security. 3. Labor Exploitation: Many workers (the modern proletariat) face stagnant wages, precarious employment, and poor working conditions, highlighting the ongoing exploitation within the capitalist system. 4. Class Conflict: Social movements advocating for higher minimum wages, better working conditions, and economic justice reflect the underlying class conflict between workers and the capitalist class. 3. Olin Wright has written on Marx’s view of social stratification. Discuss his criticisms of Marx. List and briefly define/explain his (i.e., Wright’s) model of stratification. Answer: Olin Wright’s Criticisms of Marx: Erik Olin Wright, a prominent sociologist, critiqued and expanded upon Marx's theory of social stratification. Wright acknowledged the relevance of Marx's analysis but argued that it needed to be updated to reflect contemporary complexities. His main criticisms include: 1. Simplistic Dichotomy: Wright argued that Marx's binary classification of society into the bourgeoisie and proletariat is too simplistic and does not account for the diverse and complex nature of modern class structures. 2. New Class Locations: He emphasized the existence of intermediary classes and contradictory class locations, such as managers and professionals, who do not fit neatly into Marx’s categories. Wright’s Model of Stratification: Wright developed a more nuanced model that incorporates various dimensions of control over economic resources. His model includes: 1. Ownership of the Means of Production: Individuals who own productive assets, such as factories and businesses. 2. Control Over Investments: Individuals who have significant control over financial resources and capital allocation. 3. Control Over the Labor Process: Managers and supervisors who have authority over the work of others and influence the production process. 4. Skills and Expertise: Professionals and technical workers who possess specialized knowledge and skills that are highly valued in the labor market. Wright’s model recognizes the complexity of modern class structures and acknowledges the existence of multiple forms of control and influence within the capitalist system. 4. Recently you were walking along the beach and found a bottle. You rubbed the bottle and a genie appeared. The genie could grant you any one of the following elements: wealth, power, or prestige. Answer: If given the choice between wealth, power, or prestige, I would choose power. The rationale for this choice is based on the understanding that power, defined as the ability to influence or control the behavior of others and shape outcomes, can facilitate the acquisition and effective use of both wealth and prestige. • Wealth: While wealth provides financial resources, its impact is limited if one lacks the power to influence decisions and enact change. Power enables access to and control over economic opportunities and resources. • Prestige: Prestige brings social respect and admiration, but without power, it can be superficial and ephemeral. Power can enhance and sustain prestige by enabling one to achieve significant accomplishments and impact. By choosing power, I would have the capacity to address systemic issues, drive meaningful social change, and create opportunities for myself and others. Power can be leveraged to acquire wealth and prestige, while also promoting justice, equity, and positive societal transformation. 5. Utilizing sociologists Dennis Gilbert’s and Joseph Kahl’s model of the United States class system, locate where your parents are on the ladder, and where expect to be when you are their age. Answer: Dennis Gilbert’s and Joseph Kahl’s Model: Gilbert and Kahl's model of the U.S. class system categorizes society into six classes based on income, education, occupation, and lifestyle. The classes are: 1. Upper Class: Wealthy individuals with high social status, often including top executives and heirs. 2. Upper-Middle Class: Professionals and managers with significant income and education. 3. Middle Class: White-collar workers and skilled blue-collar workers with moderate income and education. 4. Working Class: Blue-collar workers and service industry workers with lower income and less education. 5. Working Poor: Individuals with low-paying, unskilled jobs and minimal job security. 6. Underclass: Unemployed or underemployed individuals living in poverty. Parents’ Position: Assuming my parents belong to the middle class due to their white-collar jobs, moderate income, and college education, they likely enjoy a stable, comfortable lifestyle but are not considered wealthy. My Expected Position: When I reach their age, I aspire to be in the upper-middle class. By pursuing higher education, professional development, and career advancement, I aim to secure a well-paying job with significant responsibilities, leading to higher income and social status compared to my parents. This ambition is driven by the desire for financial stability, the ability to provide for my family, and the opportunity to make a positive impact through my work and community involvement. 6. In relation to consequences of inequality, discuss how your family’s social class influenced the following areas of your life when growing up: physical health, housing, education, religion, and politics. Answer: Physical Health: Growing up in a middle-class family provided access to quality healthcare and a healthy lifestyle. My parents could afford regular medical check-ups, dental care, and a nutritious diet, contributing to better overall health and well-being. Housing: Middle-class status afforded us a comfortable and safe living environment. We lived in a well-maintained neighbourhood with access to amenities such as parks, recreational facilities, and good schools, which fostered a stable and secure upbringing. Education: Our social class played a significant role in my educational opportunities. I attended well-funded public schools with experienced teachers and ample resources. My parents could afford extracurricular activities and tutoring when needed, further enhancing my academic success. Religion: Our middle-class background influenced our religious involvement. We attended a well-established church with a strong community presence. The church provided not only spiritual guidance but also social support and community engagement opportunities, reinforcing our values and social networks. Politics: Growing up in a middle-class family shaped my political views and engagement. My parents' stable employment and financial security allowed them to be informed and active in political discussions and activities. This exposure instilled in me an understanding of the importance of civic participation and awareness of social and economic issues. 7. You have recently been appointed to the United States Commission Against Poverty. Discuss what specific reforms and strategies (assume that you have a blank check at your disposal) you would attempt to implement in order to reduce or alleviate poverty in America. Answer: As a member of the United States Commission Against Poverty, my strategies would focus on addressing the root causes of poverty, ensuring access to essential services, and promoting economic opportunities: 1. Universal Basic Income (UBI): Implement a UBI program to provide all citizens with a guaranteed minimum income, ensuring that everyone can meet their basic needs and reduce financial insecurity. 2. Affordable Housing: Invest in affordable housing projects to increase the availability of quality, low-cost housing options. Provide rental assistance and support homeownership programs for low-income families. 3. Healthcare Access: Expand access to affordable healthcare through a universal healthcare system. Ensure that all individuals have access to essential medical services, including preventive care, mental health services, and prescription medications. 4. Education and Job Training: Increase funding for public education, particularly in underserved areas. Provide free or subsidized higher education and vocational training programs to equip individuals with the skills needed for well-paying jobs. 5. Childcare and Early Education: Invest in affordable, high-quality childcare and early childhood education programs to support working parents and promote the healthy development of children. 6. Nutrition and Food Security: Expand food assistance programs, such as SNAP and school meal programs, to ensure that all individuals have access to nutritious food. Support community gardens and local food initiatives to address food deserts. 7. Economic Development: Promote job creation through investments in infrastructure, green energy, and small businesses. Provide tax incentives and support for businesses that create jobs in economically disadvantaged areas. 8. Social Safety Nets: Strengthen social safety nets, including unemployment benefits, disability assistance, and social security, to provide a robust support system for those facing financial hardships. 9. Criminal Justice Reform: Address the economic impact of mass incarceration by implementing criminal justice reforms, such as reducing mandatory minimum sentences and providing re-entry programs to support formerly incarcerated individuals. 8. Discuss the issue of what keeps the American Dream alive. What can be done to reduce the structural barriers to achieving that dream. Answer: Keeping the American Dream Alive: The American Dream persists due to the enduring belief in upward mobility, hard work, and equal opportunity. The promise that anyone, regardless of background, can achieve success through dedication and effort remains a powerful motivator for many. Reducing Structural Barriers: 1. Economic Inequality: Address income and wealth disparities through progressive taxation, raising the minimum wage, and ensuring fair labor practices. Implement policies that promote equitable distribution of wealth and resources. 2. Education Access: Provide equal access to quality education by funding public schools equitably, offering free or affordable higher education, and supporting lifelong learning opportunities. 3. Healthcare Access: Ensure that all individuals have access to affordable healthcare, removing financial barriers to medical care and promoting overall health and well-being. 4. Housing Affordability: Increase the availability of affordable housing and provide support for homeownership, particularly for low- and middle-income families. 5. Job Opportunities: Promote job creation and economic development in underserved areas. Support small businesses and entrepreneurship through grants, loans, and technical assistance. 6. Anti-Discrimination Policies: Enforce and strengthen anti-discrimination laws to ensure equal opportunities in employment, education, and housing, regardless of race, gender, or other characteristics. 7. Criminal Justice Reform: Implement reforms to reduce mass incarceration, provide fair sentencing, and support re-entry programs to help formerly incarcerated individuals reintegrate into society. 9. The President of the United States has declared that America will be a “classless society.” In an attempt to implement this idea, the President has arranged to redistribute all of the wealth and divide it equally across the board. Answer: Challenges and Considerations: 1. Economic Disruption: Sudden wealth redistribution could disrupt the economy, affecting markets, businesses, and investments. It could lead to uncertainty and potential economic instability. 2. Motivation and Incentives: Equal wealth distribution might reduce the motivation for innovation, hard work, and entrepreneurship if individuals perceive that their efforts will not lead to personal economic rewards. 3. Implementation Logistics: The logistics of redistributing wealth fairly and equitably are complex. Determining how to value and redistribute assets, property, and investments would be a significant challenge. Potential Benefits: 1. Reduced Inequality: Wealth redistribution could significantly reduce economic inequality, providing everyone with a more equal starting point and access to opportunities. 2. Increased Social Mobility: With equal access to resources, individuals would have greater opportunities to pursue education, start businesses, and achieve economic success. 3. Improved Quality of Life: Access to basic needs such as housing, healthcare, and education would improve overall quality of life and reduce poverty. Long-term Strategies: 1. Progressive Policies: Instead of a one-time wealth redistribution, implementing progressive policies that ensure fair taxation, access to essential services, and opportunities for all can create a more equitable society. 2. Education and Training: Investing in education and job training programs can empower individuals to improve their economic status and contribute to a more equitable society. 3. Social Safety Nets: Strengthening social safety nets, such as unemployment benefits, healthcare, and housing assistance, can provide a safety net for those in need and reduce economic disparities. 10. Discuss the steps to revitalize the American Dream and to reverse the compassion gap. Discuss the major aspects of the functional, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives as they relate to social stratification. What do you think are each of its merits? What criticisms of each would you make? Answer: Revitalizing the American Dream: 1. Economic Policies: Implement progressive taxation, raise the minimum wage, and ensure fair labor practices to reduce income inequality and provide economic stability. 2. Education Access: Ensure equal access to quality education, including affordable higher education and vocational training, to equip individuals with the skills needed for success. 3. Healthcare Access: Provide universal healthcare to ensure that all individuals have access to necessary medical services, reducing financial barriers to health and well-being. 4. Affordable Housing: Increase the availability of affordable housing and support homeownership for low- and middle-income families. 5. Job Creation: Promote job creation and economic development, particularly in underserved areas, to provide opportunities for upward mobility. Reversing the Compassion Gap: 1. Social Awareness: Promote awareness and understanding of social issues through education and media to foster empathy and compassion. 2. Community Engagement: Encourage community involvement and volunteerism to build strong social networks and support systems. 3. Policy Advocacy: Advocate for policies that address social inequalities and provide support for vulnerable populations. Functionalist Perspective: • Merits: Emphasizes the importance of social stability and cohesion. Highlights how different parts of society contribute to overall functioning and how social stratification can motivate individuals to fulfil essential roles. • Criticisms: Tends to justify social inequality as necessary for societal stability. May overlook the negative impacts of inequality on marginalized groups and fail to address systemic issues. Conflict Perspective: • Merits: Focuses on power dynamics and the role of economic inequality in creating and perpetuating social stratification. Highlights the ways in which dominant groups exploit and oppress others. • Criticisms: May overemphasize conflict and neglect the potential for cooperation and social cohesion. Can be seen as overly deterministic and may not account for individual agency. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: • Merits: Provides insight into how individuals experience and interpret social stratification. Highlights the importance of social interactions and perceptions in shaping social reality. • Criticisms: May lack a macro-level analysis of structural factors contributing to social stratification. Can be seen as focusing too much on micro-level interactions without addressing broader systemic issues. By integrating the strengths of each perspective and addressing their limitations, we can develop a more comprehensive understanding of social stratification and work towards creating a more equitable society. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154