CH-7-8 Ethnicities – The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 8 Ethnicities 7 Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 7.1.1: Introduce the principal ethnicities in the United States. Learning Outcome 7.1.2: Clarify differences between ethnicity and race. Learning Outcome 7.1.3: Describe the regional distribution of major U.S. ethnicities. Learning Outcome 7.1.4: Describe the distribution of ethnicities within urban areas. Learning Outcome 7.1.5: Describe the distribution of ethnicities within urban areas. Learning Outcome 7.2.1: Describe forced migration from Africa. Learning Outcome 7.2.2: Describe the patterns of migration of African American within the United States. Learning Outcome 7.2.3: Explain the laws once used to segregate races in the United States and South Africa. Learning Outcome 7.3.1: Understand differences between ethnicities and nationalities. Learning Outcome 7.3.2: Describe how ethnicities can be divided among more than one nationality. Learning Outcome 7.3.3: Identify and describe the principal ethnicities in western areas of Asia. Learning Outcome 7.4.1: Describe the process of ethnic cleansing. Learning Outcome 7.4.2: Explain the concept of ethnic cleansing in Bosnia & Herzegovina. Learning Outcome 7.4.3: Explain the concept of ethnic cleansing in the Balkans. Learning Outcome 7.4.4: Identify the principal recent episodes of genocide in Africa. Learning Outcome 7.4.5: Identify the principal recent episodes of genocide in Central Africa. Chapter Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are Ethnicities Distributed? The meaning of ethnicity is often confused with the definition of race and nationality. Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth. Ethnicity is often confused with race, which is identity with a group who are perceived to share a physiological trait, such as skin color. The traits that characterize race are those that can be transmitted genetically from parents to children. Nationality is identity with a group of people who share legal attachment to a particular country. Introducing Ethnicities Ethnicity is a crucial cultural element of local diversity because our ethnic identity is unchangeable. Ethnicity may be complex: our parents come from two ethnic groups or our grandparents from four. Geographers are interested in the distribution of ethnicities. The significance of ethnic diversity is controversial in the United States: • To what extent does discrimination persist against minority ethnicities, especially African Americans and Hispanics? • Should preferences be given to minority ethnicities to correct past patterns of discrimination? • To what extent should the distinct cultural identity of ethnicities be encouraged or protected? Ethnicity is especially of interest to geographers due to its position as an anchor for the preservation of local diversity in the face of globalization trends in culture and economy. While language and religion are expanding globalizing forces, ethnicity is not attempting to achieve global dominance. Despite this, ethnicities compete with one another to control particular places. Ethnicities in the United States The three ethnicities with the largest number of people are Hispanic American, African American, and Asian American. Hispanic Americans comprise 17 percent of the American population, while African Americans and Asian Americans make up 12 percent and 5 percent, respectively. American Indians, Native Hawaiians, and Alaskan Natives encompass 2 percent of the U.S. population. Hispanic Americans A Hispanic or Hispanic American is a person who has migrated to (or whose ancestors have migrated) to the United States from a Spanish-speaking country in Latin America. The terms Latino (for males) and Latina (for females) are used interchangeably with Hispanic. Rather than using the terms Hispanic, Latino, or Latina, most Americans of Latin American descent prefer to identify with a more specific ethnicity or national origin. Nearly two-thirds of Hispanic Americans come from Mexico, and one-quarter from the Caribbean islands. Asian Americans The term Asian American includes Americans who trace their heritage to various countries in Asia. Only 19 percent of Asian Americans identify with the Asian American ethnicity, while 62 percent prefer to identify with their ethnicity as the country of origin of themselves of their ancestors. African Americans The precise ethnic origins of African Americans are relatively unclear. 300 years ago, some Africans were forcibly taken from lands in Africa that were not yet organized into sovereign countries, and records of the ethnic origin of those taken as slaves were not kept. DNA testing has narrowed down the ethnic heritage of most African Americans to three areas in West Africa (present-day Senegal, Mali, Gambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia; Southern Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria and southeastern Cȏte d’Ivoire; and Western Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola). Descendants of Indigenous Peoples Three principal ethnic identities are used to group people who lived in North America prior to European colonization: Native American, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian. The indigenous ethnic identities with the largest numbers are Native Hawaiians, Cherokee, Navajo, Chippewa, Sioux, and Choctaw. However, the largest numbers of Native Americans cannot be encapsulated in a group. Canada’s aboriginals are grouped into three main ethnic identities: First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. Ethnicity and Race Racial features were once conceptualized to be scientifically classifiable into a few groups. The biological basis of classifying humans into a handful of races is now categorically rejected by contemporary geographers and other scientists. These biological features are so highly variable among members of a race that any prejudged categorization is totally insignificant. The color of skin is of interest to geographers because it is one characteristic by which people in many societies determine where they reside, attend school, spend their leisure time, and perform many other activities of daily life. Classification by race is the basis for racism, which is the belief that race is the primary determent of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. A racist is a person who subscribes to the beliefs of racism. Race and Ethnicity in the United States The U.S. census shows difficulty in distinguishing between ethnicity and race. Most census categories relate to ethnicity, such as Japanese or Asian Indian, because they derive from places. However, the census also offers three race-related categories—black, white, and other race. African American is an ethnicity and black is a race, though the 2010 census combines the two. Most black Americans are descended from African immigrants, but there are some black Americans that trace their cultural heritage to regions other than Africa. Distribution of U.S. Ethnicities Clustering of ethnicities can occur on two scales within a country. Ethnic groups may reside in specific regions within the country or a state at the regional scale. At the local scale, ethnic groups may reside in specific communities within urban areas. At the regional scale in the United States, ethnicities have distinctive distributions. Hispanics are clustered in the Southwest, while African Americans are clustered in the Southeast. Asian Americans are clustered in the West (including Hawaii), and Native Americans are clustered in the southwest, north-central regions of the continental U.S., and Alaska. Ethnic Enclaves A location with a high concentration of an ethnic group that is distinct from those in the surrounding area is known as an ethnic enclave. Most ethnic enclaves are neighborhoods in large cities. Ethnic enclaves generally form through migration. Cultural features, such as language, religions, and art help define ethnicities and inform the places characteristic of these ethnicities. The geographic concept of chain migration is used to conceptualize the formation of ethnic enclaves, whereby new migrants are offered economic support that may not be as easily accessible as in other areas. Urban Ethnic Enclaves The clustering of ethnicities is notably apparent at the local, neighborhood scale. In major metropolises across the world, specific ethnicities primarily reside in distinct neighborhoods. In Paris, the Goutte d’Or neighborhood is emblematic of an ethnic enclave, with immigrants from former African colonies occupying the area. In London, South Asia Indians have clustered in the west, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis have clustered in the northeast, African blacks in the east, and Caribbean blacks in the north and south. In the United States, the City of Chicago is illustrative of the variety of ethnic enclaves that may be present in an urban area, with whites clustered on the North Side, African Americans on the South and West sides, and Hispanics on the Northwest and Southwest sides. Changing Urban Ethnic Enclaves The areas inhabited by ethnicities have shifted over time. In the early to mid-twentieth century, emigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe traveled to Midwestern U.S. cities to find work in the expanding industrial base. Neighborhoods took names based on the predominant ethnicity present in the area, such as Chicago’s Ukrainian Village. By the late twentieth century, many children and grandchildren of these immigrants moved from urban enclaves to suburbs, sometimes forming ethnoburbs. An ethnoburb is a suburban area with a cluster of a specific ethnic population. Ethnically Complex Brazil Brazil struggles with characterizing its population by race or ethnicity. Brazil is a “melting pot” like the United States, with the ancestors of the current population emigrating from many places. The majority of immigrants came to Brazil from Portugal and West Africa, but European countries, Japan, Southwest Asia and others are also places of origin. Many indigenous people in Brazil make up their vibrant diversity, also. Brazil’s Races and Ethnicities Brazil’s census categorizes people based on skin color. Five races are available as options on the census: branco (white), pardo (brown), preto (black), amarelo (yellow), and indigenous. More than 90 percent of the country’s population are brancos and pardos. Many Brazilians, however, do not self-identify using this classification scheme. According to genetic surveys, approximately 70 percent of Brazilians have predominantly Europeans ancestry, 20 percent predominantly African, and 10 percent predominantly Native American. Despite this breakdown, most Brazilians have a mixed of backgrounds. Clustering of Races in Brazil Distinct regional variation can be seen in the distribution of races in Brazil. Whites are predominantly clustered in the south. In Brazil’s interior north, with the Amazon tropical rain forest as a backdrop, indigenous people mostly make up the population, categorized by the Brazilian census as brown. In the northeast along Brazil’s coast, people classified as brown also are the majority race. The largest number of Blacks forced to migrate to Brazil from Africa in the slave trade also inhabit the northeast. The west-central region of Brazil is occupied by a mix of white- and brown classified populations. Distribution of Ethnicities in Guyana Despite its relatively small population of 800,000, the country of Guyana reflects the stark geographic division of ethnicities. Approximately 30 percent of the population are descended from Africans brought to the area as slaves in the seventeenth century, when it was colonized by the Dutch. Roughly 43 percent are descended from indentured servants brought to the country from India in the nineteenth century when it was a British colony. 9 percent of the population is of indigenous descent, and 17 percent is comprised by those of mixed ethnicity. East Indians are clustered along the coast, black and mixed black populations are clustered in the interior north, and the far west is occupied by indigenous peoples. Key Issue 2: Why Do Ethnicities Have Distinctive Distributions? International Migration of Ethnicities Most African Americans are descended from Africans compelled to migrate to the Western Hemisphere as slaves in the eighteenth century. In contrast to this forced migration, most Asian Americans and Hispanics are descended from voluntary immigrants to the United States during the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries (excluding those who felt they were forced to emigrate from their homelands, such as Vietnamese and Cubans that came to the United States). Forced Migration from Africa During the eighteenth century, the British shipped about 400,000 Africans to the 13 colonies that later formed the United States. In 1808, the United States banned bringing in additional Africans as slaves, but 250,000 were illegally imported during the next half-century. The forced migration began when people living along the east and west coasts of Africa, taking advantage of superior weapons, captured members of other groups living farther inland and sold the captives to the Europeans. Many European ships transported slaves from Africa to the Caribbean islands, molasses from the Caribbean to Europe, and trade goods from Europe to Africa—this was known as the triangular slave trade. Voluntary Migration from Latin America and Asia Quota laws limited the number of people who could immigrate to the United States from Latin America and Asia. After the immigration laws were changed during the 1960s and the 1970s, the population of Hispanic and Asian Americans in the United States increased rapidly. The rapid growth of Hispanics in the United States beginning in the 1970s was fueled primarily by immigration from Mexico and Puerto Rico. Chinese comprised the largest group of Asian Americans, followed by Indians, Filipinos, Koreans, and Vietnamese. Internal Migration of African Americans In the twentieth century, African Americans exhibited two distinctive migration patterns within the United States. In the first half of the twentieth century, interregional migration from the U.S. South to northern urban areas was undertaken. In the second half of the twentieth century, African Americans migrated interregionally from inner-city ghettos to outer-city and inner suburban neighborhoods. Interregional Migration At the close of the Civil War, most African Americans were concentrated in the rural South working as sharecroppers. A sharecropper works fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops. Sharecropping became less common in the twentieth century, as the introduction of farm machinery and a decline in land devoted to cotton reduced the demand for labor. At the same time sharecroppers were being pushed off the farms, they were being pulled by the prospect of jobs booming in industrial cities in the North and West. Southern African Americans migrated north and west in two main waves, the first in 1910s and 1920s before and after World War I, and the second in the 1940s and 1950s before World War II. Intraregional Migration African Americans clustered in one or two neighborhoods in big cities. These neighborhoods became known as ghettos, after the term for neighborhoods in which Jews were forced to live in the Middle Ages. Expansion of the Ghetto During the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans moved from the compact ghettoes into immediately adjacent neighborhoods, following major avenues that radiated out from the center of the city. In Baltimore, for example, the west-side African American ghetto expanded from 1 square mile in 1950 to 10 square miles by 1970, along with a 2-square-mile area on the east-side becoming a predominantly African American-inhabited area. “White Flight” The expansion of black neighborhoods in American cities was made possible by the emigration of whites from a neighborhood in anticipation of blacks immigrating into the area. Rather than integrate, whites fled. “White Flight” was encouraged by unscrupulous real estate practices. Under blockbusting, real estate agents convinced white homeowners living near a black area to sell their houses at low prices, preying on their fears that black families would soon move into the neighborhood and cause property values to decline. Segregation by Race The intense discouragement of spatial interaction through legal means, known as segregation, colors a stretch of troubled history in the United States and South Africa. While these segregation laws are no longer on the books in the United States and South Africa, their legacy endures as a feature of the geography of ethnicity in both countries. United States: “Separate but Equal” In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court stated that blacks and whites should be treated equally, but equality does not mean that whites had to mix socially with blacks. Once the Supreme Court permitted “separate but equal” treatment of the races, Southern states enacted a set of laws to separate blacks from whites as much as possible. These “Jim Crow” laws made blacks sit in the back of buses and restaurants. Throughout the country, house deeds contained restrictive covenants that prevented owners from selling to blacks. Schools were also segregated. U.S. segregation laws were eliminated in the 1950s and 1960s through the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas in 1954. The Civil Rights Acts during the 1960s outlawed racial discrimination, as well. Despite these efforts, cities are still subject to racial segregation. South Africa: Apartheid While the United States was repealing laws that segregated people by race, South Africa was enacting them. Apartheid is a legal system that separates different races into different geographic areas. In South Africa, a newborn baby was classified as being one of four races—black, white, colored (mixed white and black), and Asian. Each four races had different legal status. The apartheid laws determined where different races could live, attend school, work, shop, and own land. Blacks could not vote or run for political office. The apartheid laws were repealed in 1991. In 1994, Nelson Mandela was elected the country’s first black president. Key Issue 3: Why Might Ethnicities Face Conflicts? Ethnicities and Nationalities Sorting out ethnicity and nationality can be a challenging and complex effort. Ethnicity and Nationality in North America Nationality is typically kept reasonably distinct from ethnicity and race in common usage in the United States. Nationality classifies citizens of the United States, including those born in the country and those who immigrated and became naturalized citizens. Ethnicity identifies groups with distinct ancestry and culture, such as African Americans and Mexican Americans. These distinctions are not as clear and controversial in Canada. Québecois are easily distinguishable from other Canadians vis-à-vis cultural traditions, especially language. However, it can be contested whether Québecois constitute a distinct ethnicity within the Canadian nationality or a second French-speaking nationality separate altogether from English-speaking Canadian. Ethnicity and Nationality in the United Kingdom Distinctions between ethnicity and nationality become confusing in many places. The United Kingdom contains four principle ethnicities and two nationalities. A strong element of ethnic identity in the United Kingdom comes from sports. Even though they are not separate countries, England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland field their own national soccer and rugby teams. They even compete separately in international tournaments, such as the World Cup. Nationalism A nationality must hold the loyalty of its citizens to survive. Nationalism is loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality. States foster nationalism by promoting symbols of the country, such as flags and songs. Nationalism is an example of centripetal force, which is an attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for the state. Most countries find that the best way to achieve citizen support is to emphasize shared attitudes that unify the people. Loyalty to a particular state can be beneficial to the state’s internal governance but can also lead to intolerance of differences. Dividing Ethnicities Few ethnicities occupy an area that reflects the territory of a nationality. Ethnicities are sometimes divided among more than one nationality. Several examples are apparent in Asia. Ethnicities in South Asia When the British ended their colonial rule of the Indian subcontinent in 1947, they divided the country into the two irregularly shaped countries—India and Pakistan. Pakistan comprises two non contiguous areas, West Pakistan and East Pakistan, which are a thousand miles apart, separated by India. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh in 1971. The people living in the two areas of Pakistan were predominantly Muslim; those in India were predominately Hindu. In modern India, with its hundreds of languages and ethnic groups, Hinduism has become the cultural trait shared by the largest percentage of the population. Muslims have long fought with Hindus for control of territory in South Asia. The partition of South Asia into two states resulted in massive migration because the two boundaries did not correspond precisely to the territory inhabited by the two ethnicities. Approximately 17 million people caught on the wrong side of the boundary felt compelled to migrate during the late 1940s. Hindus in Pakistan and Muslims in India were killed by the rival religions. Pakistan and India never agreed on the location of the boundary separating the two countries in the northern region of Kashmir. The religious unrest in India is further complicated by the 23 million Sikhs in the country, who have long resented that they were not ceded their own independent country when India was partitioned. Dividing the Kurds When an ethnic group’s distribution spans a national boundary, conflict can result as the ethnic group on one side may wish to reunify with the group on the other side. The Kurds are an ethnic group whose homeland straddles the border between Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria. The Kurds are Muslims who speak a distinctive language in the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family and have their own literature, dress, and other cultural traditions. Many Kurds would like an independent homeland, but the countries in which they are the minority are unwilling to let go of that territory, and have historically restricted aspects of Kurdish culture. Until 1991, the use of the Kurdish language in Turkey was banned, and is still illegal to use in broadcasts and classrooms across the country. In recent years, the Turkish government has permitted Kurds to practice more of their cultural traditions. Ethnic Diversity in Asia The lack of communication among territories inhabited by ethnicities and by nationalities is particularly prevalent in areas of Southwest Asia and Central Asia. If national boundaries reflected ethnic backgrounds of populations, the map of western Asia would look vastly different. Ethnicities in Turkey Ethnic Turks constitute roughly three-quarters of the population of Turkey. Turks are descended from migrants to present-day Turkey about 1,000 years ago. The most numerous minority is the aforementioned Kurds, making up 18 percent of the population. Ethnic Competition in Lebanon Lebanon is 54 percent Muslim, 41 percent Christian, and 9 percent Druze. Lebanon’s most numerous Christians are Maronites, who consider themselves Roman Catholic. Muslims in Lebanon are about equally split between Sunnis and Shiites. The Druze are sometimes categorized as Muslim, but they do not follow the Five Pillars of Islam and do not self-identify as Muslim. Lebanon’s religious groups have tended to live in different regions of the country. There was a civil war between the two religious groups in 1975 and 1990, with each group forming its own militia to control its territory. Ethnicities in Syria While Syria is 90 percent Arab, this segment of the population is divided among Sunni Muslims, Alawi Muslims, Christians, Druze, and other Muslim denominations. Greek Orthodox and Greek Catholic are the most numerous Christian denominations. The Alawi, led by the Assad family, have held power in Syria since 1970. A civil war has ravaged the country since 2011, fought between the Assad government and its opponents. Ethnicities in Iraq The most abundant ethnicities in Iraq encompass 55 percent Shiite Muslim Arabs, 21 percent Kurds, and 19 percent Sunni Arabs. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq by the United States and the fall of Saddam Hussein, the country has been entangled in a complex and violent struggle among its ethnicities. Ethnicities in Iran The majority of Iranians are Persians, thought to have descended from Indo-European tribes that migrated from Central Asia into what is present-day Iran several thousand years ago. Persians make up the world’s most numerous ethnicity adhering to Shiite Islam. Azeri and Baluchi are other significant ethnicities present in Iran. Ethnicities in Afghanistan Pashtun, Tajik, and Hazara ethnicities are the most abundant in Afghanistan. The current conflicts in Afghanistan stem from a 1979 rebellion by several ethnic groups against the Afghan government. In 1995, a Pashtun faction called the Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, with their governance informed by their fundamentalist interpretation of Islam doctrine. The Taliban was overthrown in 2001 by invading U.S.-led forces, leading to further instability among the country’s ethnicities. Ethnicities in Pakistan The Punjabi have been the most abundant ethnicity of present-day Pakistan for thousands of years. The montane territory separating Pakistan from Afghanistan is predominantly Baluchi and Pashtun. The Punjabi are predominantly Sunni Muslims, while the Pashtun adhere to Shiite Islam. Key Issue 4: Why Do Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide Occur? Ethnic Cleansing occurs when a more powerful group removes all the members of an ethnic group from an area to create more territory for the powerful group. Rather than a clash between armies of male soldiers, ethnic cleansing involves the removal of every member of the less powerful ethnicity—women as well as men, children as well as adults, the frail elderly as well as the strong young. Ethnic cleansing may take the form of large-scale forced migration or genocide, where members of the ethnic group are targeted for extermination. Forced Migration in Europe The largest forced migration occurred during World War II due to events preceding the war, the war itself, and postwar effects. The deportation of millions of Jews, Romani, and other ethnic groups by German Nazis to concentration camps is the most notorious forced migration in history. As a result of national boundary changes following World War II, millions of ethnic Germans, Poles, Russians, and other groups were forced to migrate. Multiethnic Yugoslavia After World War I, the allies created Yugoslavia to unite several Balkans ethnicities that spoke similar South Slavic languages. The President of Yugoslavia, Josep Broz Tito, attempted to forge a national Yugoslav identity through acceptance of ethnic diversity in language and religion. The creation of Yugoslavia brought stability that lasted for most of the twentieth century. Rivalries among the different ethnicities resurfaced after the death of President Tito in 1980, leading to the breakup of the country into seven small countries. The borders of the new countries did not reflect the distribution of ethnicities, leading to several episodes of ethnic cleansing. Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia & Herzegovina Ethnic cleansing generally follows four steps: 1. Move a large amount of military equipment and personnel into a village that has no strategic value. 2. Round up all the people in the village. Segregate men from women, children, and the elderly. Place men in detention camps or kill them. 3. Force the rest of the people to leave the village. March them in a convoy to a place outside the territory being ethnically cleansed. 4. Destroy the vacated village, such as by setting it on fire. Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia When Yugoslavia’s republics were transformed from local government units into five separate countries, ethnicities fought to redefine the boundaries. Ethnic Serbs and Croats practiced ethnic cleansing of Bosniak Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina in hopes of unifying their regions with Serbia and Croatia. Ethnic cleansing ensured that areas did not merely have Serbs and Croats, but were ethnically homogeneous and therefore better candidates for union with Serbia and Croatia. Following the Accords reached in Dayton, Ohio, in 1996 by leaders of the various ethnicities, Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into three regions, one each dominated by the Croats, Serbs, and Bosniaks. Ethnic Cleansing Elsewhere in the Balkans Kosovo and Croatia, also former Yugoslav republics, are locations of recent ethnic cleansings. Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo With the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia took direct control of Kosovo. The Serbs practiced ethnic cleansing in the province of Kosovo, where the large Albanian population was forced to migrate to Albania. At its peak in 1999, Serb ethnic cleansing had forced 750,000 of Kosovo’s two million ethnic Albanian residents from their homes. NATO launched an air attack against Serbia and the Serbs eventually agreed to withdraw from Kosovo. Kosovo became an independent state in 2008. Ethnic Cleansing in Croatia Croat and other non-Serb ethnicities were also victims of ethnic cleansing by Serbs in Croatia. Following its declaration of independence in 1991, Croatia faced internal conflict between the aforementioned ethnic groups after its ethnic Serbs attempted to form an independent republic (Krajina) in eastern Croatia. The Serbs expelled roughly 170,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from the eastern part of Croatia. After a four-year war that resulted in a Croat victory, around 20,000 Serbs were expelled and 180,000 left Croatia voluntarily. Balkanization The term balkanized is used to describe a small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into one or more stable states because it was inhabited by many ethnicities with complex, long-standing antagonisms toward each other. Balkanization is a process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among ethnicities. Balkanization led directly to World War I because the various nationalities in the Balkans dragged the larger powers that they had alliances with into a war. The Balkans have become balkanized again because of the rise and fall of communism in the region. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide in Africa The mass killing of a group of people in an attempt to eliminate the entire group from existence is known as genocide. In recent years, several areas of Africa have been affected by conflicts among ethnicities that have led to genocide. Other countries have been either unable or unwilling to stop genocides from occurring. Ethnicities and Nationalities in Africa Ethnicity was traditionally the most important element of cultural identity in Africa – nationality was considered secondary to ethnicity. Several thousand distinct ethnicities are present in Africa, each with their own languages, religions, and social customs. It is hard to precisely determine the number of ethnicities due to boundaries that may not accurately reflect their geographic distribution, and difficulties in classifying what constitutes a “distinct” ethnicity. Conflict today can be traced to the European colonization of Africa in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which divided up the continent into countries with little regard for distribution of ethnicities. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide in Sudan In Sudan, several civil wars have ravaged the country since 1983, resulting in genocide and ethnic cleansing. Sudan’s conflicts with South Sudan and Darfur have affected the most victims. 70 percent of Sudan is Arab and 97 percent Muslim. The balance belong to a large number of other ethnicities descended from groups living in Sudan prior to the arrival of Arabs in the twelfth century. The non-Arab ethnicities are clustered in the west, south, and east of Sudan. Darfur In response to discrimination and neglect by the Arab-led government in Khartoum, Darfur’s black African ethnicities launched a rebellion in 2003. Janjaweed, marauding Arab nomads, decimated Darfur’s black population. Roughly 450,000 people in Darfur have been victims of genocide and another 2.5 million victims of ethnic cleansing. South Sudan South Sudan was established in 2011 following a war (lasting from 1983 until 2005) between Sudan’s northern and southern ethnicities. This war resulted in the death of an estimated 1.9 million Sudanese and the ethnic cleansing of approximately 700,000. South Sudan’s largest ethnicities are the Christian Dinka and the folk religionist Nuer. Despite gaining independence, the ethnicities of South Sudan have been unable to cooperate to create a stable government. Abeyi An area along the border between Sudan and South Sudan known as Abeyi is now the center of conflict among the two groups. Abeyi contains ethnicities aligned with both Sudan and South Sudan. Its legal status as a part of either country was due to be settled by a referendum of its people although this referendum has since been canceled. In the meantime, a peacekeeping force from Ethiopia is preventing either country from seizing control of the territory. South Kordofan and Blue Nile South Kordofan and Blue Nile are two other border areas containing large numbers of ethnicities aligned with both Sudan and South Sudan. A referendum was to be held in both territories for self-determination by its citizens, but both have been canceled. Eastern Front Neighboring Eritrea have supported ethnicities in east Sudan in their conflict with Sudanese government forces. The disbursement of oil profits originating from resources in the area is the source of the conflict. Ethnic Cleansing and Genocide in Central Africa Rwanda’s major groups of Hutus and Tutsis have practiced genocide against one another. The two ethnicities speak the same language, hold similar beliefs, and practice similar social customs. Intermarriage has even lessoned the physical differences between the two groups. The Hutus were farmers and the Tutsis were herders, and relations between settled farmers and herders are often uneasy. Hutus constituted a majority of the population of Rwanda historically, but Tutsis controlled the kingdom of Rwanda for several hundred years and turned the Hutus into their serfs. Belgium gained control of Rwanda after World War I. Belgium administrators permitted a few Tutsis to attend university and hold responsible government positions, while excluding the Hutus altogether. Hutus gained power when Rwanda became a country in 1962. The Hutus undertook ethnic cleansing and many Tutsis fled to Uganda. The Tutsis invaded in 1990. In 1993, an agreement to share power was signed. There have been several incidents of genocide between each group since then. The conflict between Hutus and Tutsis spilled into neighboring countries, especially the Democratic Republic of Congo. Tutsis were instrumental in the successful overthrow of Congo’s president in 1997. The new president relied heavily on Tutsis and permitted them to kill some Hutus who had been responsible for atrocities against the Tutsis in the early 1990s. Later, Congo’s president, Laurent Kabila, split with the Tutsis and was assassinated in 2001. The president’s son took power and negotiated an accord with the Tutsis, although violence has persisted among the country’s many ethnicities. Introducing the Chapter Ethnicity and race are so commonly confused that the terms should be defined at the start of any discussion on the subject. The first parts of this chapter are concerned with describing the numbers and concentration of generic ethnic groups in the United States, and the origin of migration of one particular group, the African Americans. Note that some figures included in this section and labeled as ethnicities use a racial term, “white,” to describe European ethnicities as a class. The remainder of this section concentrates on the construction of race, racism, and its spatial expression through segregation in the United States and South Africa. A major goal of teaching should be the deconstruction of race and racism, a formidable challenge in an entry-level course. Icebreaker The topics of race and ethnicity are often sensitive ones for the class; try to avoid singling out minority members of the audience (visible or not) through example or question. The delicate nature of this issue makes an effective “icebreaker” even more valuable. Geography Jokes Tell these jokes at your discretion. Some students will detect you’re up to something other than trying to be funny. Q: How do you confuse a geographer? A: Put him in a round room and tell him to sit in the corner. Q: How do you keep geographers happy in old age? A: Tell them a joke when they are still young. Q: How many geographers does it take to change a lightbulb? A: Only one, to hold the bulb while the Earth turns around him or her. Q: What’s the difference between a geographer and a large pizza? A: The pizza can feed a family of four. All these jokes were obviously not initially written about geographers, but serve to deconstruct the idea of many ethnic “jokes”—the geographer can be replaced with an unpopular ethnic group. Ask the class: Why are ethnic “jokes” frequently interchangeable? What is the purpose of most of these “jokes”? This discussion can be furthered by noting the changing butts of ethnic jokes . . . a moment of reflection on students’ part will demonstrate that the most recent migrants to the country or place are frequently subjected to ridicule and scorn. A constructive discussion about the nature of prejudices and stereotypes should follow. Ethnicity vs. Nationality After the discussion of ethnicity vs. race, students are next challenged with the distinction between ethnicity and nationality. The linchpin to the text’s definition of nationality as separable from ethnicity is whether an ethnic group has a history of, or desire for, self-determination. Ethnic Conflict vs. Religious Conflict Students will occasionally ask why a conflict is portrayed as ethnic in nature instead of religious. An example of an ethnic group that competes for national identity or potential sovereign status is that of the Kurds, who share Islam with other ethnic groups from Turkey, Iran, and Iraq. Assignments Review/Reflection Questions • Give some examples from your personal experience that demonstrates the difference between race and ethnicity. • List some genetically inherited traits that are usually not associated with race. Why do you think these traits are not used to define race, and skin color so often is? • Support the argument “every ethnicity should have its own state.” Now criticize this argument from a geographic perspective. • If two conflicting groups have different religions, should the conflict be termed “religious” or “ethnic?” Does the distinction matter? • Briefly research and summarize an ethnic conflict not mentioned in the text. Why does ethnic cleansing continue to happen? What can we do to prevent it? Ethnicity Field Studies Paper Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland. Our own ethnicity (culture and experience) shapes our beliefs and also influences our perceptions of differing people and places encountered throughout our lives. Therefore, it is important to reflect on and understand our own opinions. Furthermore, we need to increase our awareness of the diversity of people and places not only in the world at large, but also in our own fascinating, multicultural Southern California environment. You must, however, get out and about to experience and taste this richness for yourself. This assignment (fieldwork) is intended to be enjoyable. You choose the time and the place. Many students have combined this assignment with a family outing, a date, time with friends, or even have formed informal groups with classmates to venture out together. It is your choice. Procedure 1. Choose one of the locations from the attached list (the instructor needs to provide this list). No passports are required to explore your city’s many ethnic neighborhoods. 2. You need to thoughtfully answer the questions below using as much detail as possible in your descriptions. Be observant to the sights, sounds, and smells that create this unique sense of place. Your responses to the questions need be typed (using 12 point font) and double spaced. Your responses need to be numbered and you should not write out the questions. You will be required to turn in at least two full pages, but most students usually need more than two pages to adequately respond to all the questions. 3. You need to write an essay discussing your visit from a geographical perspective. The essay needs to be at least one full page. Your essay must be typed (using 12 point font) and double spaced. Some possible topics in your essay could be: (1) how the landscape is arranged, (2) the creation of a cultural landscape (architecture), (3) characteristics of the homeland country (political, economic, environmental, cultural) that creates push factors for migration, etc. Be sure to connect the attributes of the homeland your ethnic enclave represents. Include your internal reactions and feelings about this place briefly in your conclusion. Questions 1. Where did you go? Which ethnic, cultural group is dominant here? Answer: You are encouraged to explore the diverse ethnic and cultural groups in Southern California. You are also given the freedom to choose the time and place for your fieldwork, whether it's a family outing, a date, time with friends, or forming informal groups with classmates. Once you have chosen a location, you can identify the dominant ethnic or cultural group present there. 2. Why do you think most of the people in this area migrated to the United States? What do you think are the push/pull factors? Answer: Most of the people in this area likely migrated to the United States due to a combination of push and pull factors. Push factors are conditions that encourage people to leave their homeland, while pull factors are conditions that attract them to a new country. One possible push factor for migration to the United States could be economic hardship in their homeland. Many people may have faced limited job opportunities, low wages, or poverty, prompting them to seek better economic prospects in the United States. Additionally, political instability, conflict, or persecution in their homeland could have been another push factor, as individuals sought safety and security in a more stable country. On the other hand, pull factors that attracted people to the United States may include the promise of economic prosperity and a better standard of living. The United States is often perceived as offering greater opportunities for employment, education, and upward mobility, which could have motivated individuals to migrate. Additionally, the cultural and social freedoms available in the United States, such as religious freedom or the ability to express one's identity, may have been attractive to migrants seeking a more inclusive and diverse society. Overall, the push and pull factors that influenced migration to the United States for most people in this area likely revolve around seeking economic opportunities, safety, security, and a better quality of life. 3. What landscape elements do you think give this area a distinctive appearance from surrounding areas? Be specific—describe buildings, architecture, spatial arrangement, clothing, types of stores, and music that you encounter. Answer: The area I visited, known for its dominant ethnic and cultural group, stands out distinctly from its surrounding areas due to several landscape elements. One of the most striking features is the architecture, which reflects the cultural heritage of the community. The buildings often display unique designs, colors, and motifs that are characteristic of the homeland country. For example, I noticed intricate carvings and vibrant murals on the facades of many buildings, adding a sense of cultural identity to the area. Spatial arrangement also contributes to the distinctive appearance of the area. Unlike the grid-like layout of surrounding neighborhoods, this area features winding streets and alleyways that create a sense of intimacy and community. The spatial arrangement seems to encourage social interaction and a strong sense of belonging among residents. Clothing is another notable landscape element that sets this area apart. Residents often wear traditional clothing that reflects their cultural heritage. I observed vibrant colors, intricate patterns, and unique styles that are not commonly seen in the surrounding areas. The types of stores in the area also contribute to its distinctive appearance. Many shops sell imported goods and traditional products from the homeland country, ranging from spices and textiles to artwork and handicrafts. The storefronts are often decorated with cultural symbols and signage in the native language, further enhancing the area's cultural identity. Music plays a significant role in creating the area's distinctive atmosphere. I heard traditional music playing in the streets, emanating from shops and cafes. The music added a lively and festive ambiance to the area, creating a sense of cultural vibrancy. Overall, the combination of unique architecture, spatial arrangement, clothing, types of stores, and music gives this area a distinctive appearance that sets it apart from its surrounding areas. These landscape elements reflect the cultural heritage and identity of the dominant ethnic group, creating a rich and immersive experience for visitors. 4. Try a new ethnic food (it doesn’t have to be expensive, just a little exotic to you and typical of what is common in the homeland). What did you try? Did you like or dislike it? What ingredients were in it? Answer: For this assignment, I decided to try Ethiopian food, which was a new and exotic experience for me. I visited a local Ethiopian restaurant and tried a dish called injera with various stews, known as wats. Injera is a sourdough flatbread with a spongy texture, made from teff flour, which is a type of grain native to Ethiopia. It serves as both a serving platter and utensil in Ethiopian cuisine. The injera was slightly tangy and had a unique texture that I had never experienced before. The wats, or stews, were served on top of the injera. I tried a variety of wats, including doro wat (spicy chicken stew), yebeg wat (spicy lamb stew), and atkilt wat (spiced vegetable stew). The stews were rich and flavorful, with a complex blend of spices and herbs that gave them a unique and aromatic taste. Overall, I enjoyed the experience of trying Ethiopian food. While some of the flavors were unfamiliar to me, I found them to be delicious and satisfying. The combination of injera and wats created a flavorful and filling meal that I would be interested in trying again in the future. 5. Do you see outward symbols of religious systems that are associated with the homeland? Look closely and describe. Does it help or hinder your cultural understanding of this ethnic group? Answer: During my visit to the ethnic neighborhood, I observed several outward symbols of religious systems that are associated with the homeland of the dominant ethnic group. One prominent symbol was the presence of religious buildings, such as mosques, temples, or churches, depending on the specific religious beliefs of the community. These buildings were often architecturally distinct, featuring unique designs and decorative elements that reflected the religious traditions of the ethnic group. I also noticed individuals wearing religious attire or accessories that are symbolic of their faith. For example, some women wore headscarves or veils, while men wore specific types of hats or clothing associated with their religious beliefs. Additionally, I observed symbols and imagery related to the religion displayed in public spaces, such as religious texts or art depicting religious figures. In terms of cultural understanding, these outward symbols can both help and hinder. On one hand, they can provide valuable insights into the religious beliefs and practices of the ethnic group, helping to deepen our understanding of their culture and traditions. These symbols can serve as a visual representation of the community's values, beliefs, and identity. On the other hand, these symbols can also be a source of misunderstanding or misinterpretation. Without a proper understanding of the religious context, these symbols may be misinterpreted or misunderstood, leading to stereotypes or misconceptions about the ethnic group. Additionally, the presence of religious symbols may inadvertently contribute to a sense of otherness or alienation, especially in communities where the dominant religion is different from the mainstream culture. Overall, while outward symbols of religious systems can provide valuable insights into the cultural and religious practices of an ethnic group, it is important to approach them with an open mind and a willingness to learn in order to avoid misunderstandings or misinterpretations. 6. Do you see evidence of the convergence of traditional and modern worlds? If so describe them—look for impacts of communications and technological systems. What kind of connections are going on between the homeland and this region? Answer: During my visit to the ethnic neighborhood, I observed several instances of the convergence of traditional and modern worlds, particularly in the impacts of communication and technological systems. One prominent example was the use of modern communication technologies, such as smartphones and social media, alongside traditional forms of communication, such as community gatherings and word-of-mouth. I noticed that many businesses in the area utilized modern technology for advertising and communication, with signs in multiple languages and online presence through websites and social media platforms. This integration of modern communication methods with traditional cultural practices helps to bridge the gap between the two worlds, allowing for the preservation and celebration of cultural heritage while embracing the conveniences of modern technology. Additionally, I observed that the connections between the homeland and the region were facilitated by modern transportation systems. For example, I noticed signs for travel agencies offering services to the homeland, indicating a strong connection between the two regions. This suggests that modern transportation systems have made it easier for individuals to maintain ties with their homeland, whether through regular visits or virtual connections. Overall, the convergence of traditional and modern worlds in this ethnic neighborhood was evident in the impacts of communication and technological systems. These connections between the homeland and the region are essential for maintaining cultural identity and fostering a sense of community among diaspora populations. 7. Look at products sold in stores and businesses. Do you see references to specific locations in the homeland? What cities and regions are on the labels of products? Where are the goods made? Answer: During my exploration of the ethnic neighborhood, I observed several products in stores and businesses that referenced specific locations in the homeland of the dominant ethnic group. Many food products, in particular, featured labels or packaging that highlighted their origins. For example, I saw spices labeled as being from specific regions or cities known for their spice production in the homeland country. Some clothing items also bore labels indicating their origins in particular regions or cities known for their textile production. Additionally, I noticed handicrafts and artwork that were labeled with the names of cities or regions known for their craftsmanship in the homeland. In terms of the goods' manufacturing, I found that many products were made locally, within the ethnic neighborhood, by members of the community. However, there were also products that were imported from the homeland, bearing labels indicating their origins and highlighting the connection between the homeland and the ethnic enclave. Overall, the references to specific locations in the homeland on products sold in stores and businesses help to maintain a sense of connection to the homeland among the diaspora community. These products serve as tangible reminders of the cultural heritage and traditions of the homeland, allowing members of the ethnic group to maintain their cultural identity even while living in a different country. 8. What types of economic activities and businesses do you find here? Are there any surprises? Are there any specific businesses that reflect social customs from the homeland? Describe. Answer: In the ethnic neighborhood I visited, I found a variety of economic activities and businesses that catered to the needs and preferences of the dominant ethnic group. One prominent type of economic activity was the presence of restaurants and cafes serving traditional cuisine from the homeland. These establishments not only provided a taste of home for the community but also attracted customers from outside the ethnic enclave who were curious to try authentic ethnic cuisine. Another common type of business was grocery stores and markets selling imported goods and ingredients from the homeland. These stores offered a wide range of products, including spices, condiments, snacks, and other food items that are essential to the ethnic cuisine and cultural traditions of the community. I also noticed several businesses that offered services tailored to the social customs and traditions of the homeland. For example, I saw clothing stores selling traditional attire and accessories, as well as beauty salons offering services such as henna tattoos and traditional hair styling. One surprise was the presence of businesses offering services related to cultural events and celebrations from the homeland. I observed event planning companies specializing in traditional weddings, festivals, and other cultural ceremonies, reflecting the importance of these social customs within the community. Overall, the types of economic activities and businesses in the ethnic neighborhood reflected a strong connection to the social customs and traditions of the homeland. These businesses not only catered to the needs of the community but also served as cultural hubs that preserved and celebrated the cultural heritage of the dominant ethnic group. 9. Any interesting (or perhaps strange to you) items for sale in these stores? People and cultures perceive and utilize resources differently, what is your cultural response to the unique items you see? Answer: During my visit to the ethnic neighborhood, I encountered several interesting and unique items for sale in the stores that caught my attention. One item that stood out to me was a traditional musical instrument that I had never seen before. The instrument had a unique shape and design, and the sound it produced was unlike any other instrument I had heard. Another interesting item was a type of spice that was used in traditional dishes from the homeland. The spice had a distinct aroma and flavor that was unfamiliar to me, but it piqued my curiosity and made me interested in learning more about its cultural significance and culinary uses. In terms of my cultural response to these unique items, I found myself intrigued by the different ways in which people from this culture perceive and utilize resources. The items for sale reflected a deep connection to tradition and heritage, and I admired the effort to preserve and celebrate these cultural practices in a foreign land. Overall, encountering these unique items for sale in the stores was a valuable learning experience that opened my eyes to the diversity of cultural practices and perspectives in the world. It reminded me of the importance of respecting and appreciating different cultures, even if they may seem strange or unfamiliar at first glance. 10. New immigrant groups have always tried to recreate their homelands when they migrated to the United States. Why do you think it is helpful for new arrivals to the United States to live in or near an ethnic enclave? Do you think you would be attracted to an American enclave if you moved to a foreign country? Answer: New immigrant groups often try to recreate their homelands when they migrate to the United States because it provides them with a sense of familiarity and belonging in a new and unfamiliar environment. Living in or near an ethnic enclave allows new arrivals to maintain their cultural traditions, practices, and language, which can help ease the transition to a new country and reduce feelings of isolation and homesickness. Living in an ethnic enclave also provides new arrivals with access to social support networks within their own community. These networks can provide valuable assistance in navigating the challenges of adjusting to life in a new country, such as finding housing, employment, and accessing healthcare and other services. Additionally, ethnic enclaves often offer a range of cultural amenities, such as shops, restaurants, and community centers, that cater to the specific needs and preferences of the immigrant community. This can help new arrivals feel more comfortable and at home in their new surroundings. If I were to move to a foreign country, I think I would be attracted to an enclave of fellow Americans or expatriates. Living in an enclave of people from my own cultural background would provide me with a sense of familiarity and support in a new and unfamiliar environment. It would also allow me to maintain connections with my home culture while experiencing the culture of the host country. Political Geography 8 Learning Outcomes After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to: Learning Outcome 8.1.1: Understand the difference between a state of the world and a state within the United States. Learning Outcome 8.1.2: Explain why it is difficult to determine whether some territories are states. Learning Outcome 8.2.1: Understand the development of nation-states. Learning Outcome 8.2.2: Understand the differences between a nation-state and a multinational state. Learning Outcome 8.2.3: Understand Russia’s status as a multiethnic state. Learning Outcome 8.2.4: Describe challenges in creating nation-states in the former Soviet Union. Learning Outcome 8.2.5: Explain the concept of colonies and describe their current distribution. Learning Outcome 8.3.1: Describe the types of cultural boundaries between states. Learning Outcome 8.3.2: Describe the types of physical boundaries between states. Learning Outcome 8.3.3: Describe types of physical boundaries between states. Learning Outcome 8.3.4: Describe the five shapes of states. Learning Outcome 8.3.6: Explain the concept of gerrymandering and three ways it is done. Learning Outcome 8.3.7: Describe examples of gerrymandering. Learning Outcome 8.4.1: Describe the functions of the United Nations. Learning Outcome 8.4.2: Describe the principle military and economic alliances in Europe. Learning Outcome 8.4.3: Explain the concept of terrorism and cite U.S. examples. Learning Outcome 8.4.4: Describe the major terrorist organizations. Learning Outcome 8.4.5: Understand varying degrees of support for terrorism by states in Southwest Asia. Chapter 8 Outline Key Issue 1: Where Are States Distributed? Political geography is concerned with the study of the way governments organize and administer space on Earth’s surface, and especially the geographic dimensions of conflict. One of Earth’s most fundamental cultural characteristic is the division of our planet’s surface into a collection of spaces occupied by individual countries. Wars have broken out in recent years—both between small neighboring states and among cultural groups within countries—over political control of territory. Old countries have been broken up into collections of smaller ones. Geographers use geographic methods to examine the causes of political change and instability and to anticipate potential trouble spots around the world. Introducing Political Geography A state is an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs. It occupies a defined territory on Earth’s surface and contains a permanent population. Country is synonymous with state. Nearly all inhabitable land is organized into states. The land area occupied by states around the world widely varies. The largest states, Russia, comprises 6.6 million square miles, or 11 percent of the Earth’s entire land area. On the other end of the spectrum are about two dozen microstates, which are states with very small land area. The Vatican is the world’s smallest microstate, coming in at 0.17 square miles. Many microstates are islands, explaining both their small size and sovereignty. Challenges in Defining States A state has sovereignty, which means independence from control of its internal affairs by other states. A sovereign state is a good example of a formal or uniform region, as the entire area of a state is managed by its national government, laws, army, and leaders. Disagreement over the number of sovereign states in the world is present in the global community. Places that challenge the definition of sovereignty are Korea, China, and Western Sahara. Korea: One State or Two? Not all states are universally recognized or well defined. Korea was divided in half into two occupation zones by the United States and the former Soviet Union after they defeated Japan in World War II. The division of these zones became permanent in the late 1940s, when the two superpowers established separate governments and withdrew their armies. In 1992, North Korea and South Korea were admitted to the United Nations as separate countries. Progress toward reuniting Korea was halted by North Korea’s decision to build nuclear weapons. China and Taiwan: One State or Two? Most countries consider China (officially the People’s Republic of China) and Taiwan (officially the Republic of China) as separate and sovereign states. China does not consider Taiwan to be a separate state but part of China. The question of who was the legitimate government of China plagued U.S. officials in the 1950s and 1960s. The United States considered the Nationalists in Taiwan the official government of China until 1971. The United Nations voted that year to transfer China’s seat in the U.N. from the Nationalists in Taiwan to the Communist government in China. Taiwan is now the most populous state not in the United Nations. Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands: Who Is Sovereign? The People’s Republic of China, Taiwan, and Japan all claim sovereignty over several small uninhabited islands in the East China Sea. These islands are known as Diaoyu in China, Diaoyutai in Taiwan, and Senkaku in Japan. Japan has controlled the islands since 1895, except between 1945 and 1972, when the United States administered them after the Japanese defeat in World War II. China and Taiwan claim that the islands historically belonged to China until the Japanese government illegally seized them in 1985. China and Japan have created overlapping air zones in the East China Sea to bolster their respective claims to the islands, heightening tensions further. Western Sahara/Sahrawi Republic: Who Is Sovereign? Most African countries consider the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic a sovereign state. Spain controlled the territory until withdrawing from the area in 1976. An independent Sahrawi Republic was declared. Morocco and Mauritania annexed the territory, but Mauritania decided to withdraw three years later. Morocco now claims most of the territory and has built a wall around it to keep the rebels out. The United Nations has tried but failed to reach a resolution in this situation. Ancient States The state concept developed in the Middle East. The first states were territories surrounding cities. A city-state is a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. Walls clearly delineated the boundaries of the city. The city controlled the agricultural land surrounding the city that produced food for the urban residents. The countryside also provided the city with an outer line of defense against attack by other city-states. One city may gain military dominance over the others and form an empire. Medieval States The largest unified political territory of the preindustrial times was the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The empire comprised 38 provinces, each using the same set of laws that had been created in Rome. The Roman Empire eventually collapsed in the fifth century. The European portion of the empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles. Victorious nobles seized control of defeated rivals’ estates. A handful of powerful kings emerged as rulers over a large number of these European estates beginning about the year 1100. The consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a king formed the basis for the development of states. Nation-states in Europe A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity. To preserve and enhance distinctive cultural characteristics, ethnicities seek to govern themselves without interference. The concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves is known as self-determination. By the early twentieth century most of Western Europe was made up of nation-states. After World War I the Allied leaders used language as the main criteria to create new states in Europe and adjust the boundaries of existing ones. Boundaries were drawn around the states of Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, and Romania to conform closely to the distribution of Bulgarian, Hungarian, Polish, and Romanian speakers. During the 1930s, the Nazis claimed that all Germanic speaking parts of Europe constituted one nationality and should be unified into one state. The Nazis invaded Austria and the German-speaking part of Czechoslovakia. It was not until the Nazis invaded Poland (clearly not a German speaking country) that France and England tried to stop them. Key Issue 2: Why Are Nation-states Difficult to Create? A nation-state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity. To preserve and promote distinctive cultural traits, ethnicities seek to govern themselves without interference. The idea of partitioning the world into a set of independent nation-states is relatively new. Ancient States The state concept developed in the Middle East. The first states were territories surrounding cities. A city-state is a sovereign state that comprises a town and the surrounding countryside. Walls clearly delineated the boundaries of the city. The city controlled the agricultural land surrounding the city that produced food for the urban residents. The countryside also provided the city with an outer line of defense against attack by other city-states. One city may gain military dominance over the others and form an empire. Medieval States The largest unified political territory of the preindustrial times was the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia. The empire comprised 38 provinces, each using the same set of laws that had been created in Rome. The Roman Empire eventually collapsed in the fifth century. The European portion of the empire was fragmented into a large number of estates owned by competing kings, dukes, barons, and other nobles. Victorious nobles seized control of defeated rivals’ estates. A handful of powerful kings emerged as rulers over a large number of these European estates beginning about the year 1100. The consolidation of neighboring estates under the unified control of a king formed the basis for the development of states. States in Twentieth-Century Europe At the beginning of the twentieth century, Europe’s territory was ruled by several emperors, kings, and queens. Following the first World War, leaders of the victorious countries convened at the Versailles Peace Conference to redraw the map of Europe. Using language as the principle criterion for identifying ethnic groups, the leaders of the Allied powers partitioned Europe into a set of nation-states. Many of the states created at this Conference have not endured as nation-states. Nation-States and Multinational States Aiming to preserve and promote distinctive cultural traits, ethnicities seek to govern themselves without outside interference. Self-determination is the concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves. There is no perfect nation-state, as territory inhabited by a specific ethnicity never directly reflects the boundaries of countries. However, some states, such as Japan, are excellent examples of a nation-state. The ethnic make-up of Japan is 98.5 percent Japanese, 0.5 percent Korean, 0.4 percent Chinese, and 0.6 percent other. Multiethnic and Multinational States According to a measure of the extent of ethnic diversity in a country created by political scientist James Fearon, states with the least diversity, such as Japan, would be the best examples of nation-states. A multiethnic state is a state that contains more than one ethnicity. Every nation is multiethnic to some degree, as no state’s population encompasses 100 percent of a single ethnicity. A multinational state is a state that contains more than one ethnicity with traditions of self-determination and self-governance. In some multinational states, distinct ethnic groups control governmental functions in the area of the country it occupies. In others, such as the United States, ethnicities all contribute cultural features to the formation of a single nationality. Multiethnic Revival in Europe In the 1930s, German National Socialists (Nazis) attempted to form a single state that encompasses all German-speaking areas of Europe. The Nazis achieved their goals of forming this state, and continued to seize lands of non-German-speaking populations (such as Poland), precipitating World War II. Following World War II, a large-scale forced migration in Europe relocated many ethnic groups into newly established territory of the region’s many nation-states. Some of the nation-states formed as a result of World War II, such as Yugoslavia, failed after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Karl Marx posited that the concept of nationality was an outmoded vestige of years past, used by those in power to dominate the working-class. In the twenty-first century, ethnic identity has once again become important in the creation of nation-states in much of Europe. The breakup of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia during the 1990s gave numerous ethnicities the opportunity to organize nation-states. These ethnic groups were no longer content to just control a local government unit, but sought to be the majority in a completely independent nation-state. The ethnic groups with smaller populations unfortunately found themselves existing as minorities in multinational states or divided among more than one of the new states. Russia: The Largest Multinational State For decades, the many ethnicities within the Soviet Union were unable to realize their nationalist aspirations and form independent nation-states. The Soviet Union consisted of 15 republics, based on its 15 largest ethnicities. With the breakup of the Soviet Union into 15 independent countries, a number of less numerous ethnicities are now divided among these states. These 15 states constitute five groups: • Russia. • Three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. • Three European states: Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine. • Five Central Asian states: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. • Three Caucasus states: Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. Reasonably good examples of nation-states have been carved out of the Baltic, European, and Central Asian republics. Peaceful nation-states have not been created in any of the small Caucasus republics. Russia officially recognizes the existence of 39 nationalities, many of which are eager for independence. Independence movements are flourishing because Russia is less willing to suppress these movements forcibly than the Soviet Union. Russia in Ukraine Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, prospects for a stable nation-state were favorable in independent Ukraine because it possessed economic assets, such as coal deposits, a steel industry, and proximity to the wealthy countries of Western Europe. Despite these favorable conditions, the Russian minority population clustered in eastern Ukraine rebelled against the Ukrainian government in 2014, leading to the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula by Russia and the War in Donbass. Russia has held a claim on Crimea throughout the past (such as in 1783 and in 1954), bolstering their claim to the territory. Nearly every other country continues to recognize Ukraine’s sovereignty over Crimea. Nation-States in the Former Soviet Union The new states in the former Soviet Union are an assemblage of nation-states and multinational states. Three European States Belarus, Moldova, and Ukraine are located between Russia to the east and European democracies to the west. Belarus peacefully transitioned into an independent nation-state, while Moldova and Ukraine have experienced ethnic tensions. Belarus and Ukraine The ethnic distinction among Belarusians, Ukrainians, and Russians is difficult to pin down. All three groups speak similar East Slavic languages and believe themselves to have a common ethnic heritage, originating in medieval Europe. Following invasions and conquests of the area by Mongolians, Poles, and Lithuanians beginning in the thirteenth century, Belarusians and Ukrainians became isolated from Russians and developed distinct ethnicities. Moldova Moldovans are ethnically indistinguishable from Romanians, and Moldova was historically a part of Romania until the Soviet Union took control of it in 1940. Following Moldova’s declaration of independence in 1992, many Moldovans wished to reunify with Romania. However, when Moldova was a Soviet republic, it was ceded lands from Ukraine on the Dniester River, containing ethnic Ukrainians and Russians. Opposition from these groups have prevented Moldovan reunification with Romania. Three Baltic States Located on the Baltic Sea, the countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are known as the Baltic states. These three states were annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940 under an agreement with Nazi Germany. All three have distinct cultural differences and discernable historical traditions. Most Lithuanians are Roman Catholic, while Estonians and Latvians are predominantly Lutheran. Lithuanians and Latvians speak a language in the Baltic group of the Indo-European family, while Estonian is a Uralic language. The Caucasus: Many Ethnicities The Caucasus region is situated between the Black and Caspian seas and gets its name from the mountains that separate Azerbaijan and Georgia from Russia. When the Caucasus region was part of Soviet Union the Soviet government promoted allegiance to the Soviet state and quelled disputes among ethnicities, by force if necessary. With the breakup of the region into several independent countries, long-standing conflicts among ethnicities have erupted into armed conflicts. The region’s ethnicities have had varying degrees of success in forming nation-states. Armenia is a Christian-majority state that has historically lived under the rule of Turkish Muslims. A century ago, an estimated 1 million ethnic Armenians were killed in what most observers now classify a genocide. Following World War I, the Allies created the independent state of Armenia, although it was soon divided between Turkey and the Soviet Union in 1921. 98 percent of the Armenian population are ethnic Armenians, making it the most ethnically homogenous country in the area. Azerbaijan Azeris originated with Turkish invaders who migrated from Central Asia in the eighth and ninth centuries and combined with the existing Persian population. Armenians and Azeris have contested the boundaries between their countries, fighting specifically over an Azerbaijani enclave called NagornoKarabakh inhabited primarily by Armenians. While Nagorno-Karabakh is still technically a part of Azerbaijan as a result of a 1994 cease-fire agreement, it acts as an independent republic (known as Artsakh). Georgia Georgia is more ethnically diverse than Armenia and Azerbaijan. The population is made up of 71 percent ethnic Georgians, 8 percent Armenians, 6 percent each Azeri and Russian, 3 percent Ossetian, and 2 percent each Abkhazian, Greek, and other ethnicities. Ossetians and Abkhazians have fought the Georgian government for control over the territory that their respective ethnicity predominantly occupies, forming two independent republics. These republics, South Ossetia and Abkhazia, are only recognized by a handful of states (such as Russia, which has installed troops in both areas). Central Asian States Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are relatively stable nation-states. In contrast, Tajikistan is a nation-state that has endured a civil war, fought between Tajiks who were former Communists, and a coalition of Muslim fundamentalists and Western-oriented intellectuals. Kazakhstan is a relatively peaceful multinational state divided between Kazakhs and Russians. Kyrgyzstan, however, is relatively unstable, facing prolonged ethnic conflict. Consisting of Kyrgyz, Uzbek, and Russian ethnicities, successive presidents were ousted in the early twenty-first century, and ethnic cleansing of hundreds of thousands of Uzbeks by Kyrgyz is alleged. Colonies A colony is a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent. In some instances, a sovereign state manages the colony’s military and foreign affairs. In others, it also manages the colony’s internal affairs. Distribution of Colonies The United Nations has classified 17 places in the world as “non-self-governing territories.” Western Sahara, French Polynesia, and New Caledonia are all examples of this type of territory. The U.N. does not include territories that are uninhabited, or those that they consider to have considerable autonomy in self-governing. Puerto Rico, Greenland, and Hong Kong and Macao are all examples of territories with significant levels of self-governance. Colonialism Colonialism is an attempt by one country to establish settlements and impose its political, economic, and cultural principles in another territory. European states established colonies for three basic reasons: God, gold, and glory. European states started establishing colonies in the Western Hemisphere in the 1400s. The European colonial era ended in the Western Hemisphere by 1824. European states then started to establish colonies in Africa and Asia. Most African and Asian colonies became independent after World War II. The United Kingdom and France had the largest colonial empire. Key Issue 3: Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems? A boundary is an invisible line that marks the extent of a state’s territory. Boundaries completely surround an individual state to mark the outer limits of its territorial control and to give it a distinctive shape. Historically, frontiers rather than boundaries separated states. A frontier is a zone where no state exercises complete political control. Frontiers between states have been replaced by boundaries. Boundaries may be classified into three categories: • Cultural boundaries follow the distribution of cultural features. • Geometric boundaries are based on human constructs, such as straight lines. • Physical boundaries coincide with significant features of the natural landscape. Boundary locations may be the source of conflict, both within a country and with its neighbors. Cultural Boundaries Boundaries have been established when possible to separate speakers of different languages, followers of different religions, or members of different ethnicities. Religious Boundary: Ireland Ireland is divided by a boundary based on the separation between two major religions: Roman Catholicism in the Republic of Ireland, and Protestantism in Northern Ireland. Language may also play a role in drawing boundaries, as is evident in the formation of Italy and Germany over common languages in the nineteenth century. Ethnic Boundary: Cyprus Two nationalities predominantly inhabit the island of Cyprus: Greek and Turkish. Despite its proximity to Turkey, only 24 percent of the island’s occupants are of Turkish descent, while 63 percent are Greek. Following independence from Britain in 1960, the Turkish minority was guaranteed a substantial share of elected offices and control over its own education, religion, and culture. Cyprus has yet to peacefully integrate both nationalities. A wall has been built separating the northern area of the island occupied by ethnic Turks, and the southern area inhabited by Greeks. Today, a portion of the wall has been demolished, and the two nationalities can freely travel between the two areas. Geometric Boundaries North American and North Africa are two regions where geometric boundaries are particularly prominent parts of the political landscape. Geometric Boundaries: North America Part of the northern U.S. boundary with Canada is a 1,300-mile straight line along 49° north latitude. A geometric boundary between the United States and Canada is also present along Québec’s boundary with New York and Vermont, and between Alaska and the Yukon Territory. The U.S.-Canada boundary was established through a series of treaties between 1783 and 1903. Geometric Boundary: North Africa Boundaries between Algeria, Libya, and Egypt on the north and Mali, Niger, Chad, and Sudan on the south are generally geometric. These boundaries can largely be attributed to the colonial legacy of Africa. Geometric Boundary: South Pole The South Pole contains the only large landmass on Earth’s surface that is not part of a state. These states claim portion of the South Pole: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Chile and the United Kingdom have conflicting and overlapping claims. The United States, Russia, and other countries do not recognize the claims of any countries in Antarctica. States may establish research stations there for scientific investigations, but no military activities are permitted. Physical Boundaries Physical features of the landscape can be appropriate boundaries because they are easily seen, both on a map and on the ground. Deserts, mountains, and water are the three types of physical elements serve as physical boundaries. Desert Boundaries A desert can act as an effective boundary, as desert terrain is generally hard to traverse and sparsely populated. Desert boundaries are common in North Africa and Asia. The Sahara acts as both a physical and geometric boundary, separating Algeria, Libya, and Egypt on the north from Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and the Sudan on the south. Mountain Boundaries Mountains can similarly be effective boundaries, especially if they are hard to traverse, are generally sparsely populated, and are permanent installations of the landscape. If passes are closed during winter months on account of intense storms, contact between nationalities living on opposite sides may be limited or totally impossible. Mountain boundaries can sometime be hard to discern, as can be seen in the relations between Argentina and Chile and their boundary in the Andes Mountains. The two countries could not agree on a common mountain boundary, and nearly went to war over this issue until U.S. mediators helped settle the conflict. Water Boundaries Rivers, lakes, and oceans are the most common physical features used as physical boundaries. Water boundaries are particularly common in East Africa. For instance, the boundary separating Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda runs through Lake Victoria. While water boundaries may seem to be permanent, the precise position of water may change over time. Rivers can slowly change their course, as can be seen in the Rio Grande boundary separating the United States and Mexico. The Law of the Sea The Law of the Sea identifies three types of water boundaries: • Territorial waters. Up to 12 nautical miles from shore, a state may set laws regulating passage by ships registered in other states. • Contiguous zone. Between 12 and 24 nautical miles from shore, a state may enforce laws concerning pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration. • Exclusive economic zone. Between 24 and 200 nautical miles, a state has the sole right to the fish and other marine life. Disputes that may arise as a result of the Law of the Sea may be settled at the International Court of Justice. Shape of States The shape of a state controls the length of its boundaries with other states. Therefore, the shape affects the potential for communication and conflict with neighbors. The shape is also a part of its unique identity. Beyond its position as a centripetal force, the shape of a state can impact the degree of successful of internal administration and can affect social unity. States may take on one of five basic shapes: compact, elongated, prorupted, fragmented, or perforated. Compact States: Efficient In a compact state, the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly. The ideal theoretical compact state would be shaped like a circle, with the capital at the center and with the shortest possible boundary to defend. A compact state has efficient communication and transportation. Elongated States: Potential Isolation An elongated state has a long and narrow shape. Elongated states may suffer from poor internal communications. A region located at an extreme end of the elongation might be isolated from the capital, which is usually placed near the center. Prorupted States: Access or Disruption An otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension is a prorupted state. Proruptions can provide a state with access to a resource, such as water. Proruptions are also used to separate two states that would otherwise share a boundary. Perforated States: South Africa A state that completely surrounds another one is a perforated state. In this situation, the state that is surrounded may face problems of dependence on, or interference from, the surrounding state. South Africa completely surrounds the state of Lesotho. Fragmented States: Problematic A fragmented state includes several discontinuous pieces of territory. Fragmented states separated by water can face problems and costs associated with communications and maintaining national unity. Fragmented states separated by an intervening state sometimes have problems dealing with the states in between the fragments. Landlocked States Landlocked states have difficulty engaging in international trade because they lack direct access to the ocean. A landlocked state is completely surrounded by other countries. Landlocked states are most common in Africa, where 14 of the continent’s 54 states have no direct access to the ocean. The prevalence of landlocked states in Africa is a remnant of the colonial era. Landlocked states must cooperate with neighboring states that have seaports. Governing States A state has two types of government: a national government and local governments. At the national scale, a government can be more or less democratic. At the local scale, the national government can determine how much power to allocate to local governments. National Scale: Regime Types A democracy is a country in which citizens elect leaders and can run for office. An autocracy is a country that is run according to the interests of the ruler rather than the people. An anocracy is country that is not fully democratic or fully autocratic, but rather displays a mix of the two types. Democracies and autocracies differ in three essential elements: selection of leaders, citizen participation, and checks and balances. The Arab Spring shows how the world is becoming more democratic. Local Scale: Unitary and Federal States State organization of internal territory falls into a continuum from a unitary state and a federal state. A unitary state places most power in the hands of central government officials. A federal state allocates strong power to units of local government within the country. Unitary States The unitary government system works best in nation-states characterized by few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of national unity. Smaller states are also more likely to adopt a unitary government system. Some multinational states have adopted unitary systems so that the values of one nationality can be imposed on others, such as in Kenya and Rwanda. Federal States Local government poses considerable authority to adopt their own laws in a federal state. The federal system empowers different nationalities, especially if they live in separate regions of the country. The federal system is more suitable for large states because the national capital may be too remote to provide effective control over isolated regions. Most of the world’s large states are federal, including Russia, Canada, the United States, Brazil, and India. Electoral Geography The process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power is called gerrymandering. The boundaries separating the 435 legislative districts within the United States are redrawn periodically to ensure that each district has approximately the same population. Boundaries must be redrawn because migration inevitably results in some districts gaining population and losing population. The political party in control of the state legislature naturally attempts to redraw boundaries to improve the chances of its supporters to win seats. Geography of Gerrymandering A measure of each Congressional district’s level of gerrymandering was devised by the Washington Post. This score was determined by calculating the ratio of the area of the district to the area of a circle with the same perimeter. A district that follows a regular compact shape has a lower score than a district with irregularities. The state judged to have the most gerrymandering is North Carolina. Key Issue 4: Why Do States Face Threats? Global Cooperation and Competition The most important global forums for cooperation among states is the United Nations, created at the end of World War II by the victorious Allies. The early years of the U.N. were colored by competition and tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. The United Nations The most important global organization is the United Nations. The United Nations has provided a forum for the discussion of international problems. On occasion, the U.N. has intervened in conflicts between or within member states, authorizing military and peacekeeping actions. The U.N. seeks to promote international cooperation to address global economic problems, promote human rights, and provide humanitarian relief. The U.N. members can vote to establish a peacekeeping force and request states to contribute military forces. The U.N. tries very hard to maintain strict neutrality in separating warring factions. The League of Nations was the world’s first attempt at an international peacekeeping organization. The League of Nations was never an effective peacekeeping organization because it could not stop aggression by these states against neighboring countries. The United States never joined the League of Nations and it fell apart in the 1930s. The United Nations was created at the end of World War II and only had 51 member states. The number of U.N. members reached 193 in 2011. The Cold War During the Cold War era, The United States and Soviet Union were the world’s two superpowers. To maintain strength in regions that were not contiguous to their own territory, the United States and Soviet Union established military bases in other countries. Both superpowers repeatedly demonstrated they would use military force if necessary to prevent an ally from becoming too independent. Because the power of the United States and Soviet Union was so much greater than the power of all other states, the world comprised of two camps, each under the influence of one of the superpowers. Cuban Missile Crisis A major confrontation during the Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union came in 1962, when the Soviet Union covertly began to construct missile-launching sites in Cuba, less than 90 miles from U.S. territory. President John F. Kennedy appeared on television to demand that the missiles be removed, and he ordered a naval blockade to prevent additional Soviet material from reaching Cuba. At the U.N., immediately after the Soviet Ambassador denied these installations existed, U.S. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson dramatically revealed aerial photographs taken by the U.S. Department of Defense, showing that the naval blockade in fact did exist. Following this revelation, the missiles were removed. Competition and Cooperation in Europe During the Cold War that followed World War II, two military alliances and two economic alliances formed in Europe. In the twenty-first century, one of the military alliances and one of the economic alliances continues, whereas the other two have been disbanded. Cold War-Era Military Alliances After World War II, most European states joined one of two military alliances dominated by the superpowers—NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) or the Warsaw Pact. NATO was a military alliance among 16 democratic states, including the United States and Canada plus 14 European states. For NATO allies, the principle objective was to prevent the Soviet Union from overrunning West Germany and other smaller countries. The Warsaw Pact was a military agreement among seven communist Eastern European countries to defend each other in case of attack. The Warsaw Pact provided the Soviet Union with a buffer of allied states between it and Germany to discourage a third German invasion of the Soviet Union in the twentieth century. Cold War-Era Economic Alliances Two economic alliances formed in Europe during the Cold War: • European Union (EU). The EU (formerly known as the European Economic Community, the Common Market, and the European Community) formed in 1958 with six members. The EU was designed to catalyze cooperation in Europe in the wake of World War II. • Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). COMECON formed in 1949 with six members in 1960. Mongolia, Cuba, and Vietnam also joined. COMECON was designed to enhance trader and sharing of natural resources in Communist Eastern Europe. Like the Warsaw Pact, COMECON dissolved in 1991. The European Union in the Twenty-First Century Economic power is eclipsing political and military power on the world stage. The EU has emerged as the world’s leading superpower because it turned Europe into the world’s wealthiest market. The EU now has 28 members. The main task of the European Union is to promote development within the member states through economic and political cooperation. A single bank, the European Central Bank, was given responsibility for setting interest rates and minimizing inflation in the EU countries. Most importantly, a common currency, the euro, was created for electronic transactions beginning in 1999 and in notes and coins beginning in 2002. European leaders bet that every country in the region would be stronger economically if it replaced its national currency with the euro. For the first few years that was the case, but the future of the euro has been called into question by the severe global recession that began in 2008. Economically strong countries, especially Germany, have been forced to subsidize the weaker states. Alliances in Other Regions Economic cooperation has been an important factor in the creation of international organizations that now can be found far beyond Western Europe. Other regional political and military organizations include the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organization of American States, the African Union, and the Commonwealth. Terrorist Attacks Against the United States The systematic use of violence by a group in order to intimidate a populace or coerce a government into granting demands is considered terrorism. Terrorists generally have distinctive attributes, such as: • Attempting to achieve their objectives through organized acts that spread fear and anxiety among the population, such as bombing, kidnapping, hijacking, taking of hostages, and assassination. • Viewing violence as a means of bringing widespread publicly to goals and grievances that are not being addressed through peaceful means. • Believing in a case so strongly that they do not hesitate to attack despite knowing that they will probably die in the act. Terrorist attacks are contrasted from other forms of political violence, such as assassination, in that ordinary people are targeted in attacks rather than political leaders or military groups. The number of terrorist incidents increased from around 1,000 in 2000 to around 10,000 in 2013. Terrorism against Americans The United States has suffered several terrorist attacks since 1988. Among the most destructive: • December 21, 1988. A terrorist bomb destroyed Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 aboard, plus 11 on the ground. • February 26, 1993. A car bomb parked in the underground garage damaged New York’s World Trade Center, killing 6 and injuring about 1,000. • April 19, 1995. A car bomb killed 168 people in the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. • June 25, 1996. A truck bomb blew up an apartment complex in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, killing 19 U.S. soldiers who lived there and injuring more than 100 people. • August 7, 1998. U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania were bombed, killing 190 and wounding nearly 5,000. • October 12, 2000. The USS Cole was bombed while in the port of Aden, Yemen, killing 17 I.S. service personnel. • April 15, 2013. Two bombs were detonated near the finish line of the Boston Marathon, killing 3 and injuring more than 180. • April 2, 2014. Four people were killed and fourteen injured in an attack on the military base at Fort Hood, Texas. • July 16, 2015. Five U.S. military personnel were killed in an attack on two installations in Chattanooga, Tennessee. • December 2, 2015. A mass shooting at the Inland Regional Center in San Bernardino, California, killed 14 and injured 21. Theodore J. Kaczynski, Timothy J, McVeigh, and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev are some of the terrorists during the late twentieth century and early twenty-first centuries. September 11, 2001, Attacks The United States has experienced a number of terrorist attacks since the late 1980s, but the attacks of September 11, 2001, caused dramatic concern. The twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City were the two tallest buildings in the United States before they were destroyed in the attacks. The Pentagon was also damaged. The attacks resulted in nearly 3,000 fatalities. Terrorist Organizations Some terrorist attacks are the work of one or two individuals who are not formally associated with terrorist organizations. However, most recent attacks have been carried out by members belonging to terrorist organizations. Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State, and Boko Haram are three prominent terrorist organizations from recent years. Al-Qaeda Al-Qaeda is not a single unified organization and the number of people involved is unknown. In addition to the original organization founded in 1990 by Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda also encompassed local franchises concerned with country-specific issues, as well as imitators and emulators ideologically aligned with al-Qaeda but not financially tied to it. Osama bin Laden moved to Afghanistan from Saudi Arabia in the mid-1980s to support the fight against the Soviet army and the country’s Soviet-installed government. Bin Laden used his several hundred-million-dollar inheritance to fund al-Qaeda around 1990 to unite jihad fighters in Afghanistan. Bin Laden left Afghanistan in 1989, and was later expelled from both Saudi Arabia and Sudan. He returned to Afghanistan in 1994. In 1996, he issued a declaration of war, known as a fatwa, against the United States because of U.S. support for Saudi Arabia and Israel. The al-Qaeda network subsequently planned and coordinated the 9/11 attacks in 2001 on the World Trade Center. The deadliest attacks perpetrated by al-Qaeda since the 9/11 occurred in 2007 and 2011, both in Baghdad. Al-Qaeda’s most active affiliate has been in Yemen in recent years. In 2015, the Yemeni affiliate undertook the Charlie Hebdo attack in Paris. Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL) The Islamic State, also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), originated in 1999 and became an affiliate of al-Qaeda in 2004. In 2014, ISIS split from al-Qaeda due to a lack of agreement on how to coordinate and consult with each other. Members of the Islamic State are Sunni Muslims who seek to impose strict religious laws throughout Southwest Asia. They have gained control of territory through human rights violations, such as beheadings, massacres, and torture, commanding territory in northern Iraq and eastern Syria. ISIS has found remarkable success in recruiting members on the Internet and social media, showing beheadings and destruction of sites of historical important, such as Shiite Muslim shrines. ISIS has also launched attacks in Europe in 2015. Boko Haram Boko Haram (Arabic for “Western education is forbidden”) was founded in 2002 in northeastern Nigeria. The organization seeks to impose their interpretation of Islamic law in Nigeria. Originally a peaceful organization, the group evolved to use violence following the death of its leader, Mohammed Yusuf, and a fierce uprising. Its current leader, Abubakar Shekau, aligned the group with ISIS in 2014. State Support for Terrorism In recent years in Southwest Asia, several states have provided support for terrorism. Support may include providing sanctuary for terrorists wanted by other countries, supplying weapons, money, and intelligence to terrorists, and planning attacks using terrorists. Sanctuary for Terrorists Afghanistan and Pakistan have provided sanctuary for al-Qaeda terrorists. The Taliban came to power in Afghanistan in 1995 and imposed strict Islamic fundamentalist law on the population. The Taliban rule came to an end in 2001, following the U.S. invasion. Destroying the Taliban was necessary in order for the United States to go after al-Qaeda leaders who were living in Afghanistan as guests of the Taliban. The United States also believes that Pakistan security was aware that Osama bin Laden was living in a fortified compound located in the city of Abbottabad which is only 75 miles from Pakistan’s capital. Supplying Terrorists Iraq and Iran are both alleged to have provided material and financial support for terrorists. Controversy surrounds the degree of their involvement in terrorism. Iraq The United States removed Iraqi president Saddam Hussein in 2003 because the U.S. government believed that he had biological and chemical weapons that could eventually fall into the hands of terrorists. U.N. experts concluded that Iraq had these weapons at one time but destroyed them in 1991 after its Desert Storm defeat. U.S. officials believed instead that Iraq hid the weapons, though they were never able to find them. The United States also said that close links existed between Iraq’s government and al-Qaeda. Saddam Hussein was not an observant Muslim and did not derive his philosophies from religious principles. Iran The Iranian Hostage Crisis has long been a source of tension between the United States and Iran. The United States also accused Iran of harboring al-Qaeda members and trying to curry favor with fellow Shiite Muslims, as both countries have Shiite majorities. Iran has also long provided support to Hezbollah, an organization based in Lebanon that the United States categorizes as a terrorist organization due to its calls for Israel’s destruction. Iran has also aggressively pursued a nuclear program in recent years, causing tension between the country and much of the rest of the world. Iran maintains that the nuclear program is for civilian purposes, such as energy production, while other countries have evidence that it is meant to contribute to weapon development. State Terrorist Attacks: Libya The government of Libya, including its longtime leader, Muammar elQaddafi, was accused of sponsoring a 1986 bombing of a nightclub in Berlin, Germany, that was popular with U.S. military personnel then stationed there. Libyan agents were found to have planted bombs on Pam Am Flight 103 that killed 270 people over Lockerbie, Scotland, in 1988, as well as 170 people on UTA Flight 772 over Niger in 1989. Qaddafi was overthrown by Libyan protestors in 2011 as a part of the Arab Spring. Qaddafi also was captured and killed following his overthrow. Introducing the Chapter Students frequently associate the topic of this chapter with “real geography,” and many students report taking an introductory geography class to learn more about different countries. This chapter allows those students to quench some of their curiosity in this regard, as well as the larger issues of political geography: the formation of states, including the origin of the state concept, the legacy of colonialism, and political cooperation and conflict, including the new global dimensions of terrorism. Terrorism is as useful a context as any to begin the chapter; the text does this with the dramatic before and-after shots of the World Trade Center. The text’s later discussion of terrorist attacks on the United States prior to September 11, 2001, is also an interesting starting point for student discussion. Icebreaker: Mental Maps Mental mapping is a great way to demonstrate how we perceive the world. It’s particularly useful for understanding how little we know about some places. This exercise can be used for a variety of lessons, political geography among them. First, instruct students to start with a fresh sheet of paper in their notebooks. You may wish to hand out blank sheets of copy paper for this exercise. Instruct the students, “Draw a map of your childhood. You may choose to draw whatever location and time period you wish, at whatever scale you wish. Include whatever details and memories you see fit. You have five minutes.” Students will produce detailed, sometimes intricately so, maps of their childhood memories and places, especially if given longer than five minutes. Ask for volunteers to share their maps. This might be made easier by sharing your own map first. Next, say “Turn your papers over and put a dot in the center. Label it with the name of our town. Now fill in as much information as you can on the rest of the map. You have five minutes.” Students will be able to draw more or less complete maps of the region. It’s interesting to note the scale at which they draw, that is, whether neighboring regions are included or only nearby towns. Many students are fairly challenged by this task. Finally, have the students take out a new sheet of paper. Say “I want you to draw Africa (or substitute another world region). Again, fill in as much information as you can. You have five minutes.” Depending on the world region chose, most students will have a difficult to nearly impossible time with this task. Emphasize that the point of this exercise is not to make the students feel stupid, but to understand how we think about and perceive the world. Ask the following questions: • What was put into the map of Africa? The Nile River and Egypt sometimes are the only named features. • Ask what other states were named and make a list of the most frequently named countries. • Why are these states on our mental maps and not others? Are our mental maps complete? Challenges to Comprehension State vs. Country The geographic use of the term “state” confuses students who are familiar only with the “United States” use of the term. Be sure to define the term “state” as it is used in the book and contrast this with the use of the term in the sense of the United States. Terrorists or Freedom Fighters? A real challenge lies in the separation of the political spin and media hyperbole from what may actually be occurring in any particular conflict. Students may fall into any number of camps, but feelings can be quite strong about “right” and “wrong” sides in any particular conflict. For perspective, try this question: If you are a parent with an injured child, does it matter to you if the people who hurt your child were “liberators” or “terrorists”? Assignments Review/Reflection Questions • When referring to European nations occupying areas around the world, taking over governments and often brutally suppressing any resistance, why do you think the word “colonialism” is used instead of “invasion?” Explain and elaborate. • Using a world map, identify two examples each of the following types of states not referenced in the text: compact, elongated, landlocked, and fragmented. • What are the implications of gerrymandering? Is there any way that voting districts could be divided up that would not result in one group complaining of inappropriate representation? • Look at the text’s definition of terrorism. Modify it or create your own if you wish. Now consider the following questions: 1. Over a nine-month period in 1941–1942, the German Luftwaffe (air force) bombed London, destroying more than 1 million houses and killing approximately 43,000 people. Except for the fact that this act was carried out by the state, does it meet your definition of terrorism? Answer: When referring to European nations occupying areas around the world, the term "colonialism" is used instead of "invasion" because colonialism implies a long-term, systematic process of control and exploitation, often involving the establishment of settlements and the imposition of political, economic, and cultural dominance over a territory and its people. In contrast, "invasion" typically implies a more temporary, military-focused action aimed at gaining control over a specific area or defeating an adversary. Examples of different types of states: • Compact: Poland and Uruguay • Elongated: Chile and Vietnam • Landlocked: Nepal and Bolivia • Fragmented: Indonesia and Philippines Gerrymandering refers to the manipulation of voting district boundaries to favor a particular political party or group. The implications of gerrymandering include unequal representation, distorted electoral outcomes, and the potential for disenfranchisement of certain groups of voters. One way to potentially mitigate these issues is through the establishment of independent, non-partisan commissions responsible for drawing district boundaries based on neutral criteria such as population equality and geographic contiguity. Modified definition of terrorism: The use of violence or intimidation, often targeting civilians, to achieve political, ideological, or religious goals. Regarding the bombing of London by the German Luftwaffe during World War II, while this act involved the deliberate targeting of civilians by a state actor, it does not meet the typical definition of terrorism. Terrorism is often associated with non-state actors and is characterized by its use of violence for ideological or political purposes outside of the accepted rules of war. The bombing of London, while certainly a horrific act, was part of a broader military campaign and not carried out for the primary purpose of instilling fear or achieving political aims unrelated to the war effort. 2. Over a period of two nights (February 13–15) in 1944, the U.S. and British air forces dropped approximately 3,900 tons of highly explosive and incendiary (fire-causing) bombs on Dresden, Germany. Their objective was to destroy Dresden’s rail yard, but they dropped so many bombs all around the city that the resulting firestorm killed about 30,000 people, most of whom were burned alive. Except for the fact that this act was carried out by the state, does it meet your definition of terrorism? Answer: 1. Colonialism vs. Invasion: The term "colonialism" is used instead of "invasion" when referring to European nations occupying areas around the world because colonialism implies a more complex and enduring relationship. Colonialism involves not just the initial military invasion but also the establishment of settlements, economic exploitation, cultural domination, and the imposition of political control over an extended period. It often involves the establishment of a colonial administration and the exploitation of resources for the benefit of the colonizing power. The term "invasion" typically refers to a single military act without the broader implications of long-term control and exploitation. 2. Examples of State Types: • Compact States: Austria and Hungary are examples of compact states. • Elongated States: Chile and Italy are examples of elongated states. • Landlocked States: Bolivia and Nepal are examples of landlocked states. • Fragmented States: Indonesia and the Philippines are examples of fragmented states. 3. Implications of Gerrymandering: Gerrymandering refers to the manipulation of voting district boundaries to favor a particular political party or group. The implications include: • Distorted representation: Gerrymandering can result in districts that do not accurately represent the political preferences of the population. • Disenfranchisement: It can disenfranchise certain groups by diluting their voting power. • Polarization: Gerrymandering can contribute to political polarization by creating safe districts that favor extreme candidates. • Lack of accountability: It can lead to a lack of accountability among elected officials who do not face competitive elections. It is challenging to divide voting districts in a way that satisfies all groups because different groups may have conflicting interests. However, using nonpartisan commissions or algorithms to draw district boundaries based on population density and geographical features could help reduce the potential for gerrymandering and ensure more fair representation. 4. Definition of Terrorism and Dresden Bombing: Terrorism can be defined as the use of violence or intimidation for political purposes, often targeting civilians. The bombing of Dresden by the U.S. and British air forces in 1944 meets some aspects of this definition, as it involved the deliberate targeting of civilians to achieve a political objective (destroying Dresden's rail yard and weakening Germany's war effort). However, the context of World War II complicates the characterization of this event as terrorism, as it occurred during a time of total war when civilian populations were often targeted. The fact that it was carried out by state actors also distinguishes it from typical acts of terrorism, which are usually carried out by non-state actors. The moral and ethical implications of the bombing remain a subject of debate and controversy. 3. Should we draw a distinction between “terrorism” and “war” as separate concepts? Explain your reasoning. Answer: Yes, we should draw a distinction between "terrorism" and "war" as separate concepts. While both involve the use of violence, their motivations, actors, targets, and contexts differ significantly. War is a conflict between organized groups, often nations or states, involving military forces, with clear political objectives and recognized rules of engagement. It is typically conducted openly and is subject to international laws and conventions governing armed conflict. Terrorism, on the other hand, is the use of violence or threats to intimidate or coerce, often against civilians, for political, religious, or ideological purposes. Unlike war, terrorism is often carried out by non-state actors or clandestine groups and does not necessarily involve a formal declaration of hostilities or adherence to established rules of warfare. Drawing a distinction between terrorism and war is important because it helps us understand the nature of the violence and the appropriate responses. Treating terrorism as equivalent to war can lead to the erosion of civil liberties and human rights, as well as the stigmatization of entire communities. Additionally, conflating the two concepts can obscure the root causes of terrorism and hinder efforts to address them effectively. In conclusion, while both terrorism and war involve violence, they are distinct concepts that require different analytical frameworks and responses. Recognizing this distinction is essential for developing nuanced and effective strategies for promoting peace and security. Instructor Manual for The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography James M. Rubenstein 9780321831583, 9780321956712, 9780321831576, 9780132435734