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CHAPTER 6 GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Distinguish between primary and secondary groups. Distinguish between primary and secondary groups. Answer: To distinguish between primary and secondary groups, let's first define each: 1. Primary Groups: These are typically small, intimate groups characterized by face-to-face interaction, close relationships, and emotional depth. Members of primary groups often share common interests, values, and goals. Examples include family, close friends, and small social circles. 2. Secondary Groups: In contrast, secondary groups are larger and more impersonal. They are usually task-oriented and focused on achieving specific goals or objectives. Relationships in secondary groups tend to be more formal and based on roles rather than personal connections. Examples include classmates, coworkers, and members of a club or organization. Distinguishing Factors: 1. Size and Structure: Primary groups are small and characterized by a relatively stable structure, whereas secondary groups are larger and more likely to have a formalized structure. 2. Duration and Stability: Primary groups are typically long-lasting and stable over time, while secondary groups may be temporary and dissolve once their goal is achieved. 3. Purpose and Focus: Primary groups are focused on emotional support, personal development, and the satisfaction of basic human needs, while secondary groups are focused on specific tasks, objectives, or interests. 4. Intensity of Relationships: Relationships in primary groups are often more intense and intimate, with a strong sense of loyalty and commitment among members. In contrast, relationships in secondary groups are usually more superficial and task-oriented. In summary, the key differences between primary and secondary groups lie in their size, structure, duration, purpose, and the intensity of relationships among members. 2. What does Robert Merton mean by “in-group virtues” and “out-group vices”? Answer: Robert Merton, a sociologist known for his work on social structure and anomie, introduced the concepts of "in-group virtues" and "out-group vices" to explain how groups perceive themselves in relation to others. In-group virtues refer to the positive traits, values, or characteristics that a group attributes to itself. These virtues are often seen as defining the group's identity and are used to differentiate the in-group from out-groups. They can include qualities such as loyalty, honesty, and integrity, which the group values and promotes among its members. Out-group vices, on the other hand, are negative traits or behaviors that the group attributes to outsiders or members of other groups. These vices are used to justify the exclusion or discrimination of out-groups and to reinforce the in-group's sense of superiority or moral standing. Out-group vices can include qualities such as dishonesty, laziness, or immorality, which are seen as characteristic of those outside the group. Overall, Merton's concept of in-group virtues and out-group vices highlights how groups define themselves in relation to others and how these definitions can influence intergroup relations, stereotypes, and prejudices. 3. What are the similarities and differences among reference groups, primary groups, and secondary groups? Answer: Similarities: 1. Social Influence: All three types of groups have an influence on individuals' attitudes, behaviors, and values through social interaction and group norms. 2. Identity Formation: They play a role in shaping individuals' identities and self-concepts by providing a context for social comparison and self-evaluation. 3. Membership: Individuals can be members of multiple reference groups, primary groups, and secondary groups simultaneously, and membership in these groups can change over time. Differences: 1. Purpose and Function: • Reference Groups: These are used by individuals as benchmarks for evaluating their own attitudes, behaviors, and values. They provide standards for comparison and influence individuals' aspirations and goals. • Primary Groups: These are characterized by close, personal relationships and are often the primary sources of emotional support, companionship, and identity formation. • Secondary Groups: These are larger and more impersonal than primary groups. They are typically task-oriented and focused on achieving specific goals or objectives. 2. Size and Intimacy: • Reference Groups: Can vary in size and intimacy; they can be large and impersonal (e.g., a celebrity group) or small and intimate (e.g., a family group). • Primary Groups: Small, intimate groups characterized by face-to-face interaction and deep emotional bonds. • Secondary Groups: Larger and more impersonal than primary groups, often characterized by formalized structures and less intimate relationships. 3. Duration and Stability: • Reference Groups: Membership in reference groups can change over time, and individuals may belong to multiple reference groups throughout their lives. • Primary Groups: Typically long-lasting and stable over time, providing a sense of continuity and belonging. • Secondary Groups: May be temporary and dissolve once their goals are achieved, with membership based on specific tasks or objectives. 4. Impact on Identity: • Reference Groups: Influence individuals' self-concepts and aspirations by providing models for behavior and values. • Primary Groups: Play a significant role in shaping individuals' identities and self-concepts through close, personal relationships. • Secondary Groups: Have a more limited impact on identity compared to primary groups, as relationships are often more superficial and task-oriented. 4. What impact does the size of the group have on people’s behavior? Answer: The size of a group can have a significant impact on people's behavior, influencing how individuals interact, perceive themselves, and make decisions. Here are some key effects of group size: 1. Social Influence: In smaller groups, individuals may feel more accountable and closely observed, leading to conformity and a greater likelihood of adhering to group norms. In contrast, larger groups can provide anonymity, which may lead to a decrease in individual accountability and an increase in deviant or non-conforming behavior. 2. Interaction and Communication: In smaller groups, there tend to be more opportunities for all members to participate in discussions and decision-making, fostering closer relationships and more cohesive group dynamics. In larger groups, communication can be more challenging, with fewer opportunities for everyone to contribute equally, leading to the formation of subgroups or cliques. 3. Group Cohesion: Smaller groups often exhibit higher levels of cohesion and solidarity, as members are more likely to know each other well and share common goals and interests. Larger groups may struggle more with cohesion, as members may not feel as connected or committed to the group as a whole. 4. Leadership and Power Dynamics: In smaller groups, leadership roles may be more clearly defined, with leaders having a greater influence over group decisions and direction. In larger groups, power dynamics can be more complex, with leadership distributed among multiple individuals or factions. 5. Decision-Making: Group size can impact the decision-making process, with smaller groups often able to reach consensus more quickly and with greater agreement among members. Larger groups may struggle more with decision-making, as there are more opinions and perspectives to consider. Overall, the size of a group can shape the dynamics, interactions, and outcomes of group behavior, influencing how individuals behave and interact within the group context. 5. Discuss Georg Simmel’s contributions to the study of small groups. Answer: Georg Simmel, a German sociologist, made significant contributions to the study of small groups, particularly through his work on social interactions and group dynamics. Some key contributions include: 1. Formal Sociology: Simmel introduced the concept of formal sociology, which focuses on the patterns and forms of social interactions rather than the content of those interactions. This approach was foundational in understanding the structures and dynamics of small groups. 2. Group Size: Simmel discussed how group size influences social interactions. He proposed that as group size increases, the intensity of relationships decreases, and the group's structure becomes more complex. For example, a dyad (a group of two) is characterized by intense, direct interactions, while a triad (a group of three) introduces the possibility of alliances, conflicts, and group dynamics. 3. The Dyad and the Triad: Simmel's analysis of the dyad and the triad highlighted the unique dynamics of each. He argued that the dyad is the most intense form of social interaction, as it involves only two individuals and is characterized by symmetry. In contrast, the triad introduces asymmetry, as one individual can act as a mediator or disrupt the balance between the other two. 4. Group Forms: Simmel identified different forms of groups based on their internal dynamics. For example, he discussed the difference between a "party" and a "circle." A party is a larger, more formal group focused on a specific purpose or goal, while a circle is a smaller, more intimate group based on personal relationships and interactions. 5. Conflict and Cooperation: Simmel explored the role of conflict and cooperation in small groups. He argued that conflict can arise from the tension between individual interests and group dynamics, while cooperation is essential for maintaining social order and cohesion. Overall, Simmel's contributions to the study of small groups laid the foundation for understanding the complexities of social interactions, group dynamics, and the structures that shape human relationships in various social contexts. 6. Explain how coalitions develop within small groups. Answer: Coalitions within small groups develop through a process of social interaction and negotiation among group members. A coalition is formed when two or more individuals or subgroups within a group align themselves to achieve a common goal or address a common concern. Several factors contribute to the development of coalitions: 1. Shared Goals or Interests: Coalitions often form when members share common goals, interests, or grievances. These shared objectives serve as a basis for cooperation and collaboration among group members. 2. Perceived Power Disparities: Individuals or subgroups may form coalitions in response to perceived power imbalances within the group. By joining forces, weaker or marginalized members can increase their influence and bargaining power. 3. Mutual Benefit: Coalitions may develop when members believe that collaborating with others will benefit them individually or collectively. This mutual benefit can take the form of increased resources, support, or influence. 4. Interpersonal Relationships: Existing relationships and social ties among group members can influence coalition formation. People are more likely to form coalitions with those they trust or have positive relationships with. 5. Strategic Alliances: In some cases, coalitions are formed strategically to achieve specific objectives or to counteract competing coalitions within the group. These alliances are often temporary and based on pragmatic considerations. 6. Conflict and Competition: Conflict or competition within the group can lead to the formation of coalitions as members seek allies to support their positions or interests. 7. Leadership: The emergence of a leader or influential member within the group can also facilitate coalition formation. Leaders may rally support from others to advance their agenda or maintain their position of power. Overall, coalitions develop within small groups as a result of complex social dynamics, including shared goals, power dynamics, interpersonal relationships, strategic considerations, and responses to conflict or competition. 7. What is groupthink, and under what kinds of circumstances might it arise? Answer: Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs within a group of people when the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. This can lead to poor decisions, as group members may prioritize consensus and unanimity over critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints. Groupthink is more likely to arise under certain circumstances: 1. High Cohesion: When group members are highly cohesive and have a strong desire for unanimity, they may suppress dissenting opinions to maintain harmony within the group. 2. Isolation: When the group is isolated from outside perspectives or information, it can lead to a lack of diverse viewpoints and alternative ideas, reinforcing groupthink. 3. Directive Leadership: When the group is led by a directive leader who promotes their own agenda and discourages dissent, group members may be less likely to voice alternative perspectives. 4. Stressful Situations: In situations where the group is under high stress or pressure to make a decision quickly, groupthink may occur as members seek to alleviate anxiety and uncertainty by conforming to the group's opinion. 5. Lack of Decision-making Procedures: When the group lacks clear decision-making procedures or methods for evaluating alternatives, it can lead to a reliance on consensus and conformity, rather than critical evaluation. 6. Illusion of Invulnerability: When group members believe that their group is invulnerable or inherently right, they may discount warnings or alternative viewpoints that challenge this belief. 7. Self-Censorship: When group members withhold their opinions or concerns out of fear of disapproval or conflict, it can lead to a false sense of agreement within the group. Overall, groupthink can arise in situations where there is high group cohesion, isolation from outside perspectives, directive leadership, stressful conditions, lack of decision-making procedures, an illusion of invulnerability, and self-censorship among group members. Recognizing the signs of groupthink and actively encouraging dissent and diverse viewpoints can help mitigate its negative effects and improve decision-making processes within groups. 8. Describe recent sociological research on decision making among jurors. Answer: Recent sociological research on decision-making among jurors has focused on several key areas, including the impact of group dynamics, deliberation processes, and individual characteristics on jury decision-making. 1. Group Dynamics: Studies have examined how group composition, cohesion, and communication patterns influence jury deliberations and verdicts. Research suggests that diverse juries may consider a broader range of perspectives and evidence, leading to more thorough deliberations and potentially fairer outcomes. 2. Deliberation Processes: Researchers have studied the deliberation process itself, including how jurors discuss evidence, negotiate differences of opinion, and reach consensus. This research has highlighted the importance of open communication, respectful dialogue, and effective decision-making procedures in ensuring fair and impartial deliberations. 3. Individual Characteristics: Studies have also explored how jurors' individual characteristics, such as demographics, attitudes, and personality traits, influence their decision-making behavior. For example, research has found that jurors who are more confident in their abilities to evaluate evidence may be more influential in deliberations. 4. Legal Instructions and Decision-Making: Researchers have examined the impact of legal instructions provided to jurors on their decision-making processes. Studies suggest that jurors' understanding and application of legal standards can vary, highlighting the need for clear and effective communication of legal principles. 5. Technology and Decision-Making: Some research has explored the use of technology in the jury deliberation process, such as virtual deliberation platforms. These studies have examined how technology affects communication, decision-making, and overall deliberation outcomes. Overall, recent sociological research on jury decision-making has provided valuable insights into the complex interplay of factors that influence jurors' deliberations and verdicts. This research has important implications for legal practices and policies aimed at ensuring fair and impartial jury trials. 9. How does ascribed status have an impact within formal organizations? Answer: Ascribed status, which is a social position assigned to an individual based on characteristics such as age, gender, race, or family background, can have a significant impact within formal organizations. 1. Access to Opportunities: Ascribed status can influence the opportunities available to individuals within formal organizations. For example, individuals with higher ascribed status, such as being male or from a privileged background, may have greater access to leadership positions or career advancement opportunities compared to those with lower ascribed status. 2. Perceptions and Stereotypes: Ascribed status can shape how individuals are perceived within formal organizations. Stereotypes and biases associated with certain ascribed statuses can impact how others view an individual's abilities, potential, and suitability for specific roles or responsibilities. 3. Treatment and Behavior: Ascribed status can affect how individuals are treated by others within formal organizations. Those with higher ascribed status may receive more respect, authority, and deference, while those with lower ascribed status may experience discrimination, marginalization, or lack of recognition for their contributions. 4. Organizational Culture: Ascribed status can influence the culture of formal organizations. Organizations may reflect and reinforce societal norms and values related to ascribed status, which can impact the behavior, interactions, and expectations of individuals within the organization. 5. Group Dynamics: Ascribed status can influence group dynamics within formal organizations. Individuals may be more likely to associate with others who share similar ascribed status characteristics, leading to the formation of cliques or social hierarchies based on status. 6. Conflict and Discontent: Ascribed status disparities can lead to conflict and discontent within formal organizations. Individuals who perceive unfair treatment or lack of opportunities based on their ascribed status may feel frustrated, demotivated, or disengaged from the organization. In conclusion, ascribed status can have a multifaceted impact within formal organizations, affecting individuals' access to opportunities, perceptions, treatment, organizational culture, group dynamics, and overall experiences within the organization. Recognizing and addressing the influence of ascribed status is essential for promoting fairness, equity, and inclusivity within formal organizational settings. 10. Briefly summarize Max Weber’s five characteristics of bureaucracy. Answer: Max Weber, a prominent sociologist, outlined five key characteristics of bureaucracy: 1. Division of Labor: Bureaucratic organizations divide tasks and responsibilities among members based on their specialized skills and expertise. This division of labor helps ensure efficiency and effectiveness in achieving organizational goals. 2. Hierarchy of Authority: Bureaucracies have a clear hierarchy of authority, with positions arranged in a hierarchical order from top to bottom. Each position is responsible for supervising and overseeing the positions below it, creating a chain of command. 3. Rules and Regulations: Bureaucracies operate according to established rules and regulations that govern the behavior and interactions of members. These rules are typically formalized and standardized, ensuring consistency and predictability in organizational operations. 4. Impersonality: Bureaucracies maintain a level of impersonality in their operations, treating individuals based on their roles and positions rather than personal characteristics. This helps ensure fairness and equity in decision-making and treatment of members. 5. Career Advancement based on Merit: Bureaucratic organizations promote career advancement based on merit and performance rather than personal connections or favoritism. This merit-based system rewards individuals for their skills, qualifications, and contributions to the organization. These characteristics, according to Weber, are intended to promote efficiency, rationality, and effectiveness in organizational operations. However, Weber also recognized that bureaucracies can sometimes lead to inefficiencies, rigidities, and dehumanization of individuals, especially when taken to extremes. 11. Discuss the positive consequences of a bureaucracy. Answer: Bureaucracy, despite its often-criticized characteristics, has several positive consequences: 1. Efficiency: Bureaucratic structures are designed to be efficient, with clear division of labor, hierarchical structures, and standardized procedures. This can lead to streamlined processes and faster decision-making, especially in large organizations dealing with complex tasks. 2. Predictability: Bureaucracies operate according to established rules and regulations, making outcomes more predictable. This can be beneficial for both internal operations and interactions with external parties, such as clients or customers. 3. Fairness and Impartiality: Bureaucratic systems aim to treat everyone equally, regardless of personal characteristics. This can promote fairness and reduce discrimination or favoritism in decision-making processes. 4. Accountability: Bureaucratic structures often include mechanisms for accountability, with clear lines of authority and responsibility. This can help ensure that individuals are held accountable for their actions and decisions. 5. Specialization and Expertise: Bureaucracies encourage specialization and expertise, with individuals assigned tasks based on their skills and qualifications. This can lead to higher-quality outcomes and innovative solutions to complex problems. 6. Scalability: Bureaucratic structures are scalable, meaning they can easily adapt to changes in size or scope. This scalability allows organizations to grow or shrink as needed without major disruptions to operations. 7. Legal and Ethical Standards: Bureaucratic systems often adhere to legal and ethical standards, promoting compliance with laws and regulations. This can help organizations avoid legal issues and maintain a positive reputation. Overall, while bureaucracy is often criticized for its rigidity and inefficiency, it also has several positive consequences, including efficiency, predictability, fairness, accountability, specialization, scalability, and adherence to legal and ethical standards. 12. Discuss the negative consequences of a bureaucracy for the individual and the organization. Answer: While bureaucracy has its benefits, it also comes with several negative consequences for both individuals and organizations: 1. Bureaucratic Red Tape: Bureaucratic systems can be characterized by excessive rules, regulations, and procedures, leading to bureaucratic red tape. This can slow down decision-making processes and hinder organizational agility. 2. Impersonality: Bureaucracies often treat individuals as interchangeable parts, focusing on roles and positions rather than personal characteristics. This can lead to feelings of alienation, dehumanization, and lack of personal fulfillment among employees. 3. Rigidity and Resistance to Change: Bureaucratic structures can be resistant to change, as they are designed to maintain stability and predictability. This can hinder innovation and adaptability, especially in fast-changing environments. 4. Hierarchy and Power Dynamics: Bureaucratic hierarchies can lead to power imbalances and inequalities among employees. Those in higher positions may have disproportionate influence and control over decision-making processes. 5. Bureaucratic Dysfunction: In some cases, bureaucratic systems can become dysfunctional, with rules and procedures taking precedence over organizational goals and common sense. This can lead to inefficiencies and frustrations among employees. 6. Goal Displacement: Bureaucracies may focus more on following rules and procedures than on achieving organizational goals. This can result in a disconnect between actions taken and outcomes achieved. 7. Communication Barriers: Bureaucratic structures can create barriers to effective communication, especially between different levels of the hierarchy. This can lead to misunderstandings, inefficiencies, and delays in decision-making. Overall, while bureaucracy can provide structure and stability to organizations, it also has several negative consequences, including bureaucratic red tape, impersonality, rigidity, power dynamics, dysfunction, goal displacement, and communication barriers. Recognizing and mitigating these negative aspects of bureaucracy is important for organizations to remain effective and responsive in a rapidly changing world. 13. What are some of the positive and negative consequences of a bureaucracy’s rules and regulations? Answer: Positive Consequences: 1. Consistency and Predictability: Rules and regulations provide a framework for consistent decision-making and behavior within a bureaucracy. This can lead to predictability in outcomes and operations, which is beneficial for both the organization and its stakeholders. 2. Clarity and Structure: Rules and regulations create a clear structure within the organization, outlining expectations and responsibilities for individuals. This clarity can help employees understand their roles and how they contribute to the organization's goals. 3. Efficiency: Well-defined rules and regulations can promote efficiency by standardizing processes and reducing ambiguity. This can help streamline operations and reduce the likelihood of errors or misunderstandings. 4. Fairness and Accountability: Rules and regulations can promote fairness by ensuring that decisions are based on established criteria rather than personal biases or preferences. They also help establish accountability, as individuals can be held accountable for adhering to the rules. Negative Consequences: 1. Bureaucratic Red Tape: Excessive rules and regulations can lead to bureaucratic red tape, slowing down decision-making processes and hindering organizational agility. This can be frustrating for employees and may impede innovation and creativity. 2. Rigidity and Resistance to Change: Strict adherence to rules and regulations can create a rigid organizational culture that is resistant to change. This can make it difficult for the organization to adapt to new challenges or opportunities. 3. Bureaucratic Dysfunction: In some cases, rules and regulations can become so cumbersome that they hinder rather than facilitate organizational goals. This can lead to inefficiencies and frustrations among employees. 4. Micromanagement: Overly detailed rules and regulations can lead to micromanagement, with managers focusing excessively on enforcing compliance rather than empowering employees to make decisions. 5. Creativity and Innovation: Strict adherence to rules and regulations can stifle creativity and innovation, as employees may be discouraged from thinking outside the box or taking risks. In conclusion, while rules and regulations are necessary for maintaining order and structure within a bureaucracy, they can also have negative consequences if not carefully managed. It is important for organizations to strike a balance between structure and flexibility, ensuring that rules and regulations serve their intended purpose without impeding organizational effectiveness. 14. What are some of the positive and negative consequences of employment based on technical qualifications in a bureaucracy? Answer: Positive Consequences: 1. Efficiency and Competence: Employment based on technical qualifications ensures that individuals have the necessary skills and expertise to perform their roles effectively. This can lead to increased efficiency and productivity within the organization. 2. Quality of Work: Employees hired based on technical qualifications are likely to produce higher quality work, as they have the knowledge and experience necessary to excel in their roles. This can lead to better outcomes for the organization. 3. Innovation and Problem-Solving: Employees with technical qualifications often bring new ideas and perspectives to the organization, leading to innovation and improved problem-solving capabilities. 4. Professional Development: Employment based on technical qualifications can encourage employees to pursue further education and training to enhance their skills. This can lead to a more skilled and knowledgeable workforce. Negative Consequences: 1. Limited Diversity: Strict adherence to technical qualifications may limit diversity within the organization, as it may overlook candidates from different backgrounds or with alternative skill sets. 2. Lack of Flexibility: Relying solely on technical qualifications can lead to a lack of flexibility in hiring decisions, potentially overlooking candidates who may excel in the role but do not meet all technical criteria. 3. Potential for Bias: Technical qualifications may not always be a true measure of an individual's abilities or potential. Relying too heavily on technical qualifications can lead to bias in the hiring process. 4. Skill Shortages: Strict adherence to technical qualifications may result in skill shortages, as candidates with the necessary technical qualifications may be in short supply. 5. Employee Morale: Employees who are hired based solely on technical qualifications may feel undervalued or unappreciated, leading to lower morale and decreased job satisfaction. In conclusion, while employment based on technical qualifications can bring several benefits to an organization, it is important to consider the potential negative consequences and strive for a balanced approach to hiring that takes into account both technical qualifications and other factors such as diversity, flexibility, and potential for growth. 15. What does the case study of the Challenger space shuttle disaster show us about the characteristics of a bureaucracy or formal organization? Answer: The case study of the Challenger space shuttle disaster highlights several characteristics of a bureaucracy or formal organization: 1. Hierarchy: The decision-making process within NASA, the organization responsible for the Challenger mission, was characterized by a clear hierarchy of authority. Senior managers and engineers had the final say in crucial decisions, such as whether to launch the shuttle, despite concerns raised by lower-ranking engineers about the safety of the O-rings in cold weather. 2. Rules and Regulations: NASA had established rules and procedures for ensuring the safety of space shuttle launches. However, these rules were not always followed or were overridden in the case of the Challenger launch due to pressure to meet schedule and budget constraints. 3. Division of Labor: NASA employed a division of labor, with different teams and individuals responsible for various aspects of the space shuttle program. However, this division of labor may have contributed to communication breakdowns and a lack of holistic decision-making regarding the O-ring issue. 4. Impersonality: The decision-making process at NASA was characterized by impersonality, with decisions based on technical considerations rather than personal relationships or emotions. However, this impersonality may have led to a lack of consideration for the concerns raised by engineers about the O-rings. 5. Bureaucratic Red Tape: NASA's bureaucratic structure may have contributed to delays and inefficiencies in addressing safety concerns. For example, the process for escalating concerns about the O-rings was cumbersome and did not result in timely action. 6. Resistance to Change: NASA's culture may have been resistant to change, as evidenced by the normalization of anomalies such as O-ring erosion in previous shuttle launches. This resistance to change may have prevented a more proactive approach to addressing safety concerns. Overall, the Challenger disaster highlights how characteristics of a bureaucracy, such as hierarchy, rules and regulations, division of labor, impersonality, bureaucratic red tape, and resistance to change, can contribute to organizational failures and catastrophic outcomes when not managed effectively. It serves as a cautionary tale about the importance of maintaining a balance between the benefits of bureaucracy and the need for flexibility, adaptability, and a culture of safety in formal organizations. 16. Why does Max Weber’s characterization of a bureaucracy constitute an ideal type? (Note: ideal type is introduced in Chapter 1.) Answer: Max Weber's characterization of a bureaucracy constitutes an ideal type because it represents a theoretical construct or model that highlights the key features and principles of bureaucratic organizations in their purest form. 1. Theoretical Concept: Weber's concept of bureaucracy is not intended to describe any specific organization exactly as it exists in reality but rather to serve as a theoretical framework for understanding the characteristics and functions of bureaucracies. 2. Analytical Tool: The ideal type of bureaucracy is used as an analytical tool to compare and contrast real-world organizations. By comparing actual organizations to the ideal type, researchers can identify similarities and differences, as well as strengths and weaknesses, in organizational structures and practices. 3. Simplification of Reality: The ideal type simplifies the complex and varied nature of real-world bureaucracies into a set of idealized characteristics. This simplification allows for a clearer understanding of the essential features of bureaucracies without being bogged down by the specifics of individual cases. 4. Standard of Comparison: The ideal type serves as a standard of comparison against which real-world organizations can be evaluated. This comparison can help identify areas where organizations deviate from the ideal and where improvements can be made. 5. Conceptual Clarification: By delineating the key features of a bureaucracy, Weber's ideal type helps clarify the concept of bureaucracy and its role in modern organizations. This conceptual clarity is essential for developing theories and understanding the dynamics of organizational behavior. Overall, Weber's characterization of a bureaucracy as an ideal type is a theoretical construct that helps us understand the essential characteristics and functions of bureaucratic organizations, providing a framework for analysis and comparison with real-world organizations. 17. Explain what Robert Michels meant by the iron law of oligarchy. Answer: Robert Michels, a sociologist and political theorist, introduced the concept of the "iron law of oligarchy" to describe a phenomenon he observed in organizations, particularly in political parties and labor unions. According to Michels, the iron law of oligarchy suggests that in any organization, even those with democratic ideals, power tends to become concentrated in the hands of a small group of leaders or elites over time. Michels argued that this concentration of power is inevitable due to several factors: 1. Efficiency: As organizations grow in size and complexity, it becomes necessary to delegate authority and decision-making to a smaller group of leaders to ensure efficient operation. 2. Specialization: Leaders often possess specialized skills or knowledge that give them an advantage in making decisions for the organization, leading others to defer to their expertise. 3. Inertia: Once a leadership structure is established, it can be difficult to change, as those in power have a vested interest in maintaining their positions. 4. Hierarchy: Hierarchical structures inherently concentrate power at the top, with decisions flowing downward from leaders to subordinates. 5. Human Nature: Michels also believed that there is a natural tendency for individuals to seek power and influence within organizations, leading to the emergence of an elite class of leaders. The implications of the iron law of oligarchy are significant for democratic organizations, as it suggests that even those with democratic principles are prone to becoming oligarchies over time. Michels argued that this tendency is not necessarily a flaw in democratic ideals but rather a reflection of the complexities of organizational dynamics. He believed that recognizing and addressing this tendency is crucial for maintaining democratic principles within organizations. 18. Distinguish between the classical theory of formal organizations and the human relations approach. Answer: The classical theory of formal organizations and the human relations approach are two contrasting perspectives on organizational management and behavior: 1. Classical Theory of Formal Organizations: • Focus: The classical theory focuses on the organization as a rational system designed to achieve specific objectives efficiently. • Principles: It emphasizes principles of hierarchy, division of labor, unity of command, and span of control to ensure efficiency and coordination. • Management Role: Managers are seen as responsible for planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling organizational activities. • Worker Perspective: Workers are viewed as rational individuals motivated primarily by economic incentives. • Communication: Communication is seen as a top-down process, with information flowing from management to workers. • Criticism: Critics argue that the classical approach oversimplifies human behavior and fails to account for social and psychological factors that influence behavior in organizations. 2. Human Relations Approach: • Focus: The human relations approach focuses on the social and psychological aspects of work and emphasizes the importance of employee satisfaction and morale. • Principles: It highlights the role of leadership, group dynamics, and employee participation in enhancing organizational performance. • Management Role: Managers are seen as facilitators who create a supportive work environment and encourage employee involvement and empowerment. • Worker Perspective: Workers are viewed as individuals with social and emotional needs that impact their performance and motivation. • Communication: Communication is seen as a two-way process, with emphasis on feedback and dialogue between management and workers. • Criticism: Critics argue that the human relations approach can lead to a focus on employee welfare at the expense of organizational goals and efficiency. In summary, while the classical theory of formal organizations emphasizes efficiency and structure, the human relations approach focuses on the social and psychological aspects of work, recognizing the importance of employee satisfaction and motivation in organizational success. 19. Why is the classic Hawthorne study an illustration of the human relations approach? Answer: The classic Hawthorne study is considered an illustration of the human relations approach for several reasons: 1. Focus on Social Factors: The Hawthorne studies, conducted at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works in Chicago, focused on the impact of social factors, such as group norms, communication patterns, and leadership styles, on worker productivity and morale. This aligns with the human relations approach, which emphasizes the importance of social and psychological factors in the workplace. 2. Recognition of Informal Groups: The Hawthorne studies revealed the existence and influence of informal groups within the organization, which were found to have a significant impact on employee behavior and attitudes. This recognition of informal groups highlights the human relations approach's emphasis on the social aspects of work. 3. Emphasis on Employee Welfare: The Hawthorne studies highlighted the importance of considering employee welfare, satisfaction, and morale in improving productivity. This emphasis on the well-being of workers is a central tenet of the human relations approach. 4. Role of Leadership and Communication: The Hawthorne studies underscored the role of leadership and communication in influencing employee behavior and performance. This emphasis on leadership and communication aligns with the human relations approach's focus on the role of management in creating a supportive work environment. Overall, the Hawthorne studies are considered a key illustration of the human relations approach due to their focus on social factors, recognition of informal groups, emphasis on employee welfare, and acknowledgment of the importance of leadership and communication in the workplace. 20. Explain the significance of voluntary organizations as a type of organization. Answer: Voluntary organizations play a significant role in society as a type of organization that is distinct from both formal bureaucratic structures and informal social groups. These organizations are characterized by their voluntary nature, meaning that individuals choose to join and participate in them based on shared interests, goals, or values. The significance of voluntary organizations lies in several key aspects: 1. Community Engagement: Voluntary organizations provide a platform for individuals to actively engage with their communities and contribute to social causes they care about. This engagement fosters a sense of belonging and connection among members. 2. Social Change and Advocacy: Voluntary organizations often serve as agents of social change, advocating for specific causes or issues and working to influence public policy. They provide a voice for marginalized groups and promote social justice and equality. 3. Civil Society and Democracy: Voluntary organizations are essential components of civil society, which is comprised of non-governmental institutions that exist between the state and the individual. These organizations help to strengthen democracy by providing opportunities for civic participation and fostering a sense of civic responsibility. 4. Service Provision: Many voluntary organizations provide essential services to communities, such as healthcare, education, and social welfare programs. They often fill gaps in government services and address specific needs that may not be met by the public sector. 5. Personal Development: Voluntary organizations offer opportunities for personal development and growth, allowing individuals to develop new skills, build relationships, and gain a sense of accomplishment through their involvement. 6. Social Capital: Voluntary organizations contribute to the development of social capital, which refers to the networks of relationships and norms of reciprocity that exist within a community. Social capital is important for building trust and cooperation among community members. In conclusion, voluntary organizations play a crucial role in society by promoting community engagement, advocating for social change, strengthening civil society, providing essential services, fostering personal development, and contributing to the development of social capital. Their significance lies in their ability to empower individuals, create positive social change, and enhance the well-being of communities. 21. Discuss the changing nature of the workplace, and include references to organizational restructuring, telecommuting, and electronic communication in your answer. Answer: The workplace is undergoing significant changes due to advancements in technology, globalization, and evolving organizational structures. These changes are reshaping how work is conducted and how organizations are structured. Three key aspects of this changing nature of the workplace are organizational restructuring, telecommuting, and electronic communication: 1. Organizational Restructuring: Organizational restructuring involves changes to an organization's structure, processes, and roles to improve efficiency, adapt to market changes, or streamline operations. This can include downsizing, outsourcing, or reorganizing departments. Restructuring aims to make organizations more agile and responsive to changing market conditions. 2. Telecommuting: Telecommuting, or remote work, allows employees to work from locations outside the traditional office setting, often using technology to stay connected. Telecommuting has become more prevalent due to advancements in communication technology, such as video conferencing and cloud computing. It offers benefits such as flexibility, reduced commuting time, and access to a broader talent pool. However, it also poses challenges related to communication, collaboration, and work-life balance. 3. Electronic Communication: Electronic communication tools, such as email, instant messaging, and collaboration platforms, have revolutionized how organizations communicate internally and externally. These tools enable faster and more efficient communication, facilitate remote collaboration, and help organizations stay connected across different locations. However, they can also lead to information overload, miscommunication, and challenges in maintaining work-life boundaries. Overall, the changing nature of the workplace is characterized by increased flexibility, connectivity, and efficiency, driven by organizational restructuring, telecommuting, and electronic communication. While these changes offer opportunities for organizations to be more agile and responsive, they also present challenges in terms of managing remote teams, maintaining organizational culture, and ensuring work-life balance for employees. Adaptation to these changes is crucial for organizations to thrive in the evolving workplace environment. 22. What are some of the reasons why unions have declined in strength in recent decades? Answer: There are several reasons why unions have declined in strength in recent decades: 1. Globalization: Globalization has led to increased competition and the outsourcing of jobs to countries with lower labor costs. This has weakened the bargaining power of unions, as companies have more options for sourcing labor. 2. Changes in the Labor Market: The shift from manufacturing to service-based industries has resulted in a decline in unionized industries. Additionally, the rise of the gig economy and temporary work arrangements has made it more challenging for unions to organize workers. 3. Legislation: Changes in labor laws and regulations have made it more difficult for unions to organize and engage in collective bargaining. Right-to-work laws, which allow employees to opt out of union membership, have weakened unions' ability to maintain membership and bargaining power. 4. Employer Opposition: Some employers have actively opposed unionization efforts through tactics such as hiring union-busting firms, conducting anti-union campaigns, and retaliating against union organizers. This has made it more challenging for unions to organize workers. 5. Changing Attitudes Towards Unions: There has been a shift in public attitudes towards unions, with some viewing them as outdated or ineffective. This has made it harder for unions to attract new members and maintain existing ones. 6. Economic Factors: Economic downturns and recessions have put pressure on unions to make concessions in order to protect jobs, leading to a decline in membership and bargaining power. 7. Technological Advances: Technological advances have led to automation and the use of robotics in many industries, reducing the demand for labor and thereby weakening unions' bargaining power. Overall, these factors have contributed to a decline in the strength of unions in recent decades, posing challenges for workers seeking to organize and bargain collectively for better wages, benefits, and working conditions. 23. How do functionalists and conflict theorists view unions? Answer: Functionalists and conflict theorists have contrasting views on unions: 1. Functionalists: • View unions as serving a functional role in society by promoting social stability and ensuring a balance of power between workers and employers. • See unions as mechanisms for addressing issues such as workplace safety, fair wages, and benefits, which contribute to the overall well-being of society. • Emphasize the role of unions in providing a voice for workers and facilitating communication and negotiation between labor and management. • Argue that unions contribute to social cohesion by promoting a sense of solidarity among workers and advocating for the common interests of the working class. 2. Conflict Theorists: • View unions as a product of the inherent conflict between labor and capital, representing the struggle for power and resources in society. • See unions as a response to the exploitation of workers by capitalists, aiming to challenge the dominance of employers and achieve better working conditions and benefits for workers. • Emphasize the role of unions in promoting class consciousness and solidarity among workers, leading to potential revolutionary change in society. • Argue that unions are a site of ongoing conflict and negotiation, reflecting the broader power dynamics in society between workers and capitalists. Overall, functionalists view unions as beneficial institutions that contribute to social stability and the well-being of society, while conflict theorists see unions as a manifestation of the underlying class struggle and a means for workers to challenge capitalist power structures. 24. What is a “right-to-work” law, and how is it related to union growth? Answer: A "right-to-work" law is a state law in the United States that prohibits employers and unions from entering into agreements that require employees to join a union as a condition of employment. These laws allow employees to choose whether or not to join or financially support a union, even if the workplace is unionized. The relationship between right-to-work laws and union growth is complex and contentious: 1. Impact on Union Membership: Right-to-work laws tend to result in lower union membership rates in states where they are enacted. This is because employees are not required to join or financially support a union, reducing the resources and bargaining power of unions. 2. Impact on Union Finances: Right-to-work laws can weaken unions financially by reducing the amount of dues collected from members. This can limit unions' ability to organize and engage in collective bargaining. 3. Impact on Wages and Benefits: Studies have shown that wages and benefits tend to be lower in states with right-to-work laws, even after accounting for other factors. This is because unions have less bargaining power to negotiate higher wages and benefits for workers. 4. Political and Ideological Divide: The debate over right-to-work laws is often framed in terms of individual freedom versus union power. Supporters argue that these laws protect workers' rights to choose whether or not to join a union, while opponents argue that they weaken unions and lead to lower wages and benefits for workers. Overall, right-to-work laws have a significant impact on union growth by reducing union membership rates, weakening unions financially, and influencing wages and benefits for workers in states where these laws are enacted. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Distinguish the differences between primary and secondary groups, and describe how social relationships in groups evolve as society becomes more populated and formal in its functions. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: Primary groups are small, intimate, and characterized by face-to-face interaction, emotional ties, and a strong sense of belonging. Examples include families, close friendships, and small peer groups. In contrast, secondary groups are larger, more impersonal, and often based on a specific goal or purpose. Examples include work teams, clubs, and professional associations. As society becomes more populated and formal in its functions, social relationships in groups tend to evolve in several ways: 1. Size and Formality: Primary groups tend to remain small and informal, with members maintaining close, personal relationships. In contrast, secondary groups often grow larger and more formal, with interactions becoming more task-oriented and less personal. 2. Purpose and Focus: Primary groups are primarily focused on maintaining social bonds and providing emotional support. Secondary groups, on the other hand, are focused on achieving specific goals or objectives, such as completing a project or achieving a common interest. 3. Membership and Commitment: Membership in primary groups is often based on personal relationships and a sense of loyalty. In secondary groups, membership is typically more flexible, and individuals may join or leave based on their interests or needs. 4. Communication and Interaction: In primary groups, communication tends to be more frequent, informal, and based on personal relationships. In secondary groups, communication is often more structured, formal, and task-oriented. 5. Examples: For example, a family (a primary group) may evolve as society becomes more populated by maintaining close, personal relationships but may also face challenges in maintaining these relationships as members move away or become busy with other commitments. In contrast, a professional association (a secondary group) may grow in size and formality as more people join to advance their careers but may also become more focused on professional goals and less on personal relationships. In summary, as society becomes more populated and formal in its functions, social relationships in groups tend to evolve from small, intimate primary groups to larger, more formal secondary groups, with changes in size, purpose, membership, communication, and interaction. 2. Describe the various ways that certain reference groups can affect a person’s behavior patterns, and how we may be influenced by a variety of reference groups during our lifetime. Give some examples to help illustrate your answer. Answer: Reference groups are social groups that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior. These groups can influence a person's behavior patterns in various ways: 1. Normative Influence: Reference groups can influence behavior through normative influence, where individuals conform to group norms to gain acceptance or approval. For example, a teenager may start dressing and behaving like their favorite music artist to fit in with their peer group. 2. Comparative Influence: Reference groups can also influence behavior through comparative influence, where individuals compare themselves to others in the group and adjust their behavior to match or differentiate themselves. For example, a student may study harder to keep up with classmates who are high achievers. 3. Identification: Individuals may also identify with a reference group and adopt its values, beliefs, and behaviors as their own. For example, a new employee may adopt the work ethic and professional values of their colleagues in order to be accepted and successful in the organization. 4. Aspirational Influence: Reference groups can also have aspirational influence, where individuals are influenced by groups they aspire to join or emulate. For example, a person may start exercising and eating healthy after being inspired by fitness influencers on social media. Throughout our lifetime, we may be influenced by a variety of reference groups: • Family: Family is often the first and most influential reference group, shaping our values, beliefs, and behaviors from a young age. • Peer Groups: Peer groups become more influential during adolescence and young adulthood, as individuals seek acceptance and approval from their peers. • School and Work Groups: School and work groups can also be influential, as individuals seek to fit in and succeed in these environments. • Media and Celebrity Groups: Media and celebrity groups can influence behavior through aspirational influence, as individuals aspire to be like their favorite celebrities or influencers. • Religious and Cultural Groups: Religious and cultural groups can also be influential, shaping our beliefs, values, and behaviors throughout our lives. In conclusion, reference groups can influence behavior through normative, comparative, identification, and aspirational influence, and we may be influenced by a variety of reference groups throughout our lifetime, including family, peers, school and work groups, media and celebrity groups, and religious and cultural groups. 3. Identify the various coalitions that came together during the 2004 presidential election. Answer: During the 2004 presidential election in the United States, various coalitions came together to support the candidates. These coalitions included: 1. Democratic Coalition: This coalition included Democratic Party members, liberal and progressive groups, labor unions, environmental organizations, and minority advocacy groups. They supported the Democratic candidate, John Kerry, and focused on issues such as healthcare, education, and the economy. 2. Republican Coalition: The Republican coalition included members of the Republican Party, conservative groups, business organizations, and evangelical Christian groups. They supported the incumbent President George W. Bush and emphasized issues such as national security, tax cuts, and traditional values. 3. Interest Groups: Various interest groups formed coalitions to support their specific agendas. For example, gun rights groups supported Bush, while environmental groups supported Kerry. 4. Regional Coalitions: Different regions of the country formed coalitions based on regional issues and concerns. For example, Midwestern states with a focus on agriculture and manufacturing had specific coalitions advocating for their interests. 5. Independent and Third-party Coalitions: Independent and third-party candidates, such as Ralph Nader, also formed coalitions with supporters who were dissatisfied with the major party candidates. 6. Youth and Student Coalitions: Youth and student groups mobilized to support their chosen candidates, with issues such as college affordability and student loans being prominent. Overall, the 2004 presidential election saw a complex interplay of coalitions representing various political, social, and economic interests, each working to mobilize their supporters and influence the outcome of the election. 4. Describe the negative consequences of bureaucracy as viewed from both the individual and organizational perspectives. Be sure to include examples to support your answer. Answer: The negative consequences of bureaucracy can be viewed from both the individual and organizational perspectives: 1. Individual Perspective: • Alienation: Bureaucratic structures can lead to feelings of alienation among employees, as they may feel disconnected from the purpose of their work and the organization as a whole. For example, in a highly bureaucratic organization, employees may feel like they are just cogs in a machine, rather than valued contributors. • Red Tape: Bureaucracy often involves excessive red tape and bureaucratic procedures, which can be frustrating and time-consuming for employees. For example, employees may have to fill out multiple forms and seek approval from multiple layers of management for simple tasks. • Limited Creativity: Bureaucratic structures can stifle creativity and innovation, as they often prioritize conformity and adherence to rules and procedures over new ideas. For example, employees may be discouraged from suggesting new approaches or solutions that deviate from established protocols. • Overemphasis on Rules: Bureaucratic organizations can become overly focused on following rules and procedures, sometimes at the expense of common sense or the organization's goals. For example, a bureaucratic healthcare organization may prioritize meeting regulatory requirements over providing quality patient care. 2. Organizational Perspective: • Inefficiency: Bureaucratic structures can be inefficient, as they often involve complex hierarchies and decision-making processes. For example, in a bureaucratic government agency, decisions may take a long time to be made due to the need for approval from multiple levels of management. • Rigidity: Bureaucratic structures can be rigid and resistant to change, making it difficult for organizations to adapt to changing external environments. For example, a bureaucratic company may struggle to respond quickly to market trends or new technologies. • Bureaucratic Capture: Bureaucratic organizations can be prone to bureaucratic capture, where the organization's goals become aligned with the interests of the bureaucracy rather than the organization as a whole. For example, a regulatory agency may become too close to the industry it regulates, leading to lax enforcement of regulations. Overall, bureaucracy can have negative consequences for both individuals and organizations, including feelings of alienation, inefficiency, rigidity, and bureaucratic capture. These consequences can hinder organizational performance and employee satisfaction, highlighting the need for careful management of bureaucratic structures. 5. Discuss what personally motivates you to perform work. Would you be more likely to respond to scientific management approaches or human relations approaches in reaching your goals? Give some examples to support your ideas. Answer: What personally motivates me to perform work is a combination of factors, including a sense of purpose, intrinsic interest in the work itself, opportunities for growth and development, and a supportive work environment. I find motivation in feeling that my work is meaningful and contributes to a larger goal or purpose. I also thrive when I can engage in tasks that I find interesting and challenging, as this keeps me engaged and motivated to perform at my best. When it comes to reaching my goals, I believe I would be more likely to respond to human relations approaches rather than scientific management approaches. While scientific management approaches focus on optimizing efficiency through standardization and task specialization, I find that I am more motivated by approaches that emphasize relationships, collaboration, and personal development. For example, if I were working on a project, I would be motivated by a human relations approach that values teamwork, communication, and mutual support among team members. I would be more inspired to work hard and contribute my best efforts when I feel supported by my colleagues and when I can see the impact of my work on the team's overall success. In contrast, a scientific management approach that focuses solely on efficiency and task completion might not resonate with me as much, as it may not take into account the importance of relationships and personal growth in motivating employees. Overall, while scientific management approaches have their place in certain contexts, I believe that human relations approaches are more likely to inspire and motivate me to reach my goals. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Primary Groups among Subcultures: Analysis of primary group life in America’s ethnic and urban communities can be found in Whyte’s coverage of an Italian American gang: William Foote Whyte. Street Corner Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955. See also Liebow’s work on Black street corner men in Washington, DC: Elliot Liebow. Tally’s Corner. Boston: Little Brown, 1967; Thomas on Puerto Rican gangs: Piri Thomas. Down These Mean Streets. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967. The Black writer Claude Brown describes a group of friends: Claude Brown. Manchild in the Promised Land. New York: Macmillan, 1965. See also McCall’s autobiography: Nathan McCall. Makes Me Wanna Holler. New York: Vintage, 1995. 2. Reference Group Theory: See John K. Cochran and Leonard Beeghley, “The Influence of Religion on Attitudes toward Nonmarital Sexuality: A Preliminary Assessment of Reference Group Theory,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 30 (March 1991): 45–62. 3. Street Gangs: See Sudhir A. Venkatesh, “The Social Organization of Street Gang Activity in an Urban Ghetto,” American Journal of Sociology 103 (July 1997): 82–111. 4. Maternalist Organizations: See Linda M. Blum and Elizabeth A. Vandenvater, “Mother to Mother: A Maternalist Organization in Late Capitalist America,” Social Problems 40 (August 1993): 185–300. 5. Organizational Effectiveness: See Renee R. Anspach, “Everyday Methods for Assessing Organizational Effectiveness,” Social Problems (February 1991): 1–19. 6. Sexual Harassment in High Schools: See Valerie E. Lee, Robert G. Croninger, Eleanor Linn, and Xianglei Chen, “The Culture of Sexual Harassment in Secondary Schools,” American Educational Research Journal 33 (Summer 1996): 383–417. 7. Labor Unions as Organizations: Have students learn more about the trials and tribulations of American labor unions. Nelson Lichtenstein. State of the Union: A Century of American Labor. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Diversity at Work: Fostering Better Teams (Insight Media, 2007, 30 minutes). This program shows how diversity affects the workplace and highlights its effect on team relationships. Formal Organizations (Dallas TeleLearning, 1991, 30m). Looking specifically at American society, this program examines how bureaucracies engulf all aspects of life in an industrialized society. It discusses Max Weber’s description of the typical characteristics of bureaucracy and its relationship to rationality, and explores the relationship between a person and a bureaucracy. It also analyzes the dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy. Formal Organizations and Bureaucracy (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video examines both the strengths and weaknesses of formal organizations and bureaucracies. It incorporates interviews with esteemed social scientists, including George Ritzer. Keeping up Appearances: The Culture of Conformity (McGraw-Hill, 25m). Whether following stated procedures or complying with implicit rules of conduct, modern humans willingly modify their behavior dozens of times each day. This program investigates the conformity necessary for mass interactions and the flexibility required to learn and use the behaviors of conformity. In addition to conventions, such as air travel protocol and museum manners, instances of the subversion and even outright abuse of conformity are examined. The Labor Movement In America (Insight Media, 2000, 17m) This video examines the history of the American worker. It includes the impact of industrialization, the Great Depression, and other instrumental social phenomena. Organizing America: The History of Trade Unions (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 40m). This program investigates the major events in the history of American trade unions, from the formation of the first “friendly societies” in the eighteenth century, to the challenges posed by new technologies in the 1980s and 1990s. The program also looks at how the influence of labor unions has changed over the past 200 years. Peter Principle (1973, 26m). Laurence J. Peter presents his thesis and looks at the issue of job satisfaction. Sexual Harassment: It’s Not Just Courtesy—It’s the Law (1990, 27m). Poignant vignettes illustrate the adverse impact of sexual harassment on individuals and organizations. Through the use of situational examples, this tape provides insights into how best to handle unwelcome sexual behavior and demands for sexual favors in return for career advancement. It also covers the law regarding sexual harassment. With Babies and Banners (New Day Films, 1979, 45m). A documentary of the 1937 General Motors sit-down strike in Flint, Michigan, in which the Women’s Emergency Brigade played a crucial role. The Workday (Insight Media, 2000, 60m). This video explores the changing nature of an eight-hour workday and the new era of worker rights. Working World: Work and the Employee (Insight Media, 2005, 30 minutes). In this program, sociologists explore economics and work. They discuss the rapidly changing economic and social climates that emphasize the bottom line. ADDITIONAL READINGS Alfino, Mark, John S. Caputo, and Robin Wynyard. 1998. McDonaldization Revisited: Critical Essays on Consumer Culture. Westport, CT: Praeger. A multidisciplinary look at George Ritzer’s approach to Max Weber’s theory of rationalization and how it has been applied first to McDonald’s restaurants and now to institutions worldwide. Fagenson, Ellen A. 1993. Women in Management: Trends, Issues, and Challenges in Managerial Diversity. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. This anthology focuses on the continued underrepresentation of women in managerial positions within formal organizations. Kendall, Diana. 2002. The Power of Good Deeds: Privileged Women and the Social Reproduction of the Upper Class. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. This excellent book gives an analysis of charity work among wealthy women. It demonstrates how the incorporation of women into philanthropic groups solidifies their position within elite social groups. Kincheloe, Joe L. 2002. The Sign of the Burger: McDonald’s and the Culture of Power. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Kincheloe explores the various ways McDonald’s affects us, serving as a shorthand for the power of U.S. culture, a symbol of consumerism, and an indicator of the condition of labor in a globalized economy. Nishiguchi, Toshihiro. 1994. Strategic Industrial Sourcing: The Japanese Advantage. New York: Oxford University Press. Drawing on eight years of research and more than 1,000 interviews, Nishiguchi offers insight into how very large industrial corporations have developed in Japan and have come to dominate that nation’s economy. Ritzer, George. 2004. The McDonaldization of Society. Revised New Century Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. The most recent, complete elaboration of the McDonaldization thesis since Ritzer first advanced it in 1993. Tannock, Stuart. 2001. Youth at Work: The Unionized Fast-food and Grocery Workplace. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Tannock writes from experience about the low-wage world of youth employment. He finds that unionization doesn’t do much for young workers in the U.S. supermarkets, but the unionized fast-food industry in Canada pays attention to the concerns of young part-timers. Weber, Max. [1921] 1964. The Theory of Social and Economic Organizations. Translated by A. M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons. This classic is still a very readable account of organization theory, including the characteristics of a bureaucracy. Wolensky, Kenneth C., Nicole H. Wolensky, and Robert P. Wolensky. 2002. Fighting for the Union Label: The Women’s Garment Industry and the ILGWU in Pennsylvania. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. An interesting historical account of union organizing. Wuthnow, Robert, and John H. Evans, eds. 2002. The Quiet Hand of God: Faith-Based Activism and the Public Role of Mainline Protestantism. Berkeley: University of California Press. This book, edited by a leading researcher of religion, addresses the important but little-known social and political involvements of mainline religious groups. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of social interaction and social structure are Journal of Contemporary Ethnography (formerly Urban Life, founded 1971), and Symbolic Interaction (1977). Among the journals that focus on the study of groups and organizations are Academy of Management Journal (founded in 1958), Administration and Society (1969), Administrative Science Quarterly (1956), Clinical Sociology Review (1981), Organization: Interdisciplinary Journal of Organization Theory and Society (1994), Organizational Studies (1980), Small Group Research (formerly Small Group Behavior, 1970), Social Psychology Review (1948), and Work and Occupations (1974). Solution Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669
