CHAPTER 6 – DEVIANCE AND CRIME MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. Typically, sociologists and criminologists define a __________ as a group of people, usually young, who band together for purposes generally considered to be deviant or criminal by the larger society. A. traveling band B. gang C. criminal coalition D. juvenile conspiracy Answer: B 2. The National Gang Centre (2010), funded by the U.S. Department of Justice, estimates that in 2007 there were gangs with about 788,000 members of all ages in the United States. A. 100,000 B. 50,250 C. 27,300 D. 10,750 Answer: C 3. According to sociologists Patricia and Peter Adler, __________ have a hierarchical structure, dominated by leaders and exclusive in nature, so that not all individuals who desire membership are accepted. A. primary groups B. aggregates C. secondary groups D. cliques Answer: D 4. __________ is any behavior, belief, or condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in which it occurs. A. Deviance B. Crime C. Stigma D. Violence Answer: A 5. We are most familiar with __________ deviance, based on a person’s intentional or inadvertent actions. For example, a person may engage in intentional deviance by drinking too much or robbing a bank, or in inadvertent deviance by losing money in a Las Vegas casino or laughing at a funeral. A. social B. cultural C. behavioral D. universal Answer: C 6. Deviant behavior varies in its degree of seriousness, ranging from mild transgressions of folkways, to more serious infringements of mores, to quite serious violations of the law. A __________ is a behavior that violates criminal law and is punishable with fines, jail terms, and/or other negative sanctions. A. stigma B. deviant act C. crime D. cultural strain Answer: C 7. __________ refers to a violation of law or the commission of a status offense (such as cutting school or running away from home) by young people. A. Juvenile delinquency B. Truancy C. Youthful misconduct D. Crime Answer: A 8. Societies also have various mechanisms to regulate people’s behavior. __________ refers to the systematic practices that social groups develop in order to encourage conformity to norms, rules, and laws and to discourage deviance. A. Social retaliation B. Social emphasis C. Social control D. Social deviance Answer: C 9. __________ social control takes place through the socialization process. Individuals observe societal norms and values that prescribe how people should behave and then follow those norms and values in their everyday lives. A. External B. Interior C. Exterior D. Internal Answer: D 10. __________ involves the use of negative sanctions that proscribe certain behavior and set forth the punishments for rule breakers and nonconformists. A. Interior social control B. External social control C. Internal social control D. Exterior social control Answer: B 11. In contemporary societies, the criminal justice system, which includes the police, the courts, and the prisons, is the primary mechanism of __________ social control. A. external B. interior C. internal D. exterior Answer: A 12. __________ is the systematic study of crime and the criminal justice system, including the police, courts, and prisons. A. Sociology B. Ecology C. Criminology D. Ethnomethodology Answer: C 13. Sociologist __________ believed that deviance is rooted in societal factors such as rapid social change and lack of social integration among people. As social integration (bonding and community involvement) decreased, deviance and crime increased. A. Robert Merton B. Edwin Sutherland C. Walter Reckless D. Emile Durkheim Answer: D 14. According to contemporary functionalist theorists, deviance is universal. Which of the following functions does deviance not serve? A. Deviance clarifies rules. B. Deviance prevents social chaos. C. Deviance promotes social change. D. Deviance unites a group. Answer: B 15. A public execution illustrates which function of deviance? A. Deviance clarifies rules. B. Deviance unites a group. C. Deviance promotes social change. D. Deviance prevents social chaos. Answer: A 16. Suppose that a bully comes into town and the residents band together in order to oppose the threat. This illustrates which function of deviance? A. Deviance clarifies rules. B. Deviance unites a group. C. Deviance promotes social change. D. Deviance prevents social chaos. Answer: B 17. According to functionalists, acts of civil disobedience (including lunch counter sit-ins and bus boycotts) exemplify which function of deviance? A. Deviance clarifies rules. B. Deviance unites a group. C. Deviance promotes social change. D. Deviance prevents social chaos. Answer: C 18. According to sociologist Robert Merton's __________ theory, people feel tension when they are exposed to cultural goals that they are unable to obtain because they do not have access to culturally approved means of achieving those goals. The goals may be material possessions and money; the approved means may include an education and jobs. A. opportunity B. conflict C. developmental D. strain Answer: D 19. Sociologist Robert Merton identified five ways in which people adapt to cultural goals and approved ways of achieving them. In addition to conformity, Merton classified the remaining four types of adaptation as deviance. Which of the following was not a type of adaptation identified? A. innovation B. inoculation C. ritualism D. retreatism Answer: B 20. According to sociologist Robert Merton's strain theory, __________ occurs when people accept culturally-approved goals and pursue them through approved means. A. conformity B. innovation C. rejection D. rebellion Answer: A 21. A young woman graduates from high school with honors and attends a prestigious university where she completes her degree; she gets a good job; she marries and starts planning for the future. This woman's behavior illustrates __________. A. rebellion B. innovation C. conformity D. rejection Answer: C 22. According to sociologist Robert Merton's strain theory, __________ occurs when people accept society's goals but adopt disapproved means for achieving them. A. conformity B. innovation C. rebellion D. ritualism Answer: B 23. A socioeconomically disadvantaged teenager decides that she must resort to crime in order to buy some clothes she wants. This teenager’s behavior illustrates __________. A. innovation B. retreatism C. rebellion D. ritualism Answer: A 24. According to sociologist Robert Merton's strain theory, __________ occurs when people give up on societal goals but still adhere to the socially approved means for achieving them. A. innovation B. retreatism C. ritualism D. conformity Answer: C 25. According to sociologist Robert Merton's strain theory, __________ occurs when people abandon both the approved goals and the approved means of achieving them. A. rebellion B. retreatism C. ritualism D. conformity Answer: B 26. Based on sociologist Robert Merton’s strain theory, skid-row alcoholics and drug addicts reflect a pattern of __________. A. rebellion B. ritualism C. retreatism D. innovation Answer: C 27. According to sociologist Robert Merton's strain theory, __________ occurs when people challenge both the approved goals and the approved means for achieving them and advocate an alternative set of goals or means. A. retreatism B. ritualism C. innovation D. rebellion Answer: D 28. A minister who is opposed to war conducts a nonviolent protest at a local military installation, thus committing a trespassing violation. This person has engaged in __________. A. retreatism B. ritualism C. rebellion D. innovation Answer: C 29. Sociologists __________ suggested that, for deviance to occur, people must have access to illegitimate opportunity structures—circumstances that provide an opportunity for people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they cannot achieve through legitimate channels. A. Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales B. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin C. Carl Taylor and Anne Campbell D. Herbert Spencer and Auguste Comte Answer: B 30. A youngster living in the ghetto is unlikely to become wealthy through a Harvard education, but some of his desires may be met through behaviors like theft, drug dealing, and robbery. This example illustrates __________. A. deviance management B. criminal careers C. illegitimate opportunity structures D. differential opportunity theory Answer: C 31. Based on their research, sociologists Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin identified three basic gang types which emerge on the basis of the type of illegitimate opportunity structure available in a specific area. Which of the following was not a gang type identified? A. criminal gang B. retreatist gang C. conflict gang D. rebellist gang Answer: D 32. Street gangs use graffiti to do all of the below except what? A. mark their territory B. recruit other gang members C. increase their visibility D. intimidate local residents Answer: B 33. According to the text, “taggers,” compared to traditional street gangs typically are all of the below except what? A. less violent B. more artistic C. less threatening D. more likely to be caught Answer: D 34. Those who use graffiti primarily as a form of art are called A. taggers. B. streeties. C. art-graffitists. D. crypts. Answer: A 35. Based on their research, sociologists Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin identified three basic gang types which emerge on the basis of the type of illegitimate opportunity structure available in a specific area. The __________ is devoted to theft, extortion, and other illegal means of securing an income. A. retreatist gang B. criminal gang C. conflict gang D. rebellist gang Answer: B 36. For young men who grow up in a __________, running drug houses and selling drugs on street corners make it possible for them to support themselves and their families as well as purchase material possessions to impress others. A. conflict gang B. rebellist gang C. retreatist gang D. criminal gang Answer: D 37. According to research conducted by sociologists Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, __________ gangs emerge in communities that do not provide either legitimate or illegitimate opportunities. A. conflict B. retreatist C. criminal D. rebellist Answer: A 38. Members of __________ seek to acquire a “rep” (reputation) by fighting over “turf” (territory) and adopting a value system of toughness, courage, and similar qualities. A. rebellist gangs B. criminal gangs C. conflict gangs D. retreatist gangs Answer: C 39. Sociologists Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin stated that __________ gangs are unable to gain success through legitimate means and are unwilling to do so through illegal ones. As a result, the consumption of drugs is stressed, and addiction is prevalent. A. retreatist B. conflict C. rebellist D. criminal Answer: A 40. __________ who focus on power relations in society suggest that the lifestyles considered deviant by political and economic elites are often defined as illegal. According to this approach, norms and laws are established for the benefit of those in power and do not reflect any absolute standard of right and wrong. A. Symbolic interactionists B. Conflict theorists C. Functionalists D. Postmodern theorists Answer: B 41. Research shows that __________ are more likely to be perceived as members of the dangerous classes and receive stricter sentences in criminal courts. A. young, single, rural males B. young, married, urban males C. young, married, rural males D. young, single, urban males Answer: D 42. According to the __________, power differentials are evident in how victims of crime are treated. For example, when the victims are wealthy, white, and male, law enforcement officials are more likely to put forth more extensive efforts to apprehend the perpetrator. A. postmodern perspective B. functionalist perspective C. conflict perspective D. symbolic interactionist perspective Answer: C 43. A branch of the __________ perspective, Marxist/critical theory views deviance and crime as a result of the capitalist economic system. This theory is based on the assumption that the laws and the criminal justice system protect the power and privilege of the capitalist class. A. symbolic interactionist B. conflict C. functionalist D. postmodern Answer: B 44. The fact that drug laws enacted early in the 20th century were actively enforced in an effort to control immigrant workers, especially the Chinese, who were being exploited by the railroads and other industries, illustrates __________. A. Sutherland association theory B. Cloward and Ohlin illegitimate opportunity theory C. Marxist critical theory D. Merton strain theory Answer: C 45. During the mid-1970s, practitioners of the __________ theory maintained that women's crime rates were going to increase significantly as a result of the women's liberation movement. A. emancipation B. functionalist C. critical D. ethnomethodological Answer: A 46. Although there is no single feminist perspective on deviance and crime, three schools of thought have emerged. Which of the following is not one of the feminist approaches identified in the text? A. liberal feminist approach B. radical feminist approach C. conservative feminist approach D. Marxist (socialist) feminist approach Answer: C 47. The __________ feminist approach explains women's deviance and crime as a rational response to the gender discrimination that women experience in families and the workplace. A. radical B. liberal C. Marxist (socialist) D. conservative Answer: B 49. The __________ views the cause of women’s crime as originating in patriarchy (male domination over females). This approach focuses on social forces that shape women’s lives and experiences and shows how exploitation may trigger deviant behavior and criminal activities. A. radical feminist approach B. conservative feminist approach C. liberal feminist approach D. Marxist (socialist) feminist approach Answer: A 50. The __________ feminist approach is based on the assumption that women are exploited by both capitalism and patriarchy. From this approach, women’s criminal behavior is linked to gender conflict created by the economic and social struggle that often takes place in post-industrial societies. A. liberal B. radical C. Marxist (socialist) D. conservative Answer: C 51. __________ focus on social processes, such as how people develop a self-concept and learn conforming behavior through socialization. According to this approach, deviance is learned in the same way as conformity—through engagement with others. A. Conflict theorists B. Symbolic interactionists C. Functionalists D. Postmodern theorists Answer: B 52. Sociologist Edwin Sutherland’s __________ theory states that people have a greater tendency to deviate from societal norms when they frequently interact with individuals who are more favourable toward deviance than conformity. A. illegitimate opportunity B. differential association C. strain D. status frustration Answer: B 53. Criminologist Ronald Akers created the __________ theory, which combines differential association theory with elements of psychological learning theory, suggesting that both deviant behavior and conventional behavior are learned through the same social processes. A. strain B. illegitimate opportunity C. differential reinforcement D. social bonding Answer: C 54. According to sociologist Walter Reckless' __________ theory, society produces pushes and pulls that move people toward criminal behavior; however, some people “insulate” themselves from such pressures by having positive self-esteem and good group cohesion. A. social bond B. control C. illegitimate opportunity D. differential association Answer: B 55. Sociologist Walter Reckless suggest that many people do not resort to deviance because of __________ containments such as self-control, a sense of responsibility, and resistance to diversions. A. inner B. formal C. outer D. informal Answer: A 56. Sociologist Walter Reckless suggested that many people do not resort to deviance because of __________ such as supportive family and friends, reasonable social expectations, and supervision by others. A. formal containments B. inner containments C. informal containments D. outer containments Answer: D 57. Based on sociologist Travis Hirschi’s social bonding theory, which of the following factors was not identified? A. attachment to other people B. commitment to conformity C. involvement in conventional activities D. willingness to rebel against authority Answer: D 58. Based on the symbolic interaction theory of sociologists Charles H. Cooley and George H. Mead, the __________ theory states that deviance is a socially constructed process in which social control agencies designate certain people as deviants, and they, in turn, come to accept the marker placed upon them and begin to act accordingly. A. strain B. labeling C. differential association D. social control Answer: B 59. According to sociologist Howard Becker, __________ are often the ones who create the rules about what constitutes deviant or conventional behavior. Becker believes that these individuals use their own perspectives on “right” and “wrong” to establish the rules by which they expect other people to live. A. professional labellers B. moral entrepreneurs C. modern prophets D. ethical brokers Answer: B 60. According to sociologist Edwin Lemert, several stages may occur in the labeling process. __________ deviance refers to the initial act of rule-breaking. A. Career B. Secondary C. Primary D. Tertiary Answer: C 61. A person may shoplift an item of clothing from a department store but not be apprehended or labelled as a deviant. The person may subsequently decide to forgo such behavior in the future. This example illustrates what stage of deviance? A. primary stage B. career stage C. secondary stage D. tertiary stage Answer: A 62. A person may shoplift an item of clothing from a department store and be apprehended and labelled as a “thief,” subsequently accept that label, and then shoplift items from stores on numerous occasions. This behavior is an example of __________. A. tertiary deviance B. secondary deviance C. career deviance D. primary deviance Answer: B 63. According to sociologist Edwin Lemert, several stages may occur in the labeling process. A few people engage in __________ deviance, which occurs when a person who has been labelled a deviant seeks to normalize the behavior by relabelling it as nondeviant. A. career B. primary C. tertiary D. secondary Answer: C 64. Some __________ emphasize that the study of deviance reveals how the powerful exert authority over the powerless by taking away their free will to think and act as they might choose. A. functionalists B. postmodern theorists C. symbolic interactionists D. conflict theorists Answer: B 65. A __________ is a serious crime for which punishment typically ranges from more than a year’s imprisonment to death. A. civil infraction B. felony C. tort D. misdemeanor Answer: B 66. Which of the following crimes is not considered to be a felony? A. rape B. homicide C. aggravated assault D. driving under the influence Answer: D 67. A __________ is a minor crime that is typically punishable by less than one year in jail. A. felony B. misdemeanor C. civil infraction D. tort Answer: B 68. The __________ is the major source of information on crimes reported in the United States. It has been compiled since 1930 by the Federal Bureau of Investigation based on information filed by law enforcement agencies throughout the country. A. Law Enforcement Administration Analysis B. American Criminological Society Bulletin C. Uniform Crime Report D. U.S. Census Bureau Annual Report Answer: C 69. __________ crime consists of actions such as murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault, and involves force or the threat of force against others. A. Organized B. Public order C. Violent D. Property Answer: C 70. __________ crimes include robbery, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, and arson. In most of these crimes, the primary motive is to obtain money or some other desired valuable. A. Public order B. Organized C. Violent D. Property Answer: D 71. In the United States, a(n) __________ crime occurs, on average, once every three seconds; by contrast a(n) __________ crime occurs, on average, once every twenty- three seconds. A. organized; public order B. property; violent C. public order; organized D. violent; property Answer: B 72. __________ crimes involve an illegal action voluntarily engaged in by the participants. Many people assert that such conduct should not be labelled a crime; these offenses are often referred to as “victimless crimes” because they involve a willing exchange of illegal goods or services among adults. A. Property B. Public order C. Violent D. Organized Answer: B 73. According to sociologist Edwin Sutherland, __________ crime comprises illegal activities committed by people in the course of their employment or financial affairs. A. corporate (white-collar) B. political (white-collar) C. occupational (white-collar) D. organizational (white-collar) Answer: C 74. Which of the following actions is not considered to be a corporate (white-collar) crime? A. pilfering B. soliciting bribes or kickbacks C. embezzling D. loan sharking Answer: D 75. __________ crime refers to illegal acts committed by an organization's employees on behalf of the organization and with its support. These crimes are a result of deliberate decisions made by personnel to enhance resources or profits at the expense of competitors, consumers, and the general public. A. Occupational B. Corporate C. Political D. Organizational Answer: B 76. Which of these actions is not considered to be a corporate crime? A. antitrust violations B. price fixing C. drug trafficking D. financial fraud Answer: C 77. Which of the following crimes occurs least frequently? A. forcible rape B. robbery C. motor vehicle theft D. aggravated assault Answer: A 78. __________ crime is a business operation that supplies illegal goods and services for profit. A. Organized B. Political C. Corporate D. Occupational (white-collar) Answer: A 79. Which of the following activities is not associated with organized crime? A. drug trafficking B. prostitution C. money laundering D. insider trading Answer: D 80. The term __________ refers to illegal or unethical acts involving the use of power by government officials, or illegal/unethical acts perpetrated against the government by outsiders seeking to make a political statement, undermine the government, or overthrow it. occupational (white-collar) crime A. political crime B. legislative crime C. corporate crime Answer: B 81. Four types of political deviance have been attributed to some government officials. Which of the following is not a type identified? A. secrecy and deception designed to manipulate public opinion B. abuse of power C. illegal wiretapping D. prosecution of individuals due to their political activities Answer: C 82. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) was developed by the Bureau of Justice Statistics as an alternate means of collecting crime statistics. The most recent (NCVS) indicates that __________ percent of all violent crimes are not reported to the police and are thus not reflected. A. 25 B. 33 C. 50 D. 67 Answer: C 83. __________ is the calculated, unlawful use of physical force or threats of violence against persons or property in order to intimidate or coerce a government, organization, or individual for the purpose of gaining some political, religious, economic, or social objective. A. Socialism B. Terrorism C. Totalitarianism D. Imperialism Answer: B 84. Of all factors associated with crime, the age of the offender is one of the most significant. Arrest rates for violent crime and property crime are highest for people between the ages of __________. A. 13 and 25 B. 26 and 35 C. 36 and 45 D. 46 and 55 Answer: A 85. Based on the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), __________. A. women are more likely to be victimized by crime than men B. young people are more fearful of crime in comparison with the elderly C. women tend to be more fearful of crime in comparison with men D. the elderly are more likely to be victimized than younger people Answer: C 86. A study by the U.S. Justice Department found that __________ are more likely to be victims of violent crimes than are members of any other racial category. A. African Americans B. Asian Americans C. Hispanic Americans D. Native Americans Answer: D 87. __________ refers to the use of personal judgment by police officers, prosecutors, judges, and other criminal justice system officials regarding whether and how to proceed in a given situation. A. Discretion B. Optional processing C. Reasonable suspicion D. Probable cause Answer: A 88. __________ is any action designed to deprive a person of things of value (including liberty) because of some offense the person is thought to have committed. A. Punishment B. Retribution C. Societal revenge D. Retaliation Answer: A 89. Historically, punishment has had four major goals. Which of the following is not one of the major goals identified in the text? A. retribution B. deterrence C. reconstruction D. incapacitation Answer: C 90. __________ is punishment that a person receives for infringing on the rights of others. It imposes a penalty on the offender and is based on the premise that the punishment should fit the crime. A. Retribution B. Incapacitation C. Rehabilitation D. Deterrence Answer: A 91. __________ seeks to reduce criminal activity by instilling a fear of punishment in the general public. A. Retribution B. Incapacitation C. Rehabilitation D. Deterrence Answer: D 92. __________ is based on the assumption that offenders who are detained in prison or are executed will be unable to commit additional crimes. A. Retribution B. Incapacitation C. Rehabilitation D. Deterrence Answer: B 93. __________ seeks to return offenders to the community as law-abiding citizens by providing therapy or vocational or educational training. Offenders are treated, not punished, so that they will not continue their criminal activity. A. Retribution B. Incapacitation C. Rehabilitation D. Deterrence Answer: C 94. A key objective of the __________ is to repair the damage done to the victim and the community by an offender’s criminal act. It states that the criminal justice system should promote a peaceful and just society; the system should focus on peace-making rather than on punishing offenders. A. restorative justice perspective B. reconstructive justice perspective C. reformative justice perspective D. retransitional justice perspective Answer: A 95. According to criminologists George Cole and Christopher Smith, __________ refers to the greater number of programs, services, facilities, and organizations responsible for the management of people accused or convicted of criminal offenses. A. punishment B. incarceration C. corrections D. penal systems Answer: C 96. A(n) __________ sets the term of imprisonment at a fixed point of time, such as three years, for a specific offense. A. interdependent sentence B. determinate sentence C. correlational sentence D. dominate sentence Answer: B 97. _________ guidelines are established by law and require that a person convicted of a specific offense or series of offenses be given a penalty within a fixed range. A. Arbitrary sentencing B. Revolving sentencing C. Mandatory sentencing D. Unbiased sentencing Answer: C 98. In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (in Furman v. Georgia) that arbitrary application of the death penalty violates the __________ to the Constitution, but that the death penalty itself is not unconstitutional. To be constitutional, the death penalty must be imposed for reasons other than the race/ethnicity, gender, and social class of the offender. A. First Amendment B. Fifth Amendment C. Eighth Amendment D. Tenth Amendment Answer: C 99. One of the greatest challenges to the criminal justice system is juvenile offenders, who may become adult criminals. However, instead of military-style boot camps or other stopgap measures, __________ (such as more and better education and jobs, affordable housing, more equality and less discrimination, and socially productive activities) are needed to reduce street crime. A. punitive measures B. structural solutions C. correctional alternatives D. restorative principles Answer: B 100. Trafficking across nations’ borders in drugs, weapons, and nuclear weapons is an example of __________ crime. A. international B. corporate C. global D. cross-cultural Answer: C TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. Deviance is relative—that is, an act becomes deviant when it is socially defined as such. Definitions of deviance vary widely from place to place, from time to time, and from group to group. Answer: True 2. In contemporary societies, the criminal justice system, which includes the police, the courts, and the prisons, is the primary mechanism of internal social control. Answer: False Rejoinder: The criminal justice system is a mechanism of external social control which involves the use of negative sanctions that proscribe certain behavior and set forth the punishments for rule breakers; internal social control takes place through the socialization process—individuals internalize societal norms and values that prescribe how people should behave and then follow those norms and values in their everyday lives. 3. According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, deviance is universal because it serves three important functions: it clarifies rules, it unites a group, and it promotes social change. Answer: True 4. Based on sociologist Robert Merton’s strain theory, innovation occurs when people accept culturally approved goals and pursue them through approved means. Persons who want to achieve success through innovation work hard and save their money. Answer: False Rejoinder: Conformity occurs when people accept culturally approved goals and pursue them through approved means; innovation occurs when people accept culturally approved goals, but adopt disapproved means of achieving them (such as through theft or drug dealing). 5. Street graffiti is done solely by gang members. Answer: False Rejoinder: Not all graffiti is done by gangs. “Taggers” primarily use graffiti (at least in their opinion) as an art form, while street gangs use graffiti to increase their visibility, mark their territory, threaten rival gangs, and intimidate local residents 6. According to sociologist Lewis Yablonsky, today’s gangs have become more varied in their activities and are more likely to engage in interracial conflicts; whereas, minority gangs in the past tended to band together to defend their turf from gangs of different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Answer: True 7. Functionalist theorists who focus on power relations in society suggest that the lifestyles considered deviant by political and economic elites are often defined as illegal. According to this approach, norms and laws are established for the benefit of those in power and do not reflect any absolute standard of right and wrong. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is the focus of conflict theorists regarding deviance and power relations. 8. Sociologist Regina Arnold examined the relationship between women’s earlier victimization in their family and their subsequent involvement in the criminal justice system. She attributes many of the women’s offenses to living in families in which sexual abuse, incest, and other violence left them few choices except to engage in deviance. Answer: True 9. According to sociologist Edwin Sutherland’s rational choice theory of deviance, people learn the necessary techniques and motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes of deviant behavior from people with whom they interact. Answer: False Rejoinder: Sociologist Edwin Sutherland’s theory is known as differential association theory; the rational choice theory of deviance states that deviant behavior occurs when a person weighs the costs and benefits of nonconventional or criminal behavior and determines that the benefits will outweigh the risks involved in such action. 10. Sociologist Walter Reckless stated that society produces pushes and pulls that move people toward criminal behavior; however, many people do not resort to deviance because of inner containments—such as supportive family and friends, reasonable social expectations, and supervision by others. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is outer containments; inner containments include self-control, a sense of responsibility, and resistance to diversions. 11. According to sociologist Howard Becker, moral entrepreneurs are often the ones who create the rules about what constitutes deviant or conventional behavior. They use their own perspectives on “right and wrong” to establish the rules by which they expect other people to live. Answer: True 12. A person shoplifts an item of clothing from a department store, is apprehended and labelled as a “thief.” The person subsequently accepts the label, and continues to shoplift items from other stores on numerous occasions. This example illustrates the tertiary deviance stage of the labeling theory. Answer: False Rejoinder: This example actually illustrates the secondary deviance stage of the labeling theory. Tertiary deviance occurs when a person who has been labelled a deviant seeks to normalize the behavior by relabelling it as nondeviant. 13. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is the major source of information on crimes reported in the United States. The (NCVS) is compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and focuses on eight major crimes, called index crimes. Answer: False Rejoinder: The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation is the major source of information on index crimes reported in the United States; the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) was developed by the Bureau of Justice Statistics as a means of collecting crime statistics in the United States. 14. Sociologists categorize crimes based on how they are committed and how society views the offenses. The text examined all of the following types of crime: violent crime, property crime, public order crime, occupational and corporate crime, organized crime, and political crime. Answer: True 15. Violent crime receives the most sustained attention from law enforcement officials and the media. Some analysts believe there might be a correlation between youth violence and media glorification of physical injury and killing. Answer: True 16. Violent crimes are often more costly in terms of money and lives lost than corporate crimes. Answer: False Rejoinder: Actually corporate crimes are often more costly in terms of money and lives lost than violent crimes. Thousands of jobs and billions of dollars are lost as a result of corporate crimes which include the following activities: antitrust violations, tax evasion, misrepresentation of advertising, infringements on patents, price fixing, and financial fraud. Deaths resulting from corporate crimes such as polluting the air and water, manufacturing defective products, and selling unsafe foods and drugs far exceed the number of deaths due to homicides each year. 17. A number of individuals have been convicted in the last few years of stock manipulation in order to make more money for themselves. These individuals were engaging in a public order crime. Answer: False Rejoinder: The crime they were engaging in is known as an occupational crime. 18. Political crimes also include illegal or unethical acts perpetrated against the government by outsiders seeking to make a political statement or to undermine or overthrow the government. Examples include treason, acts of political sabotage, and terrorist attacks on public buildings. Answer: True 19. People are more likely to report crime when they believe that something can be done about it (for example, apprehension of the perpetrator or retrieval of their property). Thus, the number of crimes reported to police represents only the “tip of the iceberg” when compared with all offenses actually committed. Answer: True 20. Data collected for the Juvenile Court Statistics Program reflect class and racial bias in criminal justice enforcement. Children from minority, poor families are more likely to have their cases handled outside the juvenile justice system. Answer: False Rejoinder: Statistics actually show that children from white, affluent families are more likely to have their cases handled outside the juvenile justice system. 21. Terrorism is the calculated, unlawful use of physical force or threats of violence against persons or property in order to intimidate or coerce a government, organization, or individual for the purpose of gaining some political, religious, economic, or social objective. Answer: True 22. The three most common arrest categories for both men and women are driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs (DUI), larceny, and minor or criminal mischief types of offenses. Answer: True 23. According to official statistics, Hispanic Americans are the most overrepresented racial minority group in arrest data. Answer: False Rejoinder: African Americans are the most overrepresented racial minority group in arrest date. In 2004, they made up about 12 percent of the U.S. population but accounted for almost 27 percent of all arrests. By contrast, Hispanic Americans made up about 13 percent of the U.S. population and accounted for about 13 percent of all arrests. 24. The overwhelming percentage of gang members in the U.S. Come from the underclass. Answer: False Rejoinder: Although about 50% of hang members can be categorized as underclass, individuals in all social classes commit crimes. 25. African-Americans (of all the minority groups) are most likely to be the victims of violent crimes. Answer False Rejoinder: Native Americans is the correct response. SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Explain the nature of deviance and describe its most common forms. Answer: Deviance is any behavior, belief, or condition that violates significant social norms in the society or group in which it occurs. We are most familiar with behavioral deviance, based on a person’s intentional actions (such as drinking too much or robbing a bank) or a person’s inadvertent actions (such as losing money in a Las Vegas casino or laughing at a funeral). People may be regarded as deviant if they express a radical or unusual belief system (such as cults like the Moonies or extreme political groups). We often interpret other people’s belief systems based on how they look (such as Goth students at Columbine High School). In addition to their behavior and beliefs, individuals may also be regarded as deviant because they possess a specific condition or characteristic (such as being obese or having AIDS). Deviance is a formal property of social situations and social structure. Deviance is relative; an act becomes deviant when it is socially defined as such. Definitions of deviance vary widely from place to place, from time to time, and from group to group. Deviant behavior also varies in its degree of seriousness, ranging from mild transgressions of folkways, to more serious infringements of mores, to quite serious violations of the law. 2. Discuss the functions of deviance according to sociologist Emile Durkheim. Answer: Functionalist sociologist Emile Durkheim believed that deviance is rooted in societal factors such as rapid social change and lack of social integration among people. According to Durkheim, as social integration (bonding and community involvement) decreased, deviance and crime increased. For Durkheim, deviance is a natural and inevitable part of all societies. Deviance is universal because it serves three important functions: (1) deviance clarifies rules—by punishing deviant behavior, society reaffirms its commitment to the rules and clarifies their meaning. (2) deviance unites a group—when deviant behavior is seen as a threat to group solidarity and people unite in opposition to that behavior, their loyalties to society are reinforced. (3) deviance promotes social change—deviants may violate norms in order to get them changed, such as acts of civil disobedience (sit-ins and boycotts). Functionalists acknowledge that deviance may also be dysfunctional for society. If too many people violate the norms, everyday existence may become unpredictable, chaotic, and even violent. 3. Outline the principle elements of sociologist Robert Merton’s strain theory. Answer: Functionalist sociologist Robert Merton developed the strain theory. According to the strain theory, people feel strain when they are exposed to cultural goals that they are unable to obtain because they do not have access to culturally approved means of achieving those goals. The goals may be material possessions and money; the approved means may include an education and jobs. When denied legitimate access to these goals, some people seek access through deviant means. Merton identified five ways in which people adapt to cultural goals and approved ways of achieving them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. According to Merton, conformity occurs when people accept culturally approved goals and pursue them through approved means. For example, people who want to achieve success through conformity work hard and save their money. Merton stated that innovation occurs when people accept society’s goals but adopt disapproved means of achieving them. For example, innovations for acquiring material possessions or money cover a wide variety of illegal activities, including theft and drug dealing. Merton’s third mode of adaptation is ritualism, which occurs when people give up on societal goals but still adhere to the socially approved means of achieving them. For example, people who cannot obtain expensive material possessions or wealth may nevertheless seek to maintain the respect of others by being a “hard worker” or a “good citizen.” According to Merton, retreatism occurs when people abandon both the approved goals and the approved means of achieving them. For example, people such as skid-row alcoholics and drug addicts. The final type of adaptation, rebellion, occurs when people challenge both the approved goals and the approved means for achieving them, and advocates an alternative set of goals or means. For example, to achieve their alternative goals, rebels may use violence (such as vandalism or rioting) or nonviolent tactics (such as civil disobedience). 4. Summarize the significant features of sociologists Richard Cloward’s and Lloyd Ohlin’s illegitimate opportunity theory and describe the three types of gangs identified. Answer: Functionalist sociologists Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin suggested that for deviance to occur, people must have access to illegitimate opportunity structures—circumstances that provide an opportunity for people to acquire through illegitimate activities what they can not achieve through legitimate channels. For example, gang members may have insufficient legitimate means to achieve conventional goals of status and wealth but have illegitimate opportunity structures—such as theft, drug dealing, or robbery—through which they can achieve these goals. Based on their research, three basic gang types were identified—criminal, conflict, and retreatist, which emerge on the basis of what type of illegitimate opportunity structure is available in a specific area. (1) The criminal gang is devoted to theft, extortion, and other illegal means of securing an income. For example, for young men who grow up in a criminal gang, running drug houses and selling drugs on street corners make it possible for them to support themselves and their families as well as purchase material possessions to impress others. (2) Conflict gangs emerge in communities that do not provide either legitimate or illegitimate opportunities. Members of conflict gangs seek to acquire a reputation by fighting over territory and adopting a value system of toughness, courage, and similar qualities. (3) Members of retreatist gangs are unable to gain success through legitimate means and are unwilling to do so through illegal ones. As a result, the consumption of drugs is stressed, and addiction is prevalent. 5. Briefly discuss the issue of graffiti and how gangs use it and what law enforcement agencies recommend for decreasing this behavior. Answer: Gang members use graffiti which is an illegal form of communication. It is typically used to increase their visibility, mark their territory, threaten rival gangs, and intimidate local residents. So-called “taggers” primarily use graffiti as an art form. These gang members are usually less violent than members of traditional street gangs. Recommendations from law enforcement agencies include: do not confront or challenge a person who is tagging a wall; make sure that owners of private property or public officials are notified about the graffiti; find out if your city has a graffiti hotline where they can report it; be aware of graffiti done by children and young people that might indicate that they are thinking about, or have become, involved with gangs. 6. Discuss the three branches of the conflict perspective’s approach to deviance and crime. Answer: Conflict theorists who focus on power relations in society suggest that the lifestyles considered deviant by political and economic elites are often defined as illegal. According to this approach, norms and laws are established for the benefit of those in power and do not reflect any absolute standard of right and wrong. As a result, the activities of poor and lower-income individuals are more likely to be defined as criminal than those of persons from middle- and upper-income backgrounds. Moreover, the criminal justice system is more focused on, and is less forgiving of, deviant and criminal behavior engaged in by people in specific categories. For example, research shows that young, single, urban males are more likely to be perceived as members of the dangerous classes and receive stricter sentences in criminal courts. Power differentials are also evident in how victims of crime are treated. When the victims are wealthy, white, and male, law enforcement officials are more likely to put forth more extensive efforts to apprehend the perpetrator as contrasted with cases in which the victims are poor, black, and female. A second branch of conflict theory—Marxist/critical theory—views deviance and crime as a function of the capitalist economic system. The critical approach is based on the assumption that the laws and the criminal justice system protect the power and privilege of the capitalist class. According to sociologist Richard Quinney, people with economic and political power define as criminal any behavior that threatens their own interests. The powerful use law to control those who are without power. The third branch focuses on the feminist perspective. This branch is further divided into three schools of thought: (1) according to the liberal feminist approach, women’s deviance and crime are a rational response to the gender discrimination that women experience in families and the workplace. From this view, lower-income and minority women typically have fewer opportunities not only for education and good jobs, but also for “high-end” criminal endeavors. (2) the radical feminist approach views the cause of women’s crime as originating from patriarchy (male domination over females). This approach focuses on social forces that shape women’s lives and experiences and shows how exploitation may trigger deviant behavior and criminal activities. From this view, arrests and prosecution for crimes such as prostitution reflect our society’s sexual double standard. (3) the Marxist/socialist feminist approach is based on the assumption that women are exploited by both capitalism and patriarchy. Crimes such as prostitution and shoplifting become a means to earn money or acquire consumer goods. However, instead of freeing women from their problems, prostitution institutionalizes women’s dependence on men and results in a form of female sexual slavery. 7. Compare the key components of sociologist Edwin Sutherland’s differential association and criminologist Ronald Akers’ differential reinforcement theory. Answer: Both of these theories represent the symbolic interactionist perspectives on deviance. According to sociologist Edwin Sutherland, people learn the necessary techniques and the motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes of deviant behavior from people with whom they associate. Differential association theory states that people have a greater tendency to deviate from societal norms when they frequently associate with individuals who are more favorable toward deviance than conformity. Criminal behavior is learned within intimate personal groups such as one’s family and peer groups. Differential association theory contributes to our knowledge of how deviant behavior reflects the individual’s learned techniques, values, attitudes, motives, and rationalizations. It calls attention to the fact that criminal activity is more likely to occur when a person has frequent, intense, and long-lasting interactions with others who violate the law. Criminologist Ronald Aker has combined differential association theory with elements of psychological learning theory to create differential reinforcement theory, which suggests that both deviant behavior and conventional behavior are learned through the same social processes. Akers starts with the fact that people learn to evaluate their own behavior through interactions with significant others. If the persons and groups that a particular individual considers most significant in his or her life define deviant behavior as being “right,” that individual is more likely to engage in deviant behavior; likewise, if the person’s most significant friends and groups define deviant behavior as “wrong,” the person is less likely to engage in that behavior. This approach helps explain not only juvenile gang behavior but also how peer cliques on high school campuses have such a powerful influence on people’s behavior. 8. Differentiate between the major components of sociologist Walter Reckless’ social control theory, sociologist Travis Hirschi’s social bonding theory, and the labeling theory. Answer: All three of these theories represent the symbolic interactionist perspectives on deviance. According to sociologist Walter Reckless, society produces pushes and pulls that move people toward criminal behavior; however, some people “insulate” themselves from such pressures by having positive self-esteem and good group cohesion. Reckless suggests that many people do not resort to deviance because of inner containments—such as self-control, a sense of responsibility, and resistance to diversions, and outer containments—such as supportive family and friends, reasonable social expectations, and supervision by others. Those with the strongest containment mechanisms are able to withstand external pressures that might cause them to participate in deviant behavior. Sociologist Travis HIrschi’s social control theory is based on the assumption that deviant behavior is minimized when people have strong bonds that bind them to families, schools, peers, churches, and other social institutions. Social bonding theory holds that the probability of deviant behavior increases when a person’s ties to society are weakened or broken. According to Hirschi, social bonding consists of (1) attachments to other people, (2) commitment to conformity, (3) involvement in conventional activities, and (4) belief in the legitimacy of conventional values and norms. Labeling theory states that deviance is a socially constructed process in which social control agencies designate certain people as deviants, and they, in turn, come to accept the label placed upon them and begin to act accordingly. Based on the symbolic interactionist theory of sociologist Charles H. Cooley and George H. Mead, labeling theory focuses on the variety of symbolic labels that people are given in their interactions with others. According to sociologist Howard Becker, moral entrepreneurs are often the ones who create the rules about what constitutes deviant or conventional behavior. Becker believes that moral entrepreneurs use their own perspectives on “right and wrong” to establish the rules by which they expect other people to live. They also label others as deviant. Often these rules are enforced on persons with less power than the moral entrepreneurs. Sociologist Edward Lemert suggests that stages may occur in the labeling process. (1) Primary deviance refers to the initial act of rule breaking. (2) Secondary deviance occurs when a person who has been labeled a deviant person accepts that new identity and continues the deviant behavior. (3) Tertiary deviance, which occurs when a person who has been labelled a deviant seeks to normalize the behavior by relabelling it as nondeviant. 9. Discuss the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) and describe the types of crime it reports. Answer: The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) is the major source of information on crimes reported in the United States. The UCR has been compiled since 1930 by the Federal Bureau of Investigation based on information filed by law enforcement agencies throughout the country. The UCR focuses on violent crime and property crime (which, prior to 2004, were jointly referred to in that report as “index crimes”), but also contains data on other types of crime. (1) violent crime consists of actions involving force or the threat of force against others, including murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault. They are probably the most anxiety-provoking of all criminal behavior. Victims are often physically injured or even lose their lives. Violent crime receives the most sustained attention from law enforcement officials and the media. (2) property crimes include robbery, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Some offenses such as robbery are both violent crimes and property crimes. In most property crimes, the primary motive is to obtain money or some other desired valuable. 10. Differentiate between occupational and corporate crime and discuss their impact on society. Answer: Occupational (white-collar) crime comprises illegal activities committed by people in the course of their employment or financial affairs. In addition to acting for their own financial benefit, some white-collar offenders become involved in criminal conspiracies designed to improve the market share or profitability of their companies. This is known as corporate crime—illegal acts committed by corporate employees on behalf of the corporation and with its support. Examples include antitrust violations; tax evasion; misrepresentations in advertising; infringements on patents, copyrights, and trademarks; price fixing; and financial fraud. These crimes are a result of deliberate decisions made by corporate personnel to enhance resources or profits at the expense of competitors, consumers, and the general public. Corporate crimes are often more costly in terms of money and lives lost than conventional (street) crimes. Thousands of jobs and billions of dollars are lost each year due to corporate crimes. Deaths resulting from corporate crimes such as polluting the air and water and manufacturing defective products far exceed the number of deaths due to homicide each year. 11. Describe organized crime and explain how it may weaken social control in a society. Answer: Organized crime is a business operation that supplies illegal goods and services for profit. Premeditated, continuous illegal activities of organized crime include drug trafficking, prostitution, loan-sharking, money laundering, and large-scale theft such as truck hijackings. Organized crime thrives because there is great demand for illegal goods and services. Criminal organizations initially gain control of illegal activities by combining threats and promises. Apart from their illegal enterprises, organized crime groups have infiltrated the world of legitimate business. Known linkages between legitimate businesses and organized crime exist in banking, hotels and motels, real estate, garbage collection, vending machines, construction, delivery and long-distance hauling, garment manufacture, insurance, stocks and bonds, vacation resorts, and funeral Parlors. In addition, some law enforcement and government officials are corrupted through bribery, campaign contributions, and Favors intended to buy them off. 12. Describe political crime and explain how it may weaken social control in a society. Answer: The term political crime refers to illegal or unethical acts involving the usurpation of power by government officials, or illegal/unethical acts perpetrated against the government by outsiders seeking to make a political statement, undermine the government, or overthrow it. Government officials may use their authority unethically or illegally for the purpose of material gain or political power. They may engage in graft (taking advantage of political position to gain money or property). Through bribery, kickbacks, or “insider” deals that financially benefit them. Other types of corruption have been costly for taxpayers, including dubious use of public funds and public property, corruption in the regulation of commercial activities (such as food inspection), graft in zoning and land use decisions, and campaign contributions and other favors to legislators that corrupt the legislative process. Whereas some political crimes are for personal material gain, others (such as illegal wiretapping and political “dirty tricks”) are aimed at gaining or maintaining political office or influence. Some acts committed by agents of the government against persons and groups believed to be threats to national security are also classified as political crimes. Four types of political deviance have been attributed to some officials; (1) secrecy and deception designed to manipulate public opinion, (2) abuse of power, (3) prosecution of individuals due to their political activities, and (4) official violence, such as police brutality against people of color or the use of citizens as unwilling guinea pigs in scientific research. Political crimes also include illegal or unethical acts perpetrated against the government by outsiders. 13. Explain why official crime statistics may not be an accurate reflection of the actual number and kinds of crimes committed in the United States. Answer: Official crime statistics provide important information on crime; however, the data reflect only those crimes that have been reported to the police. Although the rates have been decreasing slightly during the past few years, the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) reflects that overall levels of crime increased by nearly two-thirds over the past twenty-five years. However, this increase may reflect (at least partially) an increase in the number of crimes reported, not necessarily a change in the number of crimes committed. People are more willing to report crime when they believe that something can be done about it (apprehension of the perpetrator or retrieval of their property, for example). The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) was developed by the Bureau of Justice Statistics as an alternative means of collecting crime statistics. In this annual survey, the members of 100,000 randomly selected households are interviewed to determine whether they have been the victims of crime, even if the crime was not reported to the police. The most recent victimization survey indicates that 50 percent of all violent crimes and 61 percent of all property crimes are not reported to the police and are thus not reflected in the UCR. 14. Describe the criminal justice system and explain how the police and courts have considerable discretion in dealing with offenders. Answer: The criminal justice system refers to the more than 55,000 local, state, and federal agencies that enforce laws, adjudicate crimes, and treat and rehabilitate criminals. The system includes the police, the courts, and corrections facilities, and it employs more than 2 million people. The criminal justice system is made up of many bureaucracies that have considerable discretion in how decisions are made. Discretion refers to the use of personal judgment by police officers, prosecutors, judges, and other criminal justice system officials regarding whether and how to proceed in a given situation. The police are a prime example of discretionary processes because they have the power to selectively enforce the law and have on many occasions been accused of being too harsh or too lenient on alleged offenders. The role of the police in the criminal justice system continues to expand. The police are responsible for crime control and maintenance of order, but local police departments now serve numerous other human service functions, including improving community relations, resolving family disputes, and helping people during emergencies. The problem of police discretion is most acute when decisions are made to use force (such as grabbing, pushing, or hitting a suspect) or deadly force (shooting and killing a suspect). Generally, deadly force is allowed only in situations in which a suspect is engaged in a felony, is fleeing the scene of a felony, or is resisting arrest and has endangered someone’s life. Although many police departments have worked to improve their public image in recent years, the practice of racial profiling—the use of ethnic or racial background as a means of identifying criminal suspects—remains a highly charged issue. Criminal courts determine the guilt or innocence of those persons accused of committing a crime. In theory, justice is determined in an adversarial process in which the prosecutor (an attorney who represents the state) argues that the accused is guilty and the defense attorney asserts that the accused is innocent. In reality, judges wield a great deal of discretion. Working with prosecutors, they decide who to release and who to hold for further hearings, and what sentences to impose on those persons who are convicted. Prosecuting attorneys also have considerable leeway in deciding which cases to prosecute and when to negotiate a plea bargain with a defense attorney. As cases are sorted through the legal machinery, a steady attrition occurs. At each stage, various officials determine what alternatives will be available for those cases still remaining in the system. About 90 percent of criminal cases are never tried in court; instead they are resolved by plea bargaining, a process in which the prosecution negotiates a reduced sentence for the accused in exchange for a guilty plea. One of the most important activities of the court system is establishing the sentence of the accused after he or she has been found guilty or has pleaded guilty. 15. Define punishment, state the four functions of punishment, and explain the restorative justice perspective. Answer: Punishment is any action designed to deprive a person of things of value (including liberty) because of some offense the person is thought to have committed. Historically, punishment has had four major goals. (1) retribution is punishment that a person receives for infringing on the rights of others. It imposes a penalty on the offender and is based on the premise that the punishment should fit the crime: the greater the degree of social harm, the more the offender should be punished. (2) general deterrence seeks to reduce criminal activities by instilling a fear of punishment in the general public. However, we most often focus on specific deterrence, which inflicts punishments on specific criminals to discourage them from committing future crimes. Recently, criminologists have debated whether imprisonment has a deterrent effect, given the fact that high rates of those who are released from prison become recidivists (previous offenders who commit new crimes). (3) incapacitation is based on the assumption that offenders who are detained in prison or are executed will be unable to commit additional crimes. This approach is often expressed as “lock them up and throw away the key!” In recent years, more emphasis has been placed on selective incapacitation, which means that offenders who repeat certain kinds of crimes are sentenced to long prison terms. (4) rehabilitation seeks to return offenders to the community as law-abiding citizens by providing therapy or vocational or educational training. Based on this approach, offenders are treated, not punished, so that they will not continue their criminal activity. However, many correctional facilities are seriously understaffed and underfunded in the rehabilitation programs that exist. The job skills (such as agricultural work) that many offenders learn in prison do not transfer to the outside world, nor are offenders given any assistance in finding work that fits their skills once they are released. Recently, newer approaches have been advocated for dealing with criminal behavior. Key among these is the idea of restoration, which is designed to repair the damage done to the victim and the community by the offender’s criminal act. This approach is based on the restorative justice perspective, which states that the criminal justice system should promote a peaceful and just society; therefore, the system should focus on peace-making rather than on punishing offenders. ESSAY SECTION 1. Provide a personal definition of deviance. Then identify and discuss what you think are the five most deviant acts that you can imagine a person doing. Answer: Deviance can be defined as behavior that violates societal norms and expectations. It encompasses actions that differ significantly from what is considered acceptable or typical within a particular culture or society. Deviance is relative, as what is deemed deviant in one culture or era may be acceptable in another. The five most deviant acts I can imagine are: 1. Murder: Taking another person’s life is universally condemned and considered the most severe form of deviance due to its irreversible harm and violation of the fundamental right to life. 2. Child Abuse: Inflicting physical, emotional, or sexual harm on a child is deeply deviant because it exploits the vulnerability and innocence of children, causing long-lasting trauma. 3. Terrorism: Engaging in acts of terrorism to in still fear, cause mass casualties, and achieve political or ideological goals is highly deviant, as it undermines societal stability and targets innocent civilians. 4. Human Trafficking: Exploiting individuals for forced labor or sexual slavery is profoundly deviant due to its violation of human rights and the severe abuse and dehumanization of victims. 5. Cannibalism: Consuming human flesh is considered highly deviant across most cultures due to its extreme violation of social and moral taboos regarding the sanctity of the human body. 2. Deviant behavior may include the following: suicide, abortion, homosexuality, prostitution, and illegal drug use. Provide a response that supports your position of whether or not the specific behavior is deviant. Then provide a specific circumstance in which the behavior would contradict your initial position. Answer: Suicide: I consider suicide to be deviant because it goes against the societal value of preserving life and can cause significant distress to loved ones and the community. However, in certain circumstances, such as terminal illness with unbearable suffering, assisted suicide may be seen as a compassionate choice, challenging the view of it as strictly deviant. Abortion: I do not view abortion as deviant, as it can be a legitimate medical procedure and a personal choice regarding one’s body and future. In contrast, in societies with strong pro-life beliefs, any abortion might be considered highly deviant, reflecting the complexity and variability of this issue. Homosexuality: I do not consider homosexuality deviant, as it is a natural variation of human sexuality. However, in societies with strict conservative or religious views, homosexuality may be perceived as deviant, highlighting how cultural context influences perceptions of deviance. Prostitution: I consider prostitution deviant due to its association with exploitation, illegal activities, and the potential harm to those involved. Nonetheless, in regulated environments where sex work is consensual and legal, such as in some parts of Europe, it may be viewed as a legitimate occupation, challenging its deviant label. Illegal Drug Use: I view illegal drug use as deviant due to its potential for addiction, health risks, and legal consequences. However, in contexts where certain drugs are decriminalized or used for medical purposes, such as medical marijuana, drug use may not be considered deviant. 3. Explain why sociologist Emile Durkheim believed that deviance was functional for society. Answer: Emile Durkheim believed that deviance was functional for society because it plays several important roles in maintaining social order and promoting social change. According to Durkheim: 1. Affirmation of Cultural Values: Deviance helps clarify and reinforce societal norms and values by illustrating what behavior are unacceptable. 2. Social Cohesion: The collective reaction to deviance can strengthen social bonds among members of society as they unite in their disapproval and condemnation of deviant behavior. 3. Social Change: Deviance can lead to positive social change by challenging outdated or unjust norms and prompting society to adapt and evolve. For example, historical acts of deviance, such as civil rights protests, have led to significant social reforms. 4. Boundary Maintenance: Deviance helps establish and maintain boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behavior, thereby defining the limits of social tolerance and guiding individual behavior. 4. In relation to the functionalist perspectives on deviance, describe sociologist Robert Merton’s strain theory and sociologists Richard Cloward’s and Lloyd Ohlin’s opportunity theory. Answer: Robert Merton’s Strain Theory: Merton’s strain theory posits that deviance arises from a disconnect between culturally approved goals and the legitimate means available to achieve them. When individuals are unable to attain societal goals (such as wealth, success, or status) through conventional means (such as education and employment), they experience strain and may resort to deviant behavior as alternative ways to achieve these goals. Merton identified five modes of individual adaptation to strain: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Richard Cloward’s and Lloyd Ohlin’s Opportunity Theory: Cloward and Ohlin extended Merton’s strain theory by emphasizing the role of differential access to illegitimate means. According to their opportunity theory, not everyone who experiences strain has equal access to deviant opportunities. The availability of illegitimate means (such as criminal networks or subcultures) influences whether individuals will engage in deviant behavior. They proposed that different types of deviant subcultures, such as criminal, conflict, and retreatist subcultures, provide distinct opportunities and support systems for deviant behavior, shaping the nature and form of deviance. 5. Discuss the issue of graffiti. Answer: Graffiti is a form of visual communication typically involving the unauthorized marking of public or private property with symbols, words, or images. The issue of graffiti is complex, as it can be viewed from multiple perspectives: 1. Deviance and Vandalism: Many people consider graffiti to be deviant and a form of vandalism, as it often involves defacing property without permission, causing damage, and incurring cleanup costs. It is frequently associated with gang activity, territorial markings, and anti-social behavior. 2. Art and Expression: Conversely, graffiti can be seen as a legitimate form of artistic expression and a means of social or political commentary. Street artists like Banksy have elevated graffiti to a recognized art form, challenging traditional notions of public space and creativity. 3. Cultural Significance: In some communities, graffiti holds cultural significance and serves as a voice for marginalized groups, allowing them to express their identity, resistance, and experiences. 4. Legal and Policy Responses: Cities and municipalities have varied responses to graffiti, ranging from strict enforcement and penalties to designated areas where street art is allowed and celebrated. Efforts to control graffiti often involve community engagement, public art projects, and youth programs to redirect creative energies into positive outlets. The debate over graffiti highlights the tension between respecting property rights and acknowledging the importance of free expression and public art. Solutions often require a balance between enforcing laws and recognizing the cultural and artistic value of graffiti. 6. In relation to the symbolic interactionist perspectives on deviance, compare sociologist Edwin Sutherland’s differential association theory and criminologist Ronald Akers’ differential reinforcement theory. Answer: Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory: Sutherland's theory posits that deviant behavior is learned through interaction with others. According to this theory, individuals learn deviant behaviors, values, and motives through their associations with others who engage in deviance. The theory emphasizes the role of social relationships and the communication of deviant norms and techniques within these relationships. The frequency, duration, intensity, and priority of these associations influence the likelihood of an individual engaging in deviance. Ronald Akers’ Differential Reinforcement Theory: Akers built on Sutherland’s differential association theory by incorporating principles from behavioral psychology, particularly the concepts of reinforcement and punishment. Differential reinforcement theory suggests that deviant behavior is not only learned through social interaction but is also reinforced through rewards and punishments. Individuals are more likely to engage in deviant behavior if they perceive that the rewards (e.g., approval, money, pleasure) outweigh the punishments (e.g., disapproval, legal consequences). This theory highlights the importance of both social learning and the consequences of behavior in shaping deviant actions. Comparison: While both theories emphasize the social learning of deviance, Sutherland focuses on the process of learning deviant behaviors and norms through association with others, whereas Akers integrates the role of reinforcement and punishment in maintaining or discouraging deviant behavior. Akers' theory adds a behavioral component to Sutherland’s purely sociological perspective, providing a more comprehensive understanding of how deviance is learned and sustained. 7. In relation to the symbolic interactionist perspectives on deviance, assess sociologist Walter Reckless’ control theory and sociologist Travis Hirschi’s social bonding theory. Answer: Walter Reckless’ Control Theory: Reckless proposed that deviance is the result of insufficient social controls that restrain individuals from engaging in deviant behavior. He introduced the concept of "containment," which includes both inner containment (personal self-control, internalized norms, and values) and outer containment (external social controls such as laws, family, and social institutions). According to this theory, strong containment mechanisms help individuals resist the pressures and temptations to engage in deviance. Travis Hirschi’s Social Bonding Theory: Hirschi’s theory suggests that strong social bonds with society and its institutions reduce the likelihood of deviant behavior. These social bonds consist of four elements: attachment (emotional connections to others), commitment (investment in conventional activities and goals), involvement (participation in conventional activities), and belief (acceptance of societal norms and values). Individuals with strong bonds in these areas are less likely to deviate because they have more to lose by engaging in deviant acts. Assessment: Both theories emphasize the role of social controls in preventing deviance, but they approach it from different angles. Reckless focuses on the balance between internal and external controls, while Hirschi highlights the importance of strong social bonds in maintaining conformity. Hirschi’s theory provides a more detailed framework for understanding the specific elements of social bonds that contribute to conformity, making it a more nuanced explanation of how social integration influences deviant behavior. 8. Discuss whether or not public order (so-called victimless) crimes, such as prostitution, recreational drug use (marijuana), and gambling should be decriminalized. Answer: Argument for Decriminalization: • Prostitution: Decriminalizing prostitution could improve the safety and health of sex workers by reducing their exposure to violence, exploitation, and health risks. It could also allow for better regulation, access to health services, and the protection of workers' rights. • Recreational Drug Use (Marijuana): Decriminalizing marijuana can reduce the burden on the criminal justice system, address racial disparities in drug enforcement, and allow for the regulation and taxation of marijuana sales. It can also redirect resources to more serious crimes and public health approaches to substance use. • Gambling: Legalizing and regulating gambling can provide economic benefits through taxation and create safer environments for gambling activities, reducing the involvement of organized crime. Argument Against Decriminalization: • Prostitution: Critics argue that decriminalizing prostitution may not fully address issues of exploitation and may lead to an increase in human trafficking and other related crimes. • Recreational Drug Use (Marijuana): Opponents argue that decriminalizing marijuana could lead to increased use, potential health risks, and social consequences, such as impaired driving and addiction. • Gambling: Critics of decriminalizing gambling point to the potential for increased problem gambling, financial hardship, and social consequences for individuals and families. Specific Circumstance: • In a highly regulated and supportive environment, decriminalized prostitution can lead to better health and safety outcomes for sex workers, challenging the view of it as inherently deviant. Conversely, in an unregulated or poorly managed system, decriminalization might exacerbate exploitation and harm, reinforcing its deviant status. 9. The criminal justice system includes the police, the courts, and the prisons. The President of the United States has just appointed you to be the “Czar on Crime.” Summarize the specific strategies that you would implement to reverse the trend and start winning the war on crime (assume that you have a blank check to achieve this objective). Answer: As the "Czar on Crime," my strategies would focus on comprehensive reform and prevention, addressing root causes, and improving the effectiveness of the criminal justice system: 1. Community Policing and Trust Building: Increase funding for community policing initiatives to build trust between law enforcement and communities. Train officers in de-escalation techniques, cultural competency, and implicit bias to reduce tensions and improve community relations. 2. Education and Employment Programs: Invest in education and job training programs, particularly in high-crime areas, to provide at-risk individuals with opportunities for a better future. Focus on reducing school-to-prison pipelines and supporting reentry programs for formerly incarcerated individuals to prevent recidivism. 3. Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services: Expand access to mental health care and substance abuse treatment. Establish diversion programs that direct individuals with mental health and substance abuse issues away from the criminal justice system and into appropriate care. 4. Criminal Justice Reform: Implement sentencing reform to reduce mandatory minimum sentences for non-violent offenses and address racial disparities in sentencing. Promote restorative justice programs that focus on rehabilitation and reconciliation between offenders and victims. 5. Technology and Data-Driven Policing: Utilize advanced technology and data analytics to identify crime hotspots and deploy resources more effectively. Implement body cameras and other accountability measures to ensure transparency and accountability in policing. 6. Preventive Measures for Youth: Develop and fund youth programs that provide mentorship, extracurricular activities, and support services to prevent involvement in criminal activities. Focus on early intervention to address risk factors associated with juvenile delinquency. 7. Prison Reform: Improve prison conditions and provide rehabilitation and education programs within prisons to prepare inmates for successful reintegration into society. Address overcrowding and promote alternatives to incarceration for non-violent offenders. 8. Gun Control and Violence Prevention: Enact common-sense gun control measures to reduce the prevalence of firearms and related violence. Support violence prevention programs that address the underlying causes of violence in communities. 10. Outline the four major goals of punishment: retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, and rehabilitation. Answer: Retribution: Retribution is based on the principle of "just deserts," meaning that offenders deserve to be punished for their actions. It is a form of moral vengeance where the punishment is proportionate to the crime committed. Retribution seeks to provide a sense of justice and closure to victims and society by ensuring that offenders face consequences for their wrongdoing. Deterrence: Deterrence aims to prevent future crimes by making an example of offenders. There are two types of deterrence: • General Deterrence: Seeks to discourage the general public from committing crimes by demonstrating the negative consequences of criminal behavior. • Specific Deterrence: Focuses on preventing the individual offender from reoffending by imposing a punishment that discourages future criminal activity. Incapacitation: Incapacitation involves removing offenders from society to prevent them from committing further crimes. This is typically achieved through imprisonment or other forms of confinement. The goal is to protect the public by ensuring that offenders are unable to cause harm while they are incapacitated. Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation aims to reform and reintegrate offenders into society as law-abiding citizens. This goal focuses on addressing the underlying causes of criminal behavior, such as substance abuse, mental health issues, or lack of education and job skills. Rehabilitation programs may include therapy, education, vocational training, and other support services to help offenders change their behavior and reduce recidivism. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154
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