CH-6-7 Consciousness – Psychology: Perspectives and Connections : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 6 to 7 Chapter 6: Consciousness BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE What Is Consciousness? Two Dimensions of Consciousness: Wakefulness and Awareness Minimal Consciousness Moderate Consciousness Full Consciousness Attention: Focusing Consciousness Selective Attention Sustained Attention Multi-Tasking: The Implications of Shifting Attention Psychology in the Real World: Hazards of Using a Mobile Device or Texting While Driving Training Consciousness: Meditation Meditation and Conscious Experience Mediation Training and the Brain Sleeping and Dreaming Sleeping Sleep and Circadian Rhythms The Sleeping Brain The Development of Sleep Over the Life Span The Function of Sleep Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Debt Disorders of Sleep Dreaming Psychoanalytic Theory Biological Theory Cognitive Theory Combined Theories Hypnosis Altering Consciousness with Drugs Depressants Alcohol Sedatives Opioids Stimulants Caffeine Nicotine Cocaine Amphetamines Ecstasy Hallucinogens Marijuana LSD Psilocybin Bringing It All Together: Making Connections in Consciousness: Brain Injury Revisited Chapter Review EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE WHAT IS CONSCIOUSNESS? • Consciousness is an awareness of one’s surroundings and thoughts. • It is our experience of a moment as we move through it but it also involves the capacity to take in and process information briefly before sending it to specialized areas for further use or storage. • Baumeister and his colleagues (2010, 2011) argue that consciousness is required for any mental processes that involve imagining situations, working with sequences of information, such as counting, speaking and understanding languages, logical reasoning, and helping people share experiences. TWO DIMENSIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS: WAKEFULNESS AND AWARENESS o Wakefulness refers the degree of alertness, resulting from whether a person is awake or asleep. o Awareness refers to the monitoring of information from the environment and from one’s own thoughts. • Variations in consciousness can be explained in terms of degrees of wakefulness and awareness. Minimal Consciousness • Minimal consciousness refers to states when people are barely awake or aware. • A person in a coma has his/her eyes closed and is unresponsive. o Degrees of coma are measured with the Glasgow Coma Scale. • A person in a vegetative state might have his/her eyes open but he/she is otherwise unresponsive. It can be thought of as “wakefulness without awareness.” o In one study, researchers asked a young woman in a vegetative state to imagine a few things. Her brain showed activation in the same areas as did the brains of people who were conscious and asked to imagine the same things. • Those in a minimally conscious state are largely unresponsive but have begun to show some deliberate movements. Moderate Consciousness • Freud used the term preconscious to refer to information that is potentially accessible but is not currently in awareness. o The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the feeling that you know something (like the movie you saw a particular actress in) but you can’t quite put your finger on it. It is a good example of precociousness. o Another term for this stage is moderate consciousness. • Sleep and dreaming are moderately conscious states in which one can be roused by important sounds but can ignore others. Most sensations of the outer world are still not perceived. Full Consciousness • We experience fluctuations in consciousness even when we are fully awake. • A flow state occurs when we get so involved in what we are doing that we lose a sense of time and where we are. • Mindfulness is a heightened awareness of the present moment, which can be applied to events in one’s environment and events in one’s own mind. o People vary considerably in how mindful they are naturally but there are also skills one can acquire to increase their mindfulness. ATTENTION: FOCUSING CONSCIOUSNESS • Attention is the limited capacity to process information that is under conscious control. Selective Attention o Selective attention is the ability to focus awareness on specific features in the environment while ignoring others. o In a dichotic listening task a participant received one message in one ear and another message in the other ear. The participant was told to pay attention to just one ear (the attended ear). Recall is generally better for the attended ear. o If the material presented to the unattended ear is meaningful in some way, it can make its way into consciousness. • For example, the cocktail party effect is the ability to filter out auditory stimuli and then to refocus attention when you hear your name. o Selective attention creates gaps in attention and perception because we focus so much on certain things that we are blind to other things. • For example, researchers showed people a video of two basketball teams with one team dressed in white T-shirts and the other in black shirts. They asked participants simply to count the number of times the players on the team wearing white T-shirts passed the ball. About half the participants were dumbfounded to learn afterward that they completely missed seeing a person dressed in a gorilla suit walk into the game, pause for a second to beat his chest, and then walk off screen. • This phenomenon by which we fail to notice unexpected objects in our surroundings is referred to as inattentional blindness. o The perceptual load model states that we do not notice potential distracters when a primary task consumes all of our attentional capacity. When a primary task is minimally demanding, however, distracters can capture our awareness. o Conscious attention occurs when neurons from many distinct brain regions work together. This process is called synchronization. Sustained Attention o Sustained attention is the ability to maintain focused awareness on a target. o Sustained attention has been studied using the Continuous Performance Test (CPT).  Participants are asked to detect one letter among other letters shown very rapidly, one by one on a computer screen.  Most people cannot perform well on CPT tasks for more than about 15 minutes, and their accuracy in detecting targets declines considerably after 5 to 7 minutes. MultiTasking: The Implications of Shifting Attention o Multitasking involves fast switching between activities, wherein one’s attention gets broken up. o You do not stay with one task for a long period of time so there is less sustained attention. o You lose the most time when you switch to more complex tasks. o Multitasking compromises learning. o Threaded cognitive theory explains limitations on concurrent multitasking. According to this theory we can be involved in more than one task at a time, but a particular resource can only be used by one task at a time. Psychology in the Real World: Hazards of Using a Mobile Device or Texting While Driving • People generally acknowledge the potential hazards of cell phone use while driving, yet the practice is widespread. • In the view of psychologists, phone conversations while driving are distracting, even when the hands are free. With such distraction, performance declines and safety is compromised. • Strayer and Drews (2007) did several experiments with people in a driving simulator. Some of the participants wore a hands-free headset and engaged in a conversation while doing a driving task; the others had no cell phone and simply drove. o In the first study, several objects were inserted into the driving scene that drivers were not told they’d need to attend to. Later, they tested them on recognition of these objects. People talking on cell a phone saw half as many objects as those not on the phone. • An fMRI study of people driving in a simulator showed that activity in the parietal lobe decreased when people listened to sentences while driving, whereas activity in areas associated with language processing increased. Their driving was also worse. • Texting leads to slower reaction times than eating or using the phone. • The bottom line is that research shows texting or using the phone is dangerous and, at times, fatal. TRAINING CONSCIOUSNESS: MEDITATION • Meditation refers to a wide variety of practices that people use to calm the mind, stabilize concentration, focus attention, and enhance awareness of the present moment. • Concentration meditation involves sitting still for long periods of time, staying relaxed yet alert, and focusing their attention on the breath moving in and out of one’s mouth and nose. • CONNECTIONS: Every time you make a memory or learn something new, you change your brain by strengthening synaptic connections or growing new neurons (Chapter 8). Meditation and Conscious Experience • Mindfulness is a fully conscious state of heightened awareness of the present moment. • Mindfulness meditation training encourages attention to the details of momentary experience (e.g., thoughts, feelings, and sensations available at present). • Mindfulness appears to enhance well-being, decrease depression, and improve physical health. • Because meditation enhances awareness of the present moment, it also improves attention. • MacLean et al. (2010) found that concentration meditation makes people perceive visual objects—lines at least—with greater sensitivity, and helps them attend to such objects longer (which is an increase in sustained attention). These effects are akin to having sharper vision for a longer period of time. Meditation Training and the Brain • Meditation training has been shown to significantly increase activity in the left frontal cortex; an area associated with positive emotions. • Meditation practice may alter the physical structure of the brain. • Researchers used an MRI to measure the thickness of various regions of the cortex in experienced practitioners of insight meditation. They found that meditators’ brains were thicker than the comparison group’s in cortical areas associated with attention, sensitivity to bodily sensations, and the processing of external sensory information. The amount of meditation experience was positively correlated with cortical thickness in some of these areas. • CONNECTION: What aspects of experimental designs allow for conclusions about cause and effect (Chapter 3)? SLEEPING AND DREAMING Sleeping • The sleeping brain is very active, but it is only partially processing information from the outside world. • The two essential features of sleep are 1) that there is a perceptual “wall” between the outside world and the conscious mind; and 2) the “wall” can immediately come down. That is, the mind filters out important information (e.g., an alarm clock) from relatively less important information (e.g., a roommate’s phone conversation). Sleep and Circadian Rhythms • Circadian rhythms are the variations in physiological processes that cycle within an approximately 24-hour period. • Three different bodily activities each fluctuate on a circadian cycle: body temperature, the hormone melatonin, and alertness. • The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a part of the hypothalamus that acts as the brain’s clock.  When the retina in the eye senses light in the morning, it stimulates the SCN, which in turn signals the nearby pineal gland to decrease the amount of melatonin (a hormone important in relaxation and drowsiness) it releases.  In the evening, the SCN neurons become less active, allowing the secretion of melatonin, which increases relaxation. Sleep and the Brain • The brain is very active during sleep and each state of wakefulness, and sleep has its own pattern of brain activity.  When awake, brain activity shows beta waves, rapid but low-energy waves.  When we are relaxed and drowsy our brain activity switches to alpha waves, which are slower and slightly higher energy waves. • The second major form of sleep is called non-REM, which has relatively few eye movements, and those that occur are slow rather than fast.  Rapid eye movements (REMs) are the quick movements of the eye that occur during sleep, thought to mark phases of dreaming. • There are four stages of non-REM sleep:  Stage 1: Brain waves change to theta waves, slower and lower energy than alpha waves. This is when we first fall asleep. It is a light sleep and not much stimulation is needed to awaken us.  Stage 2: Starts about 5 to 7 minutes after entering Stage 1. There are two unique markers of Stage 2: 1) theta waves now show short periods of extremely fast and somewhat higher energy wave activity called sleep spindles; and 2) there are sudden high energy waves called K-complexes.  Stage 3: This stage starts with theta waves with some higher-energy delta waves. As this stage progresses, there are more delta waves and fewer sleep spindles and K-complexes.  Stage 4: Occurs when sleep spindles and K-complexes disappear completely. This is the deepest stage of sleep. • Shortly after entering Stage 4 sleep, sleep spindles and K-complexes of Stage 3 return, followed by the theta waves of Stages 2 and 1. • After returning to Stage 1, the eyes begin to move rapidly underneath the eyelids, indicating the entry into REM. The night’s first episode of REM sleep lasts for 8–10 minutes before the process begins again.  With each progressive cycle, the non-REM periods are shorter and the REM periods are longer.  In sum, each night adults move through about 4 to 6 different cycles of non-REM and REM sleep.  Each cycle lasts roughly 90 minutes. • Full-blown dreams are less common during non-REM than REM sleep, but they do occur regularly during non-REM stages. The dreams are different, though, in that they are less detailed, less active, and are more like regular thinking. The Development of Sleep Over the Life Span • Newborns spend more time in REM sleep than in non-REM sleep. In humans, REM sleep declines rapidly over the life span.  The percentage of total sleep that is REM stays close to 50% for the first three months of life.  By 8 months it falls to 33%.  By age 1 it drops to about 28%. The Function of Sleep • Sleep supports several restorative processes in the CNS: neural growth, metabolic cleanup in the brain, memory consolidation, and protection against cellular damage.  Sleep deprivation inhibits the growth of new neurons.  Sleep helps us learn and remember things. Task learning is replayed in the brain during sleep, and then this brain practice helps performance the next day.  Sleep appears to fight cell damage. Sleep aids cell function by triggering the production of enzymes that fight cell damage and slows the metabolism itself thereby slowing the rate of cellular damage. Sleep Deprivation and Sleep Debt • Forty percent of U.S. adults are sleep-deprived. • According to the National Sleep Foundation the typical adult gets about 6 hours and 40 minutes of sleep on week days and 7 hours and 25 minutes on weekends. • Sleep debt refers to how much sleep our brains owe our bodies. If you get 2 hours less sleep one night, then you owe your body 2 hours of additional sleep the next night (or within a few days). If it is not paid back in sleep then it is paid back in daytime drowsiness, use of stimulants such as caffeine and nicotine, lack of focused attention, and impaired learning and memory. • Sleep debt also affects mental health. Disorders of Sleep • About 20% of people in the United States suffer from sleep disorders. • Insomnia is taking more than 20 minutes to fall asleep, having trouble staying asleep, and/or not feeling rested after a night’s sleep for two or more consecutive weeks.  About 15 to 20% of U.S. adults suffer from insomnia.  Possible causes of insomnia include restless leg syndrome, erratic hours, medical conditions, iron deficiency, psychiatric disorders such as depression, and excessive use of alcohol.  Drug treatments for insomnia, such as Ambien, work by increasing the effects of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), the neurotransmitter that decreases central nervous system activity.  Several non-drug methods also exist for insomnia including: meditation and CBT. • Sleepwalking occurs when a person gets out of bed during sleep, usually during the first third of the sleep cycle, and engages in activities that normally occur during wakefulness.  People who sleepwalk are difficult to rouse and do not remember having been up after waking in the morning.  Because sleepwalking occurs during non-REM sleep, the sleepwalker is not likely to be acting out a dream. • Narcolepsy is excessive daytime sleepiness. People with this disorder fall asleep at inopportune times throughout the day with little or no warning.  They may experience a weakness of facial muscles and muscles in limbs called capaplexy.  It can be function of insomnia and has a genetic bias.  It is often treated with amphetamines and antidepressants. • Hypersomnia exists when a person sleeps more than 10 hours a day for two weeks or more.  It involves strong urges to nap throughout the day, often in inappropriate times like during meals or in the middle of conversations.  It can be caused by other sleep disorders, brain injury, or depression. • Night terrors occurs when a person walks around, speaks incoherently, and ultimately awakens, terrified from sleep.  Night terrors often occur in children.  Episodes typically last 10–20 minutes.  These do not occur during REM.  These are not nightmares (frightening or distressing dreams). Dreaming • Dreams are the succession of images, thoughts, and feelings we experience while asleep. The succession of images is loosely connected by unusual associations and not well recalled afterward. • Most people dream numerous times each night. Psychoanalytic Theory • Freud argued that impulses, thoughts, feelings, and drives that threaten the waking mind are released in distorted and disguised form by the sleeping mind. • Dreams operate on two distinct levels of consciousness:  The first is the manifest level. This is the dream that is consciously recalled after waking up.  The second is the latent level. This is the deeper, unconscious level, where the true meaning of a dream lies. Biological Theory • AIM theory (Activation, Input, and Mode) is one of the most popular biological theories for dreaming.  Activation is the dimension that involves the amount of neural activation and ranges from low to high activation.  Input is the extent to which stimulation is internal or external. It ranges from the inside to the outside world.  Mode consists of a dimension that ranges from logical (wakeful) to loose-illogical (dreaming) states. Cognitive Theory • Dreams are not that different from everyday thinking. • Some can reflect on and evaluate their experiences while dreaming. • Non-REM dreaming is closer to waking thought than REM sleep dreaming. Combined Theories o Recent theories promote an integration of cognitive and biological aspects of dreams. o Dreams may consolidate long-term memories. o Cortisol levels change throughout sleep and are involved in strengthening neural connects to consolidate memory. HYPNOSIS • Hypnosis is a state of mind that occurs in compliance with instructions and is characterized by focused attention, suggestibility, absorption, lack of voluntary control over behavior, and suspension of critical faculties of mind. • People vary considerably in the degree to which they can be hypnotized, largely because we are not equally suggestible. • Clinical hypnosis should not be confused with stage techniques. • Numerous studies support the effectiveness of hypnosis for pain relief during childbirth, dental procedures, wart removal, and surgery. • Hypnosis may help treat smoking, nausea, and vomiting related to chemotherapy, and anxiety associated with certain medical procedures. • How hypnosis works: • Some consider hypnosis to be a state in which one part of the brain operates independently. • Some think hypnotized people behave the way they think a hypnotized person would behave. Basically people are role-playing. • Neuroscientific research suggests hypnosis is a real brain activity and not imitation. ALTERNG CONSCIOUSNESS WITH DRUGS • Psychoactive drugs are naturally occurring or synthesized substances that reliably produce qualitative changes in conscious experience. • Psychoactive drug use is universal among humans. Drugs are used to aid in spiritual practice, to improve health, to explore the self, to regulate mood, to escape boredom and despair, to enhance sensory experience, to stimulate artistic creativity and performance, and to promote social interaction. • Problems arise when people develop a physical dependence on the drug to maintain normal function and to cope with the challenges of daily life. • Withdrawal symptoms are the adverse effects people experience if they stop using it. • Psychological dependence occurs when people compulsively use a substance for various reasons, such as to alleviate boredom, to regulate mood, or to cope with the challenges of everyday life. • Addiction results from sustained use and physical or psychological dependence on a substance. Depressants • Depressants decrease or slow down central nervous system activity. • In low doses, these drugs generally calm the body and mind. • In high doses, they can slow down heart rate and brain activity to dangerously low levels. Alcohol • Alcohol is the most widely used depressant. • The amount of alcohol in the bloodstream is the common measure of inebriation known as Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC). BAC is measured in milligrams of alcohol per 100 milliliters of blood (milligrams %), so a BAC of .10 means that one-tenth of 1%, or 1/1000th of one’s blood content, is alcohol (0.08 BAC is currently the legal limit for driving in all states in the United States). • The more alcohol a person consumes, the more obvious the depressant effects become, sometimes leading to blackouts.  Alcohol has “stimulating” effects at first (you feel loose and relaxed) because alcohol suppresses the higher social regulatory functions of the cerebral cortex, thereby lowering inhibitions.  Over time, heavy drinking (more than 5 drinks per day) leads to fat accumulation and blocked blood flow in the liver.  Chronic alcoholism is one of the most common causes of cirrhosis, the accumulation of nonfunctional scar tissue in the liver. • Binge drinking is usually defined as at least 5 drinks in a row for men and 4 for women.  About 40% of college students binge drink.  CONNECTIONS: The brain continues to develop throughout adolescence, which makes it quite vulnerable to the effects of drugs and alcohol (Chapter 5). • Mild to moderate alcohol intake (no more than 2 drinks a day) provides protective effects for cardiovascular health. Sedatives • Sedatives (such as barbituates and benzodiazepines) create a feeling of stupor similar to that of alcohol intoxication. They slow the heart rate, relax skeletal muscles, and tranquilize the mind. • Examples of sedatives include: barbiturates (secobarbital [Seconal], pentobarbital [Nembutal], diazepam [Valium], and chlordiazepoxide [Librium]). Opioids • Opioids, also called narcotics, are all drugs derived from opium or chemicals similar to opium. • Such drugs may be derived from natural sources (e.g., morphine), partially synthetic (e.g., heroin), or entirely synthetic (e.g., codeine).  Modern synthetic opioids include oxycodone (Percoset or Percodan), which is prescribed for moderate to severe pain, and hydrocodone (Vicodin), which is prescribed for milder pain. • Opioids depress central nervous system activity, slowing heart rate, respiration, digestion, and suppressing the cough center. • Opioids have been used for centuries as pain relievers because they make use of the body’s own naturally occurring opioid systems.  Endorphins are opioid-like proteins that bind to opioid receptors in the brain and act as natural painkillers. • Stronger opioids (e.g., opium, morphine, and heroin) produce feelings of overwhelming bliss, euphoria, and bodily relaxation. This is why opioids have a high potential for abuse. Stimulants • Stimulants activate the nervous system. Caffeine • Coffee, tea, cocoa, energy drinks, and certain other soft drinks have caffeine. In fact, it is the world’s most commonly consumed psychoactive drug. • The effects of mild to moderate caffeine intake are increased alertness, increased heart rate, loss of motor coordination, insomnia, and nervousness. • Too much caffeine can make people jittery and anxious. • If regular caffeine users stop consuming caffeine, they can experience significant withdrawal symptoms, the most common of which is a headache. Other withdrawal symptoms are fatigue and decreased energy, depressed mood, and difficulty concentrating. Nicotine • Nicotine is the active drug in tobacco. • Smoking tobacco puts nicotine in the bloodstream immediately, and within 8 seconds of inhalation it reaches the brain. • Nicotine increases heart rate and rate of respiration and it creates a feeling of arousal, although many users report that cigarettes calm them down. • Over time, the cardiovascular arousal associated with nicotine use increases the risk of high blood pressure and heart disease. • Nicotine is extremely addictive. It creates high tolerance, physical dependence, and unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. In fact, it is harder to kick a nicotine addiction than a heroin addiction. • There are many known health risks of smoking: it reduces life expectancy on average by 10 years, increases the risk for lung cancer more than tenfold, and triples the risk of death from heart disease in both men and women. It is also linked to leukemia, cataracts, pneumonia, and cancers of the cervix, kidney, pancreas, and stomach. • Tobacco smoke contains many cancer-causing agents that trigger severe damage to DNA and can inhibit DNA repair in lung cells. • Tobacco smoke also contains carbon monoxide, a toxic substance that displaces oxygen in the bloodstream, so tissues get less oxygen than they need. Carbon monoxide from smoking also makes people look older than they are. Cocaine • South American Indians chew coca leaves for their stimulant and digestion-aiding properties, and the most notable component in the coca plant is cocaine. • When snorted, cocaine increases heart rate and produces a short-lived, but intense, rush of euphoria. It also can lead to a sense of invulnerability and power. • Physiologically, cocaine induces a sense of exhilaration by increasing the availability of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin. • The high cocaine brings on is very short, which explains why people abuse it. • If someone is free-basing, he or she is injecting cocaine. • Crack is a form of cocaine that is sold on the streets in pellets. • Cocaine increases heart rate and causes irregular heartbeat, increases risk of heart attack, and, occasionally, leads to death. Amphetamines • Amphetamines are synthetically produced compounds that produce long-lasting excitation of the sympathetic nervous system. • Three main forms (all of which are pills) include: methamphetamine (Meth), dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), and amphetamine sulphate (Benzedrine or “speed”). • Most people who abuse amphetamines get them from health care providers.  They are prescribed as appetite suppressants and treat symptoms of ADHD. • Amphetamines cause increased heart rate, increased motivation, and excited mood.  Short-term effects may include insomnia, stomach distress, headaches, decreased libido, and difficulty concentrating.  Long-term use can lead to severe depression, paranoia, loss of control over one’s behavior, and, in some cases, amphetamine psychosis, a condition marked by hallucinations. • Symptoms of withdrawal from chronic amphetamine use include fatigue, anxiety and depression, hunger, overeating, and disordered thought and behavior. Ecstasy • The psychoactive drug MDMA, also known as ecstasy, is both a stimulant and mild hallucinogen.  It is chemically similar to methamphetamines and the active ingredient in hallucinogenic mushrooms. • It is sometimes called “the love drug” because it produces feelings of euphoria, warmth, and connectedness with others. • The dangers of MDMA include increased risk of depression with repeated use, slower processing times on cognitive tasks, and greater impulsivity. • Long-term effects include persistent mental deficits, low mood, and serotonin deficiencies in certain areas of the brain. • CONNECTIONS: Our moods are tightly linked to transmitter systems in the brain. Dopamine is released when we feel good, and serotonin affects how sociable and affectionate we feel (Chapter 3). Hallucinogens • Hallucinogens create distorted perceptions of reality, ranging from mild to extreme. They can also alter thought and mood. Marijuana • Marijuana comes from the blossoms and leaves of the Cannabis sativa plant. The active ingredient in cannabis is tetrahydrocannibinol (THC). • Marijuana alters mood to create euphoria and changes perception, especially one’s perception of time and food. Hallucinations are rare but are more common when it is eaten. • Marijuana is not addictive but, with habitual use, people do develop cravings. People can become psychologically dependent on marijuana, too. • Regular marijuana smoking increases the likelihood of a variety of respiratory illnesses, can cause immune system impairment, and appears to lead to memory problems. • Regular marijuana use is common in adolescents who later develop schizophrenia. • Marijuana and endocannabinoids (marijuana-like chemicals produced in our bodies) offer promises for medical treatments for physical and psychological problems. For example, marijuana is has been used to treat nausea for those suffering from chemotherapy-related nausea or the involuntary weight loss accompanying AIDS. • Marijuana and its derivatives can also be helpful in treating pain. • Some states have legalized the use of medical marijuana. LSD: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-25 • LSD (or “acid”) is a synthesized form of lysergic acid which is derived from ergot (grain fungus). • Ingesting LSD causes dramatic changes in conscious experience, including altered visual perceptions, enhanced color perception, hallucinations, and synesthesia (“seeing” sounds or “hearing” visual images). • LSD increases the levels of dopamine and serotonin. Serotonin activity, in turn, increases the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. • Side effects include increased body temperature, increased blood pressure, insomnia, and psychosis-like symptoms in some people.  For some people LSD use leads to bad trips (panic and negative experiences).  For other people, however, it can have an opposite effect and lead to very profound, life-altering experiences. Psilocybin o Psilocybin is the active ingredient in hallucinogenic mushrooms. o Trips from psilocybin can lead to profound spiritual experiences, even in studies where people were “blind” to what they were taking. o These insights seem to be stable (enduring 14 months after exposure). BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: MAKING CONNECTIONS IN CONSCIOUSNESS: BRAIN INJURY REVISITED • People with damage to lower brain regions that control the basic bodily functions, such as sleep-wake cycles, are less likely to regain consciousness than are people who sustain damage to the cerebral cortex. • Distractibility is a common problem for people with brain injury. o Research shows that people with brain damage, especially to the frontal lobes, have trouble blocking out extraneous information and use selective attention to stay on task. o Some studies show that such individuals perform poorly on the Stroop test but this may be due to the increased time it takes people with traumatic brain injury to process information overall. o Research confirms that people with traumatic brain injury have deficits in sustained attention. • Sleeping and dreaming change with brain injury as well. o How people sleep while comatose or vegetative may be an important predictor of their recovery.  Those in a coma whose EEG patterns during sleep are organized have less disability later and a greater likelihood of survival than those whose brain patterns are less organized while sleeping.  People with damage to the association cortex and the limbic system and areas around it or the links between these areas show the greatest dreaming deficits and, in some cases, a total absence of dreaming.  Last, drug use and abuse can occur in people who are coping with the challenges of a brain injury due to resulting feelings of depression and anxiety. KEY TERMS addiction: a condition that results from habitual use or physical and psychological dependence on a substance. AIM: three biologically based dimensions of consciousness: Activation, Input, and Mode. alpha waves: pattern of brain activity when one is relaxed and drowsy; slower, higher-energy waves than beta waves. attention: the limited capacity to process information that is under conscious control. awareness: aspect of consciousness that is the monitoring of information from the environment and from one’s own thoughts. beta waves: pattern of brain activity when one is awake; a rapid, low-energy wave. circadian rhythms: the variations in physiological processes that cycle within an approximately 24-hour period, including the sleep-wake cycle. coma: a state of consciousness in which the eyes are closed and the person is unresponsive and unarousable; a much more severe and longer-lasting loss of consciousness than fainting. consciousness: an awareness of one’s surroundings and of what’s in one’s mind at a given moment; includes aspects of being awake and aware. delta waves: type of brain activity that dominates Stage 2 sleep; higher energy than theta waves. depressants: substances that decrease or slow down central nervous system activity. dreams: images, thoughts, and feelings experienced during sleep. endocannabinoids: natural, marijuana-like substances produced by the body. hallucination: convincing sensory experiences that occur in the absence of external stiumulus. hallucinogens: substances that create distorted perceptions of reality, ranging from mild to extreme. hypersomnia: sleep difficulty characterized by sleeping more than 10 hours a day for 2 weeks or more; includes urge to nap during inappropriate times. hypnosis: a state characterized by focused attention, suggestibility, absorption, lack of voluntary control over behavior, and suspension of critical faculties; occurs when instructed by someone trained in hypnosis; may be therapeutic. insomnia: a sleep difficulty characterized by difficulty falling and staying asleep, as well as not feeling rested. latent level: Freud’s unconscious level of dreams; their meaning is found at this level. manifest level: Freud’s surface level of dreams, recalled upon waking. meditation: practices that people use to calm the mind, stabilize concentration, focus attention, and enhance awareness of the present moment. mindfulness: a heightened awareness of the present moment, whether of events in one’s environment or in one’s own mind. narcolepsy: sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and weakness in facial and limb muscles. night terrors: the state that occurs when a person walks around, speaks incoherently, and ultimately awakens, terrified from sleep. non-REM: form of sleep with few eye movements, which are slow rather than fast. psychoactive drugs: naturally occurring or synthesized substances that, when ingested or otherwise taken into the body, reliably produce qualitative changes in conscious experience. rapid eye movements (REM): quick movements of the eye that occur during sleep, thought to mark phases of dreaming. selective attention: the ability to focus awareness on specific features in the environment while ignoring others. sleepwalking: a sleep difficulty characterized by activities occurring during non-REM sleep that usually occur when one is awake, such as walking and eating. stimulants: substances that activate the nervous system. Stroop effect: delay in reaction time when color of words on a test and their meaning differ. sustained attention: the ability to maintain focused awareness on a target or idea. theta waves: pattern of brain activity during Stage 1 sleep; slower, lower-energy waves than alpha waves. vegetative state: a state of minimal consciousness in which the eyes might be open, but the person is otherwise unresponsive. wakefulness: aspect of consciousness that is the degree of alertness, resulting from whether a person is awake or asleep. MAKING THE CONNECTIONS (Some of the connections are found in the text. Other connections may be useful for lecture or discussion.) What Is Consciousness? CONNECTION: How much information can we hold in consciousness briefly before it is processed further, stored, or forgotten? Not as much as you might think, as we explain in our discussion of working memory (Chapter 7). • Activity: Have students engage in a digit span task. Have students take out a piece of paper and read off the following series of numbers: 4432, 98325, 793627, 9963012, 10521904, and 563829610. Ask students to indicate (via CPS or hand raising) how many they got correct. Ask them at what point the task became more difficult. Training Consciousness: Meditation CONNECTIONS: Every time you make a memory or learn something new, you change your brain by strengthening synaptic connections or growing new neurons (Chapter 8). • Discussion: Have students recall how neural connections are developed and discuss automatic processing. CONNECTION: What aspects of experimental designs allow for conclusions about cause and effect (Chapter 3)? • Discussion: Review random assignment and experimental design and ask students to design an experiment to test the effects of meditation on memory or mood. Sleeping CONNECTION: According to Freud, dream analysis is but one way to access the unconscious mind. Free association is another therapeutic technique used in Freudian psychoanalysis (Chapter 16). • Suggested Activity: Have students write down the most recent dream they had that they recall and then free associate. There are no right and wrong answers here but the activity offers insight into Freud’s theory on the psyche and dreaming. Altering Consciousness with Drugs CONNECTION: The brain continues to develop throughout adolescence, which makes it quite vulnerable to the effects of drugs and alcohol (Chapter 5). o Suggested Website: Adolescent Brains are a Work in Progress: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/work/adolescent.html CONNECTION: Our moods are tightly linked to transmitter systems in the brain. Dopamine is released when we feel good, and serotonin affects how sociable and affectionate we feel Chapter 3). • Suggested Website: Dopamine: Natural Ways to Increase Dopamine Levels: http://www.integrativepsychiatry.net/dopamine.html INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTION 1. Ask students how long they are able to sustain full attention (you can use the CPS clickers to poll the class if you’d like). Ask them if they think the amount of time people can sustain their attention has changed over time and why. A good way to start is to talk about multitasking, TV, etc. Ask them how long they think classes should be. 2. Ask students what time they started high school and how tired they felt throughout the day. Now ask them how they designed their college schedules (what time does their earliest class start; what time are they finished). Their answers will reflect their circadian rhythm. Some are morning people; others are night people. Students are often interested in how their patterns compare to those of their classmates. You may want to show a section of Inside the Teen Brain (PBS), dealing with sleep: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/video/flv/generic.html?s=frol02p392&continuous=1 3. Poll the class and see how many students meditate. Ask those who do to discuss exactly what they do and what they experience in that stage. 4. Ask students to discuss their impression of hypnosis. Is it really an altered state of consciousness? Is it a question of role-playing? 5. Ask students to discuss their experiences with different sleep disorders. Most have some experience with insomnia. You can go to http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/sleep-disorders-treatment-care and discuss some common ways to treat them. Many may have parents or grandparents with sleep apnea. 6. Brain injury can affect many different aspects of consciousness. Talk to students about the case of Terri Schiavo (http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8225637/) and ask them if they felt that it was right for her to be removed from life support. 7. Have students go to http://www.learningmeditation.com and read about how to meditate. Have them practice meditating for the week you cover this unit and write about what, if any, differences they’ve noticed as the result of the practice. 8. Have students keep a sleep journal the week you cover this section. Have them write down what time they go to sleep, if they wake up in the night, and what they remember dreaming about. Have them report how many times they hit snooze each morning and how tired they felt throughout the day. You can use this to talk about circadian rhythms, dreaming, and sleep debt. 9. Ask students to think about the last dream they remember in detail and analyze it from a psychoanalytic, biological, and cognitive perspective. 10. Go to https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/java/ready.html and have students take the Stroop task. 11. Give students a list of psychoactive drugs (marijuana, ecstasy, cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, LSD, crystal meth, Valium, and morphine) and ask them to write down if they think the drug is a stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen. They generally think they know much more than they do. You can link this back to Chapter 2’s discussion of intuition. 12. The mental illness schizophrenia is a marked by an inability to selectively filter out and attend to only the most relevant information from the world. You can lead this discussion by showing the following clip about schizophrenia: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4R6jln_eZg. 13. For one week, try keeping a sleep log. Each day, record how many hours of sleep you had the night before, and make some sort of ratings on your general mood (irritable or not? Joyful or not?). You can make yourself a list of words and provide ratings on a 1-10 scale, if you like). Make note of how well you did at school, paying attention in lecture, performance on any tests or assignments, etc. After one week, see if you notice any patterns. First, calculate the average amount of sleep you had each night by adding up your total for each night and then divide by the number of days you for which you collected data (7 if you did a whole week). 14. Sleep increases neural growth in key memory areas of the brain. This is one reason why optimal sleep improves learning and memory. Ask students by CPS or hand poll how many of them pull all-nighters. Ask them how successful the method is on the test itself, the final, and long-term memory. 15. Excessive drinking can shrink the brain, and, in the still developing teen brain, these effects are even more dramatic. Ask students to have an honest discussion about their experiences with alcohol in high school or college. You may prefer to have them write about their experiences. Suggested Media 1. Dead Again (1991) gives a good example of clinical hypnosis. 2. Trainspotting (1996) is a movie with a good deal of information on heroin usage. Be warned, though, there is some language and nudity. 3. Requiem for a Dream (2000); warning, rated R 4. The Basketball Diaries (1995); warning, rated R 5. Caffeine and skin health: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wac7EAem6TA 6. Quitting cigarettes and laser therapy: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prYUrhqmqtI 7. NOVA Sleep: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3410/01.html 8. Insomnia and its treatment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFUrw7g6Dw4. 9. Brain scans and meditation: http://www.livescience.com/health/070629_naming_emotions.html 10. Inside the Teenage Brain—PBS (sleep section): http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/video/flv/generic.html?s=frol02p392&continuous=1 11. Discovering Psychology The Mind Awake and Asleep (Annenberg) 12. Discovering Psychology: The Mind Hidden and Divided (Annenberg) 13. Awareness Test: Count the number of passes the team in white makes! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ahg6qcgoay4 (nice example of selective attention and inattentional blindness 14. Another example of inattentional blindness: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKry81bf2qw 15. The Need for Sleep (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) 16. Binge Drinking and the Adolescent Brain (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) 17. Alcoholism (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) Suggested Websites 1. Cell phone laws: http://www.ghsa.org/html/stateinfo/laws/cellphone_laws.html 2. Hypnosis.com: http://www.hypnosis.com/ 3. Hypnosis: Another Way to Manage Pain and Kick Bad Habits: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hypnosis/SA00084 4. Self-hypnosis: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0v-sBPki0Ys 5. Dream interpretation: http://www.dreammoods.com/dreambank/ 6. National Institute of Drug Use: http://www.nida.nih.gov/ 7. College and Drug Use: http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-03-15-college-drug-use_N.htm 8. Web of Addictions http://www.well.com/user/woa/ 9. Sleep Foundation http://www.sleepfoundation.org/ Suggested Readings Agrawal, A., & Lynskey, M. T. (2008). Are there genetic influences on addiction: Evidence from family, adoption and twin studies. British Journal of Addiction, 103(7), 1069–1081. Blackmore, S. (2011). Consciousness: An introduction. Oxford University Press. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper. Erlacher, D., & Schredl, M. (2008). Cardiovascular responses to dreamed physical exercise during REM lucid dreaming. Dreaming, 18(2), 112–121. Freud, S. (1900/1953). The interpretation of dreams. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund Freud (Vols. 4 & 5). London: Hogarth Press. Golden, C., Golden, C. J., & Schneider, B. (2003). Cell phone use and visual attention. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 97(2), 385–389. Hilgard, E. (1977). Divided consciousness: Multiple controls in human thought and action. New York: Wiley. Juliano, L. M., & Griffiths, R. R. (2004). A critical review of caffeine withdrawal: Empirical validation of symptoms and signs, incidence, severity, and associated features. Psychopharmacology, 176, 1–29. Lucidi, F., Devoto, A., Bertini, M., Braibanti, P., & Violani, C. (2002). The effects of sleep debt on vigilance in young drivers: An education/research project in high schools. Journal of Adolescence, 25(4), 405–414. Most, S. B., & Astur, R. S. (2007). Feature-based attentional set as a cause of traffic accidents. Visual Cognition, 15(2), 125–132. Ramachandran, V. S. (2004). A brief tour of human consciousness: From imposter poodles to purple numbers. Pi Press. Taber, K. H., & Hurley, R. A. (2006). Functional neuroanatomy of sleep and sleep deprivation. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18(1), 1–5. Yapko, M. (2011). Mindfulness and hypnosis. The power of suggestion to transform experience. Norton. Chapter 7: Memory BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE Three Types of Memory Sensory Memory Short-Term or Working Memory Short-Term Memory Capacity How Short-Term Memory Works The Serial Position Effect Long-Term Memory Types of Long-Term Memory Implicit Memory Explicit Memory Stages in Long-Term Memory Encoding Consolidation Storage Retrieval The Biological Basis of Memory The Neural Basis of Memory Challenging Assumptions in Brain Stimulation and Memory The Sensory Cortexes Pathways of Short-Term Memory in the Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex Long-Term Memory Storage in the Cortex Emotion, Memory, and the Brain Psychology in the Real World: Manipulating Memory with Drugs and Drinks Forgetting and Memory Loss Forms of Forgetting Memory Loss Caused by Brain Injury and Disease Bringing It All Together: Making Connections in Memory: How to Study Chapter Review EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE • Some people with remarkable memories are autistic or individuals who have brain anomalies. For example, some people see numbers as shapes and colors, meaning they have synesthesia, that is, they experiences sensations in one sense when a different sense is stimulated. • Connection: Daniel’s form of synesthesia is perhaps the most common form—seeing numbers as colors. Other forms include hearing smells, smelling touch, or tasting shapes. Synesthesia probably occurs because of a cross wiring of neural connections in the brain (Chapter 4). THREE TYPES OF MEMORY 1. Three types of memory exist: sensory, short term, and long term. Each type has a different length of memory retention. 2. Different areas of the brain are involved in different types of memory. 3. Memory is reconstructive in nature (i.e., we reconstruct memories from trace and gist information rather watching a video or movie of past events). • Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory are connected, but each is an independent area of memory. • In the case of H.M. a 9-year-old boy was injured and the result was a brain injury that resulted in severe epileptic seizures. In an effort to stop the seizures, doctors removed the hippocampus bilaterally and effectively stopped the seizures. Unfortunately, it resulted in an inability to form new memories. Most memories formed prior to the surgery, however, remained intact. Memory is the ability to store and use information. This is not necessarily conscious retrieval. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) proposed a three-stage model of memory: • Sensory memory is information that is held for a brief period of time, about a half a second or less. • Short-term memory is a very short and temporary storage system. It can hold a limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long-term storage or forgotten. Storage is for 2 to 30 seconds. For example, someone says a phone number and you dial it immediately and then don’t remember it. • In long-term memory the capacity is immeasurable. Information can be stored for as little as 30 seconds and as long as a lifetime. Sensory Memory Sensory memory comes in two forms: • Iconic memory is a brief visual record left on the retina of the eye. • Echoic memory is short-term retention of sounds. Short-Term or Working Memory In current models, short-term has become synonymous with working memory because conceptually it is a form of memory where one can temporarily store information we need while working on a problem. Presumably, when we no longer need the information, we forget it. Examples include reading, talking, and using information for this class to get an A. A good example for students is that they can store, manipulate, and recall information for this class. Immediately after the final, however, someone asks them what the class was about and they have no idea. They have already “dumped” the information. Short-Term Memory Capacity Capacity is limited to about seven items. This can be increased via chunking. How Short-Term Memory Works Baddeley argues that working memory consists of three distinct processes: attending to a stimulus; storing information about the stimulus; and rehearsing the stored process to help solve a problem. • There are four components of working memory. o The central executive: where to focus attention and selectively focuses on specific aspects of a stimulus. Once information is taken in and we attend to it, it is sent to a temporary store: o The phonological loop deals with sound and linguistic information. o The visuospatial sketch pad deals with visual or spatial information. o The episodic buffer deals with a specific event or experience. • Rehearsal is the process of reciting or practicing material repeatedly. The Serial Position Effect When trying to remember a list of items, people better recall items at the beginning and end of the list; they tend to forget the items in the middle. Why? o Primacy effect is the tendency to preferentially recall items in the beginning of a list. Items are quickly rehearsed and transferred to LTM. o Recency effect is recall for items at the end of a list. These items may still be in STM. Long-Term Memory Long-term memory (LTM) is what most people think of when they think of memory. There are two distinct kinds of LTM and four distinct stages of processing. Types of Long-Term Memory: 1. Implicit Memory is also known as nondeclarative. This is when we know or remember something but don’t consciously know we remember it. There are two forms: a) Procedural memory is a form of implicit memory; includes knowledge for almost any behavior or physical skill we learn. b) Priming is a form of implicit memory that occurs when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. 2. Explicit memory is also known as declarative. It is the conscious recall of facts and events. There are two forms of explicit memory. a) Semantic memory is memory for facts and knowledge. b) Episodic memory is memory for the experiences we have had. CONNECTION: Besides the ability to consciously recall a memory, what other forms of consciousness effect our behavior without our knowing it? (Chapter 6) Stages in Long-Term Memory: There are four processing stages of LTM. These are encoding, consolidation, storage, and retrieval. 1) Encoding is attending to, taking in, and processing new information by the brain. • Automatic processing happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. • Effortful processing occurs when we carefully attend to and put conscious effort into remembering information. o Processing can be aided by use of devices and deep processing. o In levels of processing the more deeply people encode information, the better they will recall it. o A mnemonic device is a scheme that helps people remember information. For example, an acronym such as “ROY G. BIV” for the colors of the rainbow (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet). 2) Consolidation is the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory. Sleep plays a role in consolidation. 3) Storage is the retention of memory over time. This involves three distinct ways of organizing and storing memories: in hierarchies, schemas, and networks. • Hierarchies organize related information from specific to general. We use hierarchies to organize related information from the most specific feature they have in common to the most general. An example is the hierarchy human (specific), hominid (less specific), primate, mammal, and animal (general). Each step moves to a more general category in a hierarchy. • Schemas are organized patterns of thoughts, behavior, or some aspect of the world. • Networks are based on associations of relatedness. Related are neural networks or computer models that imitate the way neurons talk to each other. An associative network is a chain of associations between related concepts. Each concept or association in a network is referred to as a node. The links between the nodes are associations. When people think of a concept, and its node is activated, they are primed and more likely to make an association to a nearby concept or node. 4) Retrieval is the recovery of information stored in memory. THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEMORY • Long-term memories begin with sensations being processed into output from cortical sensory association areas such as the auditory or visual association areas. Depending on the kind of memory system involved, the output goes to different brain regions. For instance, when we are learning to do things (implicit procedures) output goes mostly to the cerebellum and striatum. When we experience an emotional event, output goes to the amygdala. When we consciously and explicitly remember personal events (episodes), facts and information, output goes mostly to the hippocampus. After being processed by the hippocampus, however, the memory is stored back in the cortical association area from where it came. • H.M. had a very difficult time making new long-term explicit memories, due to the damage of his hippocampus and surrounding areas. He could learn tasks like the star-tracing task, however, because his cerebellum and striatum, which are involved in implicitly learning to carry out procedures, were intact. • Sensory memories are processed (encoded) in the various sensory cortexes; short-term memory is processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobes; and long-term memories are stored in different parts of the cortex and subcortex and retrieved with the help of areas associated with the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is the front-most region of the frontal lobes. It plays an important part in attention, appropriate social behavior, impulse control, and working memory. The Neural Basis of Memory • Hebb’s Law states that “Neurons That Wire Together Fire Together”! • Hebb developed a theory of how neural connections form and how synaptic connections change with learning. • Long-term potentiation (LTP) occurs. LTP is the strengthening of a synaptic connection that results when a synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron. • Repeated stimulation of a group of neurons leads to the formation of cell assemblies. • Neurons that “wire together, fire together.” • If repeatedly stimulated they will form long term bond. If not they will not form a long term bond. It will be "use it or lose it". • Milner's work with H.M. supported Hebbs work. • Kandel and his colleagues discovered that both the timing and frequency of neural firing are crucial in making a memory permanent. By repeatedly pulling away from a shock, the sea slug rehearsed and remembered a defensive behavior. • Repeated experience or stimulation changes genes and the way they are expressed. The longer a memory is held and the more emotional arousal that is tied to the memory, the more synaptic connections are formed. Thus, your brain changes and the memories are less likely to be lost. Experiences change our brain, which in turn changes how we respond to our environment. CONNECTION: Kandel's findings explain how and why the brains of mice reared in enriched environments are heavier and have more dendrites that the brains of mice reared in impoverished environments (Chapter 3). Challenging Assumptions in Brain Stimulation and Memory • There is a growing body of research that stimulating the brain with weak electrical charges can enhance memory and learning. • Electrical stimulation of the brain is called transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). • A weak voltage is given by at least two electrodes on the scalp (at least one positive and one negative). • Positively charged stimulation increases memory in general. • Negatively charged stimulation interferes with memory. The Sensory Cortexes • Three of the five sensory systems have a dedicated sensory cortex for processing sensory stimuli. Visual information is processed in the visual cortex located in the occipital lobes, the auditory cortex is in the temporal lobes, and the somatosensory cortex (touch) is in the parietal lobes. Taste and smell do not have their own processing regions. • CONNECTION: Why do smells evoke particularly strong and specific memories? (Chapter 4). Pathways of Short-Term Memory in the Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex • The prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for attention focusing and thus is involved in the perception of information, determines what we attend to. Next, the sensory memory goes to the hippocampus. The repeated firing of neural impulses necessary to convert a short-term memory to a long-term one occurs mostly in the hippocampus. • The hippocampus does not do all of the work in working memory. Attention and focus require the prefrontal cortex. Remember that a key function of working memory is to focus attention and to plan action. When we speak, read, solve problems, or make some other use of working memory, we rely on the prefrontal cortex to keep the crucial information accessible. Long-Term Memory Storage in the Cortex • Explicit long-term memories are stored in the cortex, specifically in the area where the original sensation was processed. Implicit memories are stored in structures in the subcortex, specifically in the striatum, amygdala, and cerebellum. • Implicit memories are also processed and stored in different parts of the brain. Priming, for example, occurs mostly in the cortex. Procedural memories for skills and habits involve the striatum. The amygdala is crucial for associating particular events with emotional responses such as happiness or fear. When we learn to associate a neighbor’s house with a mean dog and we become afraid of going there, the amygdala is the part of our brain that is most involved. • Much of what psychologists have learned about memory and the brain has come from studying people who have suffered brain injury. The different functions of the cortex and hippocampus in memory explain why some brain-injured people can remember skills and behaviors, but not knowledge, events, and facts. As we have mentioned, memories for behaviors and skills are implicit, and we process them mostly in the subcortex. Explicit memories for events and facts we process and store mostly in the cortex. This can occur only if the hippocampus is intact and can pass them on for long-term cortical storage. Even if part of the hippocampus is removed, we cannot easily form new long-term memories. Emotion, Memory, and the Brain • Emotional arousal increases the ability to remember information. Emotional events stimulate the formation of new synapses, and this leads to a robust memory. • Emotional events switch on genes that build proteins that strengthen the synaptic connections between neurons. These proteins also stimulate the formation of new synapses and even new neurons. All of these structures make the memory “stick” for a long period of time. • Important structures for memory, namely, the amygdala and hippocampus, are linked to key structures for emotion. These two structures lie next to each other in the brain and are connected by many nerve fibers. Indeed, these two structures become activated simultaneously during emotional experiences. The amygdala is involved in assigning emotional significance to events and is crucial in encoding information relevant to emotional experiences, especially fear. • Flashbulb memories are very vivid memories of specific, highly charged events. • In a study on memory, emotion, and sleep, evidence suggests that sleeps helps consolidate memories, especially of emotional experiences. • Emotion enhances memory in many different ways, but it is important to keep in mind that the accuracy of these memories is a different story. Indeed, emotional memories tend to be less accurate in their details than non-emotional memories. CONNECTION: One of the primary functions of sleep is to consolidate memories and facilitate new neural growth (Chapter 6). PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD: MANIPULATING MEMORY WITH DRUGS AND DRINKS • There is research that is both basic and applied to show how and why particular drugs do or do not enhance memory. • Memory researchers, including Kandel, have been doing research to find new drugs dealing with memory. • Research has found drugs that block or slow the process of memory formation. • A potential application for this type of drug is use in preventing PTSD. • Pseudoscience often tells us about many unscientific claims about pills and herbs with regard to memory. • Scientific research on herbs is mixed. More research is still underway to support or refute pseudoscientific claims. Forgetting and Memory Loss • Forgetting is the weakening or loss of memories over time. • One reason that people forget is interference. Interference is when other information competes with the information we are trying to recall. There are two forms of interference. o Retroactive interference is when new experiences or information increase the forgetting of old information. o Proactive interference is when old experiences or information increase the forgetting of new information. • Perhaps the serial position effect occurs because the process of remembering the first words interferes proactively with recall of the middle words. • Absentmindedness may be the result of multitasking. When attention is divided, forgetting occurs. Absentmindedness increases with age, but it typically is not a problem until people reach their 70s. Due to slowing of processing speed and less ability to filter out irrelevant information with age, some degree of dementia or age-related memory decline is common in people in their 60s and 70s. Yet as is true with all cognitive capacities, there are vast differences among individuals in memory decline with age. • Blocking is a retrieval error where one can’t quite get the information out of memory for use. An example is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon where the information seems to be at the tip of our tongue but full retrieval eludes us. • Related to blocking is the idea of repression, where arguably memories that have been encoded and stored are actively inhibited. • Suggestibility occurs when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions by someone else or some other source. • Elizabeth Loftus has conducted the most systematic research on two major types of memory distortion: eyewitness testimony and false and recovered memories. Loftus and her colleagues, however, were among the first memory researchers to demonstrate that people’s memories of events, even under the best of circumstances, are not very accurate and are susceptible to suggestion. • Loftus and her colleagues have found that the type of question that is asked has an effect, that is, does the question involve a misleading suggestion. The specific words used in questioning have an effect on an individual’s memories. The most disturbing example of suggestibility comes from research on false memories and recovered memories. • A false memory is an example of suggestibility. False memories are memories for events that never happened but were suggested by someone or something. Loftus pioneered the technique of suggesting falsely that someone experienced some event and then later asking them about their memories of that event. To be sure, majorities of subjects never recall anything. Collectively, studies indicate that close to a third of adult subjects will create a false memory. • Recovered memory is a memory that has supposedly been blocked or repressed for years. The reason recovered memories are so controversial is that often memory is recovered while under the care of a psychotherapist and it is not clear whether the therapist has helped a patient to recover a memory of an actual event or if the therapist unwittingly suggested an event that the patient “remembers.” CONNECTION: Most people think they can multitask well. Research shows otherwise. This is especially true when it comes to talking on the phone while driving (Chapter 6). Memory Loss Caused by Brain Injury and Disease • Amnesia: when people forget due to injury or disease to the brain. • Anterograde amnesia: the failure to form new memories after injury or the onset of a disease. • Retrograde amnesia: the failure to remember information from shortly before the onset of the disease or injury. • Alzheimer’s disease: a severe form of age-related memory loss due to organic brain disease. BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: MAKING CONNECTIONS: MEMORY AND HOW TO STUDY • Students often use this section as the opportunity to ask, “How can I use this material to study more efficiently?” Like all memories, how well you remember this material begins with encoding. • Go to class and pay attention! Attending and paying attention in lecture is a first, very important step. If there is something you don’t understand when the instructor first mentions it, ask a question about it right away. • Read the book before class! Reading through both lecture material and book material before going to class primes you for taking in lecture material in a deep and meaningful way. • Study deep, not shallow. The levels of processing theory can help you learn how you approach studying. According to depth of processing theory and research, the more deeply you process material, the better it is recalled. Make connections with the material and other things you know, take a few moments after each class to absorb the material and try to process it. • Form a study group. Getting together with a few other students to review and discuss material before an exam can be enormously helpful. • Devise meaningful mnemonics. Using an easy-to-remember mnemonic device during encoding may make it easier to retrieve information later. For example, I use “there’s a hippo lost on campus” to remember that the hippocampus is responsible for memory. KEY TERMS absent-mindedness: a form of forgetfulness that results from inattention. amnesia: memory loss due to injury or disease to the brain. anterograde amnesia: the inability to remember events and experiences that occur after an injury or the onset of a disease. associative network: a chain of associations between related concepts. Each concept or association in a network is referred to as a node. The links between the nodes are associations. automatic processing: encoding that happens with little effort or conscious attention to the task. blocking: the inability to retrieve some information once it is stored. chunking: the process of breaking down a list of to-be-remembered items into a smaller set of meaningful units. consolidation: the process of establishing, stabilizing, or solidifying a memory. effortful processing: when we carefully attend to and put conscious effort into remembering information. encoding: the process of attending to, taking in, and processing new information by the brain. episodic memory: memory for the experiences we have had. explicit memory: the conscious recall of facts and events; also known as declarative memory. false memories: memories for events that never happened, but that were suggested by someone or something. flashbulb memories: detailed, especially vivid memories of very specific, highly charged events. forgetting: the weakening or loss of memories over time. forgetting curve: a graphic depicting of how recall steadily declines over time. hierarchies: a way of organizing related information from the most specific feature they have in common to the most general. implicit memory: knowledge based on previous experience, such as skills that we perform automatically once we have mastered them; resides outside conscious awareness. interference: when other information competes with the information we are trying to recall. levels of processing: the idea that the more deeply people encode information, the better they will recall it. long-term memory: has the capacity to store a vast amount of information for as little as 30 seconds and as long as a lifetime. long-term potentiation: results when synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron; there is a permanent change in the receiving neuron, the excitatory neuron, or both, which strengthens the synaptic connection. memory: the ability to store and use information. mnemonic: a device that helps people remember information. prefrontal cortex: the prefrontal cortex is the front-most region of the frontal lobes. It plays an important part in attention, appropriate social behavior, impulse control, and working memory. priming: when recall is improved by prior exposure to the same or similar stimuli. proactive interference: when previously learned information interferes with the learning of new information. procedural memory: implicit knowledge for almost any behavior or physical skill we have learned. recovered memory: a memory from a real event that was encoded and stored, but not retrieved for a long period of time; it is retrieved after some later event brings it suddenly to consciousness. rehearsal: the process of practicing material repeatedly. repression: a form of blocking, in which retrieval of memories that have been encoded and stored is actively inhibited. retrieval: the recovery of information stored in memory. retroactive interference: when new experiences or information cause people to forget previously learned experiences or information. retrograde amnesia: an inability to recall events or experiences that happened before the onset of the disease or injury. schemas: ways of knowing that we develop from our experiences with particular objects or events. semantic memory: memory for facts and general knowledge, such as what we learn in school. sensory memory: holds information in its original sensory form for a very brief period of time, usually about a half a second or less. serial-position effect: the tendency to have better recall for items in a list, depending on their position in the list. short-term memory: temporarily stores a limited amount of information before it is either transferred to long-term storage or forgotten. Information stays in short-term memory for 2 to 30 seconds. storage: the retention of memory over time; is the third stage of long-term memory formation. suggestibility: when memories are implanted in our minds based on leading questions, comments, or suggestions by someone else or some other source. three-stage model of memory: classifies memories based on duration as sensory, short-term, and long-term memories. transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): electrical stimulation of the brain. working memory: the part of memory required to attend to and solve a problem at hand; often used interchangeably with “short-term” memory. MAKING THE CONNECTIONS Memory Connection: Daniel’s form of synesthesia is perhaps the most common form—seeing numbers as colors. Other forms include hearing smells, smelling touch, or tasting shapes. Synesthesia probably occurs because of a cross wiring of neural connections in the brain (Chapter 4). • Suggested Link: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/syne.html is a site that has much information on synesthesia as well as diagnoses and brain information. • Discussion: Thompson and Madigan (2005) looked at iconic memory using four numeric digits flashed on a computer screen for 30 milliseconds (a millisecond is a thousandth of a second) and found that when a blank screen follows the numbers, most people have no trouble recalling them. In an alternate condition, they found that when the digits were followed by # # # #, subjects often reported that they did not see any digits at all. This indicates that sensory memories are preserved for very short periods of time and they are very fragile. • Discussion: Sensory memory was formerly known as the sensory store in past models. Some argue that this is really perception and not memory. An example could be that you meet someone, they tell you their name, and you immediately forget it. Is this memory? Or is this an example of how attentive processes interfere with one’s ability to perceive information? Ask students to provide examples of their own on sensory memory. Ask if they feel this is a memory system or a perception system (Chapter 4). Categories of Long-Term Memory CONNECTION: Besides the ability to consciously recall a memory what other forms of consciousness affect our behavior without our knowing it? (Chapter 6) • Discussion: You can refer back to Chapter 6 and altered states. This could be drugs or suggestibility both effect consciousness and behavior. The Sensory Cortexes CONNECTION: Why do smells evoke particularly strong and specific memories? (Chapter 4) • Discussion: Students often find olfactory cues to be an interesting subject. You may want to ask students if there are any smells that evoke strong memories for them. Then point out that one reason may be the location of the olfactory bulb in the limbic system (which is the same as the hippocampus). Emotion, Memory, and the Brain CONNECTION: One of the primary functions of sleep is to consolidate memories and facilitate new neural growth (Chapter 6). • Discussion: This may be a great time to bring up Ekman’s classic work on the universality of emotional facial expressions. As research has shown that most humans are adept at discerning emotional states, perceiving others affective responses may affect expressions if it follows that attention. There is a strong adaptive value to this, and even Darwin noticed the survival value of this trait. Forgetting and Memory Loss CONNECTION: Can we really multitask? How does talking on the cell phone affect your attention to driving? (Chapter 6) • Suggested Activity: Have students read: http://unews.utah.edu/old/p/062206-1.html Drivers on Cell Phones are as Bad as Drunks from researchers at the University of Utah and write a two-paragraph essay incorporating the text and the article on multitasking and specifically cell phone use and driving. INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTION 1. Real false memories: Ask students to come up with a favorite early childhood memory. Then ask them to call their parents and siblings after class to verify its accuracy. It will be interesting to see if students come in the next class period and say their family reports that it is a false memory. 2. Memory systems in real life: Ask students how much material they remember from last semester. Most will report that right after the final they have an inability to remember anything from that course. This illustrates why the early Atkinson Shiffrin model was reconceived with the reworking of short-term memory into long-term memory. Students generally agree that they can hold information for great lengths of time (e.g., semester) and then are unable to recall that information shortly after. Working memory explains why this is so. 3. Self and memory: Research in social cognition has shown that people focus most on self-relevant information. Point out to students that it is not only emotionally arousing information that gets into memory systems well but also anything relevant to self. Thus, it behooves one to pay attention to self-relevant information and also connect that information more deeply and show greater recall. 4. Computer models of information processing: You may want to point out to students that most models of memory deal with how information comes in and goes out. That is, it is akin to computer models. Point out that although no one believes that memory is perfectly analogous to a computer, there are some similarities. For example, information is perceived (say you notice the cute man/woman sitting next to you). Then, because you might be interested, that information makes its way from the sensory store into working memory; that is, you store that the cute boy/girl is cute and always sits next to you in class. You then use the phonological loop to structure a clever comment about the lecture and thus information is processed and utilized. You can also use the desktop of a computer as an analogy for working memory. That is, some folks leave things all over the desktop and then may have difficulty finding what they need; some folks also do the same thing with memories and thus have recall difficulties. Some students delete also files they used for a class at the end of the semester, much as they forget what they learned in that class at the end of the semester. Finally, the computer model works as well as an analogy to brain injury where the material (code or memory) has difficulty being recalled. Students again are familiar with the computer and thus often see the similarities here. 5. Criticisms of the Multi Store Model: You may want to point out that the multi store model has been criticized as being too linear. The argument here is that unlike a computer, the human brain is not linear and that it is often processing in parallel. Ask students what they think about the analogy of brain and computer being similar. Can memory be processed only in a linear fashion? 6. Drugs and Memory: Kandel purports to have found the link between behavior and long-term memory and is in talks with a pharmaceutical company to develop a drug for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. What questions does this research raise? Might Kandel’s discovery be applied to help you learn better or improve studying? Could scientists engineer genes to create super memory capacity? 7. Recovered Memories: You may want to show one of the Frontline clips on repressed memories and discuss with students the real problem with a “recovered memory.” You may also want to illustrate how Freud heavily influenced the past concept of memories and repression and how the field has moved away from those concepts. 8. You may want to discuss Gottlieb’s model of epigenetics discussed in Chapter 3, and also connect to Chapter 5 and point out that Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is epigenetic in nature as well. 9. You may want to discuss developmental trends in memory systems. Most research shows that memory systems improve over childhood and remain fairly stable until very late adulthood and even there, with the exception of source memory, most people who are healthy and living an active life show no major deficit, save slower times. This also reinforces Hebb’s “use it or lose it” law. 10. Students will find it difficult to differentiate between the different types of memory systems. They will also find it very difficult to differentiate implicit and explicit memory systems. You may wish to utilize CPS clicker questions to ascertain their understanding of these issues before moving forward. 11. Assign students to doing research on the McMartin trial or other high-profile false memory cases. Have them locate a case and write a paragraph on how Loftus argues it would be interpreted today. 12. You may want to enlist the help of your TA or another confederate for a demonstration of how poor eyewitness testimony can be. Have the confederate come in during the lecture and cause some form of disruption (maybe yell and then laugh or throw paper wads and then run out). Next, ask students to describe what they saw: how the person was dressed, hair color, etc. If you are in a large room make sure the confederate comes into the room and is in long enough to draw attention. You may even want to ask your confederate not to wear socks and slightly roll up her or her pant leg. When you are asking the class to describe the person you may want to add “even down to their socks.” You can see if any students “construct” a memory of socks. 13. Based on Loftus’s work, ask students if eyewitness testimony ever be used in criminal trials? Have them defend their answer. 14. If you have Internet access in your classroom, go to and show a video clip of Clive Wearing, an individual who suffers from both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. 15. Ask students to pretend that something traumatic has happened in their lives. If they could take a drug immediately after that trauma to help get rid of that memory, would they take the drug. Ask them why or why not. You may want to collect the papers and tally the results in terms of yes or no and provide feedback to students. 16. Ask students to write down all the presidents of United States. You may want to remind students how many presidents we have had in the United States. Give them a few minutes to do this exercise. Typically students write the first few and the last few presidents. This is a great example of the serial position effect. Source: Roediger, H. L., & Crowder, R. G. (1976). A serial position effect in recall of United States presidents. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 8, 275–278. 17. Read the following words aloud at a rate of about one word per second: BED, QUILT, DARK, SILENCE, FATIGUE, CLOCK, SNORING, NIGHT, TOSS,TIRED, NIGHT, TOSS, TIRED, NIGHT, ARTICHOKE, TURN, NIGHT, REST, DREAM Ask students if they heard you say “aardvark.” They typically look at you like you are nuts. Next, ask them if they heard you say “sleep.” Many will raise their hands even though sleep is not on the list. Point out the constructive nature of memory. This is a variation on Deese (1959). Source: Deese. K. (1959). On the prediction of occurrence of particular verbal intrusions in immediate recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 17–22. 18. Ask students to share their personal study habits. You may want to comment on how memorizing “bold letter words” is often not adequate at the college level and that they should try to adapt their study habits to more rigorous course work. 19. Ask students to list the 50 states. When the students are done, tell them you are not interested in how many states they wrote down. Tell them instead that you are interested in how they retrieved the states from their memory. They will begin to tell you they retrieved the names based on states they have lived, states they have visited, a visual map, alphabetical, sports team, or region of the country. This is a great springboard to discussing the value of cues and how we tend to cue ourselves. 20. Ask students what is pictured on the back of a $10 bill. Most students will not know that it is the Treasury Building. You can use this to discuss encoding. Suggested Media 1. One interesting case that parallels the case of H.M. is that of Clive Wearing who, much like H.M., no longer has use of his hippocampus. However, in Clive’s case it was as an adult after a vicious case of encephalitis. Video of Clive Wearing after his diagnosis http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y 2. One thing students are often interested in is mnemonic devices. Here is a great clip of individuals maximizing memory systems by using mnemonic devices. “Mnemonic wizards: incredible feats of memory”: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6vsYCSmBcM0&feature=related 3. Students are fascinated with false memories and the false memory controversy. This is a two-part series involving interviews with Elizabeth Loftus and victims of false memories. Child abuse, false memories part one (of two): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhZjxkaCkzk Child abuse, false memories part two (of two): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RsXoVYDL_gs&feature=related 4. Students are also fascinated with the eyewitness testimony data. This clip involves a discussion of children as eyewitnesses via an interview with Stephen Ceci: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GvILUeqq6Kk 5. Movie: 50 First Dates with Drew Barrymore is a cute, lighthearted look at anterograde amnesia. A few clips from this show students a lighthearted look at amnesia. 6. Memento involves a man with anterograde amnesia searching for his wife’s killers using notes and messages to himself much as we see in the real case of Clive Wearing. This film involves fairly graphic material. 7. The Woman Who Can’t Forget: Jill Price. 8. Discovering Psychology: Remembering and Forgetting (Annenberg) 9. Pieces of Mind: Scientific American Frontiers 10. Memory, Part 1 (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) 11. Memory, Part 2 (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) 12. Science of Memory (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) 13. When Eyes Deceive (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) 14. The Ronald Cotton Case: 60 Minutes http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-SBTRLoPuo http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4V6aoYuDcg Concept Clips (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) 1. Three Stages of Memory 2. Encoding Suggested Websites 1. The Mayo Clinic’s website on amnesia: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/amnesia/DS01041 2. A legal interpretation of the data on the perils of eyewitness testimony: http://writ.news.findlaw.com/dorf/20010516.html 3. An article from truth in justice regarding the real effects of misled witness testimony: http://www.truthinjustice.org/lawstory.htm 4. An excerpt from PBS’s Witness For the Defense: The Accused, the Eyewitness, and the Expert Who Puts Memory On Trial by Dr. Elizabeth Loftus and Katherine Ketcham: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/dna/photos/eye/text_06.html 5. A nice synopsis of the research and a story of Piaget’s false memory: http://www.skepdic.com/falsememory.html 6. Elizabeth Loftus website: http://socialecology.uci.edu/faculty/eloftus/ Transcript from the Frontline interview with Dr. Loftus: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/dna/interviews/loftus.html 7. The Multi Store Model: http://changingminds.org/explanations/memory/multi-store_model.htm 8. Gary Wells website: http://public.psych.iastate.edu/glwells/ 9. Memory Demos: http://psych.hanover.edu/javaTest/CLE/Cognition/Cognition/SerialPosition.html 10. An overview of Kandel’s work: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2000/kandel-lecture.html 11. Inattentional Blindness: Awareness Test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ahg6qcgoay4 Can you count the number of white passes? Watch for the dancing bear! Suggested Readings Bjorklund, D. F., Bjorklund, B. R., Brown, R. D., & Cassel, W. S. (1998). Children’s susceptibility to repeated questions: How misinformation changes children's answers and their minds. Applied Developmental Science, 2, 99–111. Bjorklund, D. F., Cassel, W. S., Bjorklund, B. R., Brown, R. D., Park, C. L., Ernst, K., & Owen, F. A. (2000). Social demand characteristics in children's and adults' eyewitness memory and suggestibility: The effect of different interviewers on free recall and recognition. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 421–433. Brainerd, C. J. & Reyna, V. F. (1998). When things that were never experienced are easier to “remember” than things that were. Psychological Science, 9, 484–489. Ceci, S. J., Ross, D. F., & Toglia, M. P. (1987). Suggestibility in children's memory: Psycholegal implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 116, 38–49. Corkin, S. (2013). Permanent present tense: The unforgettable life of the amnesic patient, H.M. Basic. Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1998). Consciousness and neuroscience. Cerebral Cortex, 8, 97–107. Ekman, P. & Friesen, W.V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124–129. Greene, E., Flynn, M. S., & Loftus, E. F. (1982). Inducing resistance to misleading information. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 21, 207–219. Jacoby, L. L., & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 306–340. Leichtman, M. D., & Ceci, S. J. (1995). The effects of stereotypes and suggestions on preschoolers’ reports. Developmental Psychology, 31, 568–578. Loftus, E. F., & Mazzoni, G. A. L. (1998). Using imagination and personalized suggestion to change people. Behavior Therapy, 29, 691–706. Loftus, E. F., & Pickrell, J. E. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 720–725. Loftus, E. F., & Ketchum, K. (1991). Witness for the defense: The accused, the eyewitness, and the expert who puts memory on trial. New York: Macmillan. Loftus, E. F. (1979). The malleability of human memory: Information introduced after we view an incident can transform memory. American Scientist, 67, 312–320. Payne, B. K. (2001). Prejudice and perception: The role of automatic and controlled processes in misperceiving a weapon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 181–192. Price, J. (2008). The woman who can’t forget: A memoir. Free Pass. Schacter, D. L. (1990). Perceptual representation systems and implicit memory: Toward a resolution of the multiple memory systems debate. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 608, 543–571. Schacter, D. L. (1995). Implicit memory: A new frontier for cognitive neuroscience. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed). The Cognitive Neurosciences. (pp. 815–824). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Schacter, D. L., Norman, K. A., & Koustaal, W. (1998). The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 289–318. Thompson-Cannino, J., & Cotton, R. (2009). Picking Cotton: Our memoir of injustice and redemption. New York: St. Martin’s Press. (The story of Ronald Cotton and mistaken eyewitness testimony.) Toglia, M. P., Neuschatz, J. S., & Goodwin, K. A. (1999). Recall accuracy and illusory memory: When more is less. Memory, 7, 233–256. Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychologist, 26, 1–12. Wearing, D. (2006). Forever today. London: Corgi Books. (This is the story of Clive Wearing, a gifted musician, who can only keep information in his short-term memory for a few seconds.) Zeisel, J. (2009). I’m still here: A breakthrough approach to understanding someone living with Alzheimer’s. New York: Avery. Seven sins of memory http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000064E9-8F6F-1FE3- 8F6F83414B7F0103&pageNumber=1 (A Scientific American article featuring an interview with Dan Schacter.) Instructor Manual for Psychology: Perspectives and Connections Gregory J. Feist, Erika Rosenberg 9780077861872, 9781260397031