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Chapter 5 Motivation Suggested Answers to Discussion Questions 1. Think of someone who, in the past, did an excellent job of motivating you. Describe how this was done. Which of the following approaches did that person use (either explicitly or implicitly)? a. Lower-order or higher-order needs? b. Maintenance or motivational factors? If so, which one(s)? c. Existence, relatedness, or growth needs? d. Behavior modification? e. Goal setting? Students’ answers may vary. In the first three parts of the question, students will probably report that they were motivated well by the manager who used higher-order needs, motivational factors (especially praise and recognition) rather than maintenance factors, and relatedness or growth needs. However, students are often financially strapped, so they may also mention basic security needs, especially any bonuses they may have been given. This topic might also come up as they discuss behavior modification and goal setting. Those settings in which students felt they were best motivated probably involved clear, challenging goals, perhaps even set with their participation, and a rewards structure clearly tied to goal achievement. In my previous role at Acme Steel, my manager, Susan, did an excellent job of motivating me. She employed several motivational strategies that had a significant impact on my performance and job satisfaction. Firstly, Susan addressed both lower-order and higher-order needs. She ensured that my basic needs, such as a comfortable working environment and job security (lower-order needs), were met. Beyond that, she focused on higher-order needs by providing opportunities for professional development and recognizing my achievements, which enhanced my sense of accomplishment and self-actualization. In terms of maintenance and motivational factors, Susan effectively used both. Maintenance factors included fair compensation, job security, and good working conditions, which prevented dissatisfaction. On the motivational side, she frequently provided recognition and opportunities for personal growth. Specifically, she acknowledged my efforts publicly during team meetings and offered challenging projects that aligned with my career aspirations. Regarding existence, relatedness, and growth needs, Susan addressed all three areas. She ensured that my basic material and physiological needs were met (existence). She fostered a positive team environment, encouraging collaboration and communication (relatedness). Additionally, she supported my professional development by offering training programs and mentoring, which facilitated my personal and professional growth (growth). Behavior modification was another approach Susan utilized. She provided regular feedback on my performance, both positive and constructive. When I completed tasks successfully, she reinforced this behavior with praise and rewards, which encouraged me to maintain a high level of performance. For areas needing improvement, she offered constructive feedback and support, helping me to correct my approach and enhance my skills. Finally, goal setting was a significant part of her motivational strategy. At the beginning of each quarter, Susan and I would set specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals. This process gave me clear direction and a sense of purpose. By breaking down larger objectives into smaller, manageable tasks, I could track my progress and stay motivated throughout the process. Overall, Susan's multifaceted approach to motivation—addressing both lower-order and higher-order needs, balancing maintenance and motivational factors, catering to existence, relatedness, and growth needs, using behavior modification techniques, and setting clear goals—created a highly motivating environment that significantly enhanced my performance and job satisfaction. 2. In your role as a student, do you feel you are motivated more by Maslow’s lower-order or higher-order needs? Explain. Describe how you expect motivation to change once you graduate. Students’ answers may vary. Some students are likely to report that they are more concerned with basic security needs at the present time and expect to achieve higher-order needs fulfillment after graduation. However, others may argue that they are reaching some levels of higher-order needs fulfillment now, as they study and add to their education. In any case, students will tend to agree that they can strive for increased satisfaction of the higher-order, growth needs after graduation, once they obtain a good job, which will better provide for the basic lower-order needs. In my role as a student, I feel that I am primarily motivated by Maslow’s higher-order needs, specifically the needs for esteem and self-actualization. As a student, I strive to achieve academic excellence, which fulfills my esteem needs by gaining recognition, respect from peers and professors, and a sense of accomplishment. Additionally, I am driven by the desire for self-actualization, which involves personal growth, pursuing knowledge, and achieving my full potential. However, I also acknowledge that lower-order needs, such as safety and physiological needs, play a fundamental role in my motivation. Ensuring I have a stable environment, financial support, and physical well-being is essential for me to focus on my studies effectively. These lower-order needs create a foundation that allows me to pursue higher-order goals. Once I graduate, I expect my motivation to shift more towards lower-order needs initially. As I transition into the workforce, my primary focus will likely be on securing employment, ensuring financial stability, and creating a safe and comfortable living environment. These needs will be crucial as I establish my career and gain independence. Over time, as I achieve stability in my job and personal life, I anticipate that my motivation will again shift towards higher-order needs. I will seek opportunities for career advancement, professional recognition, and personal growth within my field. Ultimately, I aim to achieve a balance where both lower-order and higher-order needs are met, allowing me to continue striving for self-actualization and fulfillment in my professional and personal life. 3. Which one factor in Herzberg’s two-factor model is most motivating to you at the present time? Explain. Is this a maintenance or motivational factor? Students’ answers will vary. Some students will pick maintenance factors, while others will opt for motivational factors. However, the more popular factors will probably be the motivational factors—especially achievement and recognition. The more astute students will, hopefully, recognize that according to Herzberg’s model, they could only be motivated by the motivational factors, as the hygiene factors can only result in lessened dissatisfaction. At the present time, the factor in Herzberg’s two-factor model that is most motivating to me is achievement. As a student, I am deeply motivated by the sense of accomplishment that comes from successfully completing challenging assignments, excelling in exams, and receiving positive feedback from my professors. The drive to achieve academic excellence and the recognition that accompanies it fuels my enthusiasm and commitment to my studies. Achievement is considered a motivational factor in Herzberg’s two-factor model. Motivational factors, also known as satisfiers, are related to the nature of the work itself and the opportunities it provides for personal growth, recognition, and advancement. These factors are intrinsic to the job and lead to higher levels of job satisfaction and motivation when present. In my case, the pursuit of achievement aligns with my aspirations for personal development and academic success. It provides a sense of purpose and fulfillment, encouraging me to put forth my best effort and to continuously improve. This intrinsic motivation not only enhances my performance but also contributes to a deeper sense of satisfaction with my educational journey. 4. It is relatively easy for a manager to manipulate extrinsic rewards. Describe some ways in which a manager could affect intrinsic satisfaction of an employee. Students’ answers may vary. It will be helpful to distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards (wages and benefits) are external and, thus, provide no direct satisfaction to the employees while performing their work. Intrinsic rewards are internal, occurring while the employees are working. Managers can affect intrinsic rewards in various ways, such as increasing responsibility, recognizing exceptional performances, offering an opportunity for advancement, and enhancing the position itself. A manager can significantly impact an employee's intrinsic satisfaction by focusing on elements that enhance the inherent enjoyment and fulfillment derived from the work itself. Here are some ways a manager can affect intrinsic satisfaction: 1. Job Enrichment: • Increasing Autonomy: Allowing employees more control over how they complete their tasks can lead to a greater sense of ownership and responsibility. • Skill Variety: Encouraging employees to use a variety of skills and talents can make their work more engaging and satisfying. • Task Significance: Helping employees understand the importance and impact of their work can provide a sense of purpose and fulfillment. • Task Identity: Ensuring that employees can see a project through from start to finish can enhance their connection to the work and its outcomes. 2. Providing Opportunities for Growth and Development: • Professional Development: Offering training programs, workshops, and other learning opportunities can help employees grow their skills and advance their careers. • Challenging Assignments: Assigning tasks that are challenging yet achievable can help employees stretch their abilities and gain confidence. 3. Recognition and Feedback: • Positive Reinforcement: Regularly acknowledging and celebrating employees' successes and contributions can boost their morale and motivation. • Constructive Feedback: Providing timely and constructive feedback helps employees understand their progress and areas for improvement, fostering a growth mindset. 4. Creating a Supportive Work Environment: • Encouraging Collaboration: Promoting teamwork and collaboration can help employees feel part of a community and reduce feelings of isolation. • Supportive Leadership: Managers who are approachable, empathetic, and supportive can create a positive work atmosphere that enhances intrinsic satisfaction. 5. Aligning Work with Personal Interests and Values: • Matching Tasks to Interests: Assigning tasks that align with employees' personal interests and passions can increase their engagement and satisfaction. • Corporate Social Responsibility: Involving employees in initiatives that contribute to societal or environmental causes can provide a sense of purpose and alignment with personal values. By focusing on these strategies, a manager can create an environment that fosters intrinsic satisfaction, leading to higher motivation, engagement, and overall job satisfaction among employees. 5. Discuss how behavior modification operates to motivate people. Why is it still important to understand people’s needs when using this approach? Students’ answers may vary. Behavior modification centers around the principle of the law of effect, which tells us that a certain behavior will be repeated or not repeated depending on the consequences that occur as a result of the behavior. Consequences in the form of positive reinforcement are used to encourage behavior, while negative reinforcements are used to discourage or eliminate a behavior. Students should point out that it is necessary to know what motivates individual employees in order for behavior modification to be successful. Applying an inappropriate reinforcement may backfire for a manager. For example, imposing a penalty of a one-day suspension for employees who abuse sick leave in an attempt to eliminate that behavior may be a positive reward for an employee rather than a negative one. This employee may value a day off without pay more than working and being paid. Another example would involve rewarding an employee for a previously unrewarded task with a resulting decrease in motivation to perform that task. In this case, the intrinsic reward offered more motivation than the external reward. Behavior modification operates to motivate people by using principles of reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior. This approach is based on the idea that behaviors can be encouraged or discouraged through the application of consequences. How Behavior Modification Motivates People: 1. Positive Reinforcement: This involves providing a reward following a desired behavior, which increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. For example, an employee who consistently meets deadlines might receive praise, bonuses, or promotions, reinforcing their timely performance. 2. Negative Reinforcement: This involves removing an unpleasant stimulus when a desired behavior occurs, thereby increasing the likelihood of that behavior. For instance, if a manager stops micromanaging an employee after they show improved performance, the employee is likely to continue performing well to avoid micromanagement. 3. Punishment: This involves applying an unpleasant consequence following an undesired behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior reoccurring. For example, if an employee is reprimanded for consistently arriving late to work, they might be motivated to arrive on time to avoid further reprimands. 4. Extinction: This involves removing any reinforcement for an undesired behavior, leading to a gradual decrease in that behavior. For example, if a manager stops acknowledging an employee’s disruptive comments during meetings, the employee may eventually stop making those comments. Importance of Understanding People’s Needs: While behavior modification can be effective in shaping behavior, it is crucial to understand people’s needs to ensure the approach is genuinely motivating and sustainable. Here’s why: 1. Individual Differences: People have different needs and what motivates one person may not motivate another. Understanding these differences allows managers to tailor reinforcement strategies to individual preferences, increasing their effectiveness. 2. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Behavior modification often focuses on extrinsic motivators (external rewards or punishments). However, intrinsic motivation (internal satisfaction and enjoyment of the task) is also important. Understanding employees’ needs helps in aligning extrinsic rewards with intrinsic motivators, creating a more holistic and effective motivation strategy. 3. Long-term Motivation: Sole reliance on extrinsic rewards can sometimes undermine intrinsic motivation, leading to reduced engagement over time. By understanding and addressing employees’ deeper needs, managers can foster long-term commitment and satisfaction. 4. Comprehensive Approach: Needs-based theories, such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs or Herzberg’s two-factor theory, emphasize the importance of addressing a range of human needs. By integrating an understanding of these needs with behavior modification techniques, managers can create a more supportive and motivating work environment. In conclusion, while behavior modification is a powerful tool for motivating people, it is essential to understand and address their underlying needs. This integrated approach ensures that motivation is not only effective but also sustainable, leading to higher levels of performance and job satisfaction. 6. Explain the differences between negative reinforcement and punishment. Students’ answers may vary. These two concepts are sometimes confused by those not too familiar with operant conditioning or behavior modification terminology. A reinforcer is anything that serves to strengthen the probability of a behavior being repeated. Therefore, a negative reinforcer strengthens the likelihood of a certain behavior by removing an adverse stimulus when the correct behavior is given. Punishment, on the other hand, involves awarding an unpleasant consequence (such as, literally, a slap on the wrist) as the result of the wrong behavior. A negative reinforcer is the act of taking away an undesirable consequence to reward a positive behavior; punishment is the act of penalizing an unwanted behavior. Negative reinforcement and punishment are both concepts used in behavior modification, but they operate in fundamentally different ways. Here are the key differences: Negative Reinforcement: 1. Purpose: The goal of negative reinforcement is to increase the likelihood of a desired behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus when the desired behavior occurs. 2. Mechanism: It involves taking away something negative or aversive to encourage the repetition of a behavior. For example, a manager might stop criticizing an employee once they start meeting deadlines, thereby reinforcing the behavior of meeting deadlines. 3. Outcome: The outcome of negative reinforcement is that the desired behavior is strengthened because the individual learns that performing the behavior will result in the removal of something unpleasant. Punishment: 1. Purpose: The goal of punishment is to decrease the likelihood of an undesired behavior by applying an unpleasant stimulus or consequence following the behavior. 2. Mechanism: It involves presenting something negative or removing something positive in response to an undesired behavior. For example, if an employee is consistently late, they might receive a formal reprimand or lose privileges, such as flexible working hours. 3. Outcome: The outcome of punishment is that the undesired behavior is weakened because the individual learns that performing the behavior will result in an unpleasant consequence. Summary of Differences: • Objective: Negative reinforcement aims to increase a behavior by removing a negative condition, while punishment aims to decrease a behavior by introducing a negative condition or removing a positive one. • Nature of Stimulus: Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus, whereas punishment involves the introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a positive one. • Effect on Behavior: Negative reinforcement encourages the repetition of a desired behavior, while punishment discourages the repetition of an undesired behavior. Understanding these differences is crucial for managers and leaders when designing strategies to influence behavior in the workplace. Properly applying negative reinforcement and punishment can help create a more effective and motivating work environment. 7. Divide the class into two groups (one in favor and one opposed) and debate this proposition: “Rewards motivate people.” Students’ answers may vary. There are many pros and cons of rewards. Due to the extreme allure of the rewards offered in the workplace, it can be argued that it does make people alter their behavior, just like rats in a lab experiment. Another issue involves the managers who evaluate performance and set up the reinforcement schedules—who is controlling them? Many employers would prefer to have self-controlled, thinking employees anyway. Finally, there may be severe limits to the applicability of behavior modification using rewards. Most modern jobs are just too complex to accurately isolate specific tasks and design reinforcement schedules for them. Furthermore, there is also the issue of individualism versus team or group rewards in today’s increasing use of the team approach in organizations. In Favor of the Proposition: "Rewards Motivate People" Introduction: Rewards, both intrinsic and extrinsic, play a significant role in motivating individuals. They can enhance performance, boost morale, and increase job satisfaction. Key Points: 1. Extrinsic Motivation: • Financial Incentives: Bonuses, raises, and other financial rewards provide clear, tangible benefits that motivate employees to perform better and achieve organizational goals. • Recognition and Praise: Public acknowledgment and praise can significantly boost morale and motivate employees by fulfilling their esteem needs. 2. Intrinsic Motivation: • Achievement: Rewards such as promotions and awards fulfill the need for achievement, encouraging employees to set and reach higher goals. • Personal Growth: Opportunities for professional development and learning can be seen as rewards that intrinsically motivate individuals by fulfilling their growth and self-actualization needs. 3. Behavioral Reinforcement: • Positive Reinforcement: Rewards act as positive reinforcement, encouraging repeated desirable behaviors. This is a principle rooted in behaviorism, which is widely supported by psychological research. 4. Employee Engagement: • Increased Engagement: Rewards can lead to higher levels of engagement and commitment to the organization. Engaged employees are more productive and contribute to a positive work environment. Conclusion: Rewards, when aligned with individual and organizational goals, effectively motivate people by fulfilling various psychological needs and encouraging desirable behaviors. Opposed to the Proposition: "Rewards Motivate People" Introduction: While rewards can have motivational effects, relying too heavily on them can lead to unintended negative consequences. It’s important to consider the limitations and potential drawbacks of using rewards as a primary motivational tool. Key Points: 1. Over justification Effect: • Intrinsic Motivation Undermined: Extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation. When individuals receive rewards for activities they already find enjoyable, their internal drive may diminish. 2. Short-term Focus: • Temporary Motivation: Rewards often lead to short-term motivation. Once the reward is removed, the behavior may not sustain. This can lead to a dependency on continuous rewards for sustained performance. 3. Quality of Work: • Focus on Quantity Over Quality: Rewards tied to specific metrics may encourage employees to focus on achieving those metrics at the expense of the overall quality of their work or ethical considerations. 4. Equity and Fairness: • Perception of Inequality: If rewards are perceived as unfair or biased, they can lead to resentment and decreased motivation among employees who feel undervalued or overlooked. 5. Behavioral Manipulation: • Manipulative Tactics: Over-reliance on rewards can be seen as manipulative, leading to a transactional relationship between employer and employee rather than fostering genuine engagement and commitment. Conclusion: While rewards can have some motivational benefits, they should be used cautiously and in conjunction with other motivational strategies. Overemphasis on rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation, lead to short-term thinking, and create perceptions of inequality and manipulation. Final Thoughts In a classroom debate, each group can elaborate on these points with real-life examples, psychological theories, and empirical evidence to support their arguments. This approach will help illustrate the complexities of motivation and the nuanced role that rewards play in influencing behavior. 8. How would you use the expectancy model in the following situations? a. You want two employees to switch their vacations from the summer to the spring so that job needs will be filled suitably during the summer. b. You believe that one of your employees has excellent potential for promotion and want to encourage her to prepare for it. c. You have a sprained ankle and want a friend to walk to a fast-food restaurant and get you a hamburger. The expectancy model, also known as Vroom's Expectancy Theory, posits that motivation is a result of an individual's expectation that their effort will lead to desired performance and that performance will lead to desired outcomes. The theory emphasizes three components: expectancy (belief that effort leads to performance), instrumentality (belief that performance leads to rewards), and valence (value placed on the rewards). Here's how the expectancy model can be applied in each of the given situations: a. Switching Employee Vacations Situation: You want two employees to switch their vacations from the summer to the spring so that job needs will be filled suitably during the summer. Application of Expectancy Model: 1. Expectancy: Ensure the employees believe they can successfully switch their vacations without negative consequences. Communicate clearly about the process and any support provided to facilitate the switch. • Example: "We have checked the schedules and confirm that switching your vacation to the spring will be feasible and won't affect your workload." 2. Instrumentality: Guarantee that switching their vacations will lead to a tangible benefit. Clarify the direct rewards or positive outcomes from making this change. • Example: "If you switch your vacation to the spring, you will receive an additional paid day off as a thank you for your flexibility." 3. Valence: Ensure that the offered rewards are valuable to the employees. Understand what they value most, such as additional time off, recognition, or a bonus. • Example: "We know you value family time, so an extra paid day off might be beneficial for you." b. Encouraging an Employee to Prepare for Promotion Situation: You believe that one of your employees has excellent potential for promotion and want to encourage her to prepare for it. Application of Expectancy Model: 1. Expectancy: Help the employee understand that her efforts in preparation will improve her chances of being promoted. Provide resources, training, and mentorship to support her development. • Example: "We will provide you with access to leadership training programs and mentorship to help you prepare for this promotion opportunity." 2. Instrumentality: Clearly link the preparation efforts to the likelihood of promotion. Explain how these efforts are recognized and valued by the organization. • Example: "Completing this training and taking on additional responsibilities will significantly increase your chances of being promoted within the next evaluation period." 3. Valence: Ensure the promotion is a desirable outcome for the employee. Discuss the benefits of the new role, such as increased responsibilities, higher salary, or more significant career opportunities. • Example: "This promotion comes with a substantial salary increase, greater responsibility, and the chance to lead a team, which aligns with your career goals." c. Requesting a Friend to Get You a Hamburger Situation: You have a sprained ankle and want a friend to walk to a fast-food restaurant and get you a hamburger. Application of Expectancy Model: 1. Expectancy: Ensure your friend believes that their effort (walking to the restaurant) will successfully get you the hamburger. • Example: "The restaurant is just a few blocks away, and they're open right now. It should be a quick and easy trip." 2. Instrumentality: Make sure your friend believes that their effort will lead to a positive outcome, such as appreciation or a return favor. • Example: "If you get me the hamburger, I will owe you one and help you out next time you need something." 3. Valence: Make sure the reward or outcome is valuable to your friend. This could be a promise of future help, immediate gratitude, or something they value. • Example: "I really appreciate your help with this. I'll buy you a meal next time we go out together." By aligning the components of the expectancy model with each specific situation, you can effectively motivate individuals to take the desired actions. Students’ answers will vary, but all should use valence, expectancy, and/or instrumentality to build the motivation need for the desired action to occur. Here are some possible solutions: a. Offering the employees an extra day or two of vacation to make the switch b. Meeting with the employee, explaining why he or she has potential, presenting the benefits that come with the promotion, and suggesting actions or training that can be undertaken to prepare for such a position c. Offering to pay for a hamburger for the friend if he or she would pick one up for the individual as well 9. Apply the equity model to yourself as a student. How do you measure your inputs and outcomes? Whom have you chosen as referent individuals? Do you perceive equity? If not, how will you attain it? Is procedural justice present? Students’ answers will vary, depending on how equitable they feel their situation is. Most will choose fellow students as referent individuals, although friends and/or family members may also be mentioned. Whether or not they feel equity can be attained will depend on the nature of the inequity. For instance, if a professor has a closer relationship with a certain student because of ties outside the classroom, it may not be possible to attain equity. Applying the Equity Model as a Student Equity Model Overview: The equity model, proposed by J. Stacy Adams, posits that individuals seek fairness in their interactions by comparing their inputs (what they contribute) and outcomes (what they receive) to those of referent individuals (others they compare themselves to). Perceived inequity can lead to various responses to restore balance, either by altering inputs, outcomes, or perceptions. Measuring Inputs and Outcomes: 1. Inputs: • Time and Effort: The amount of time spent studying, attending classes, participating in group projects, and completing assignments. • Skills and Abilities: The intellectual effort, skills, and previous knowledge applied to coursework. • Participation: Engagement in class discussions, extracurricular activities, and contributions to group work. • Emotional Investment: Stress management, dedication, and motivation towards academic goals. 2. Outcomes: • Grades and Academic Performance: Scores on exams, assignments, and overall GPA. • Recognition: Praise from professors, awards, scholarships, and positive feedback. • Learning and Personal Growth: Acquisition of knowledge, skills, and personal development. • Opportunities: Internships, job offers, and networking opportunities gained through academic performance. Referent Individuals: • Classmates: Peers in the same classes who share similar academic goals and environments. • Friends in Other Majors: Comparing to friends studying different subjects or at different institutions. • Self-Comparison: Comparing to past academic performance or personal expectations. Perception of Equity: • Assessing Equity: Reflecting on whether the ratio of my inputs to outcomes is comparable to that of my referent individuals. • Equity Perception Example: If I spend more time studying and receive high grades, while a peer puts in less effort and achieves similar results, I may perceive inequity. Addressing Perceived Inequity: • Adjusting Inputs: Altering the amount of effort or time spent on studies, either by increasing effort to achieve better outcomes or reducing effort if outcomes seem unattainable. • Seeking Additional Outcomes: Pursuing additional recognition, opportunities, or support to balance perceived inequities. • Changing Referents: Comparing myself to different peers who have similar inputs and outcomes to feel a sense of fairness. • Cognitive Adjustment: Reframing my perception of the situation, such as acknowledging that different people have different strengths and circumstances. Procedural Justice: • Fair Processes: Evaluating if the processes and policies in place are fair and consistently applied, such as grading systems, feedback mechanisms, and access to resources. • Transparency: Ensuring transparency in how outcomes are determined, such as clear grading criteria and open communication from professors. • Voice and Participation: Opportunities to express concerns and participate in decisions affecting academic experiences, such as course evaluations and student representation. Conclusion: Applying the equity model as a student involves evaluating the balance between inputs and outcomes, selecting appropriate referent individuals, and assessing perceptions of fairness. If inequity is perceived, steps can be taken to restore balance by adjusting inputs, seeking additional outcomes, or changing perceptions. Ensuring procedural justice is present in the academic environment further supports a sense of fairness and motivation. 10. The text suggests that an individual’s equity perceptions can be distorted. If that is the case, how would you go about correcting or adjusting them? Students’ answers may vary. About the only way to correct or adjust perceptions is to address them. For instance, managers may notice that an employee seems unhappy after annual bonus checks are handed out. In that case, the best course of action would be to meet with the employee to discuss the situation. Was the amount received lower than expected? Did someone else receive a bigger bonus? If everyone seems unhappy with the bonus, a group meeting may be necessary, during which it could be pointed out on what the bonus was based, and/or why it is so low. Correcting Distorted Equity Perceptions Understanding Distorted Perceptions: Distorted equity perceptions occur when individuals inaccurately assess their inputs, outcomes, or the inputs and outcomes of others. These distortions can lead to feelings of inequity and impact motivation and behavior. Strategies for Correcting Distorted Equity Perceptions: 1. Reevaluation of Inputs and Outcomes: • Self-Reflection: Encourage individuals to reflect on their actual contributions (inputs) and rewards received (outcomes) objectively. • Feedback: Provide feedback from peers, supervisors, or objective measures (e.g., performance evaluations) to help individuals reassess their contributions and outcomes accurately. 2. Adjusting Referent Groups: • Broadening Comparison: Encourage individuals to consider a wider range of referent individuals, including those with different roles, experiences, and circumstances, to gain a more realistic perspective. • Choosing Appropriate Referents: Help individuals choose referents who are truly comparable in terms of inputs and outcomes to avoid unfair comparisons. 3. Communication and Transparency: • Clarifying Expectations: Ensure that individuals have a clear understanding of the criteria used to determine inputs, outcomes, and equity. • Open Dialogue: Encourage open communication and discussion about perceptions of fairness and equity within the organization. 4. Procedural Justice: • Fairness in Processes: Ensure that procedures for determining inputs, outcomes, and equity are perceived as fair and consistently applied. • Transparency: Provide transparency in decision-making processes and outcomes to reduce perceptions of bias or unfairness. 5. Promoting a Culture of Equity: • Training and Education: Provide training on equity theory and its application in the workplace to increase awareness and understanding. • Reward Systems: Ensure that reward systems are designed to promote fairness and equity, such as merit-based pay and recognition programs. 6. Addressing Underlying Issues: • Conflict Resolution: Address any underlying conflicts or issues that may be contributing to distorted perceptions of equity. • Individual Support: Offer individual counseling or support to help individuals manage feelings of inequity and develop strategies for coping. Conclusion: Correcting distorted equity perceptions requires a multifaceted approach that involves self-reflection, feedback, communication, procedural justice, and promoting a culture of equity. By addressing these factors, organizations can help individuals develop more accurate perceptions of equity, leading to improved motivation and performance. Assess Your Own Skills Students should honestly circle the number on the response scale that most closely reflects the degree to which each statement accurately describes them when they have tried to motivate someone else. This section will help them understand how well they exhibit good motivational skills. Role-Play The Downsized Firm This case can be analyzed in terms of a number of motivational models, so it is an appropriate vehicle to review the two chapters on motivation. For example, different students or groups of students may be asked to analyze the case in terms of the models of Maslow, Herzberg, Vroom, and Skinner. In terms of Maslow’s need hierarchy, employees’ security needs appear to be very strong because of current layoffs. If this is so, Phil may be able to provide job experiences that give employees more security, self-confidence, and encouragement. In terms of motivation-maintenance theory, Phil may be able to introduce into the job more motivators, such as recognition. Since the employees are capable, perhaps Phil can show them how making one’s own decisions can provide intrinsic satisfaction from the feeling of a job well done. In terms of expectancy theory, there are a number of ways that Phil may encourage greater expectancy. He may emphasize that more desired behavior will lead to greater rewards. In terms of behavior modification, the consequences of doing more work and better work can be made more favorable, while extinction is applied when employees are unwilling to do appropriate tasks. Negative reinforcement may also be applied by removing, at least on a temporary basis, some of the undesirable consequences that could occur if employees did jobs differently and failed. In addition, Phil must be particularly careful not to reinforce his insecurity through extensive attention and explanations, particularly when an employee brings petty problems to him. In this way, employees’ insecurity will be extinguished while they will be reinforced for doing the job formerly done by five people. Incident The Piano Builder This case is obviously an example of a person’s behavior being governed by Maslow’s higher-order needs, and it affords an excellent opportunity for students to discuss why higher-order needs are of great importance to some people and why their satisfaction provides major fulfillment. In Bird’s case, he achieves self-actualization (Maslow’s fifth-level need) from being able to spend much of his time doing work that is important to him. He also probably feels high self-esteem and recognition from his accomplishments, all of which relate to Maslow’s fourth-level needs. Similarly, Bird’s activities reflect Herzberg’s motivational factors, such as the work itself, achievement, growth, responsibility, and recognition. (Students can discuss how each of these is reflected in Bird’s work.) Bird’s work is also an instance of intrinsic motivation in which many of his satisfactions flow directly from the work itself. He is building something significant that he can see develop right before his eyes and that gives him a sense of accomplishment. It appears that Bird has an achievement motivational pattern. His approach toward work is one of seeking challenges and deriving satisfaction from overcoming them. As is typical of an achievement-motivated person, he is not money-motivated, because he sells his handmade pianos at regular commercial prices even though they could, as a handmade special item by a renowned expert, bring much more money on the market. It is not impossible that an organization could build the same type of motivation in some of its employees. Some actors, ballet dancers, professional athletes, and executives are self-actualized. However, they do tend to be exceptions rather than the rule. In these cases, the needs and wants of the individual fit almost perfectly with those of the organization. However, such perfect fits are rare, and many times others in the organization must subdue their needs and wants for these situations to become possible. Experiential Exercise Are Grades Motivators? This is an application of the expectancy model of motivation. Students have been asked first to assess their own valence for grades, which is their perception of the value to them of grades. They also have been asked to assess their expectancy (perception of effort leading to performance) and their instrumentality (perception of performance leading to reward). Multiplying the three scores gives their overall measure of motivation. These scores are compared to others’ scores, which allow an opportunity to discuss individual differences and their effects on motivation. The exercise concludes with comparisons by students of their respective effort levels, which leads into a discussion of equity theory as it applies to obtaining good grades. Generating OB Insights Students’ responses will vary for this exercise. They should however, highlight several of the major topics discussed in the chapter such as the motivational process, motivational drives, need category systems, behavior modification and reinforcement, goal setting and its effects, etc. Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior: Human Behavior at Work John W. Newstrom 9780078112829, 9781259254420
