CH-5 Groups and Organizations – Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials : Exam Guide

CHAPTER 5 – GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. A(n) __________ is a collection of two or more people who interact frequently with one another, share a sense of belonging, and have a feeling of interdependence. A. social group B. aggregate C. category D. secondary group Answer: A 2. A(n) __________ is a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but share little else in common. A. social group B. category C. aggregate D. primary group Answer: C 3. Examples of a(n) __________ include the following: several people waiting for a traffic light to change, shoppers in a department store, and passengers on an airplane flight. A. aggregate B. category C. social group D. primary group Answer: A 4. A(n) __________ is a number of people who may never have met one another but share a similar characteristic (such as education level, age, race, or gender). A. social group B. category C. aggregate D. secondary category Answer: B 5. Men and women make up __________, as do Native Americans and Latinos/as, and victims of sexual or racial harassment. A. social groups B. aggregates C. formal organizations D. categories Answer: D 6. All men with red hair, all people who wear glasses, all people over 6 feet tall, and all college women who belong to a sorority would be called a(n) __________. A. clique B. category C. model D. aggregate Answer: B 7. Sociologist Charles H. Cooley used the term __________ to describe a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time. A. secondary group B. formal group C. informal group D. primary group Answer: D 8. We have primary relationships with other individuals in our primary groups—that is, with our __________, who frequently serve as role models. A. personal others B. significant others C. formal others D. generalized others Answer: B 9. Susan and Mary are middle-aged women who have been neighbours for twenty-five years. They talk daily about each other’s grandchildren, share grocery shopping trips, and offer each other advice. They share a(n) __________ group relationship. A. primary B. secondary C. formal D. informal Answer: A 10. According to sociologist Charles H. Cooley, a(n) __________ group is a larger, more specialized group in which the members engage in more impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time. A. secondary B. primary C. formal D. informal Answer: A 11. Ann, Gloria, Sandra, and John were college students who met for the first time in a sociology class. They studied together for the tests, pooling their notes. Otherwise, they saw each other only occasionally when their paths crossed between classes. Sociologists would term their relationship as __________. A. a primary group B. a formal group C. a secondary group D. an informal group Answer: C 12. Students in a college sociology course, who may interact with others in the class, but who probably will not see many of the students again after the semester ends, is an example of a(n) __________. A. informal group B. secondary group C. formal group D. primary group Answer: B 13. In discussing primary and secondary groups, the text points out that: A. formal organizations are secondary groups and have no primary groups within them. B. all secondary groups are approximately the same size. C. there are no significant others in secondary groups. D. some of the people in a secondary group may eventually form a primary group. Answer: D 14. Becky and Eric met in a sociology class at the local college and initially were considered to be members of a(n) __________. During the semester, they started dating and four years later were married. Now they would be considered to be members of a(n) __________. A. formal group; informal group B. secondary group; primary group C. informal group; formal group D. primary group; secondary group Answer: B 15. Sociologist __________ coined the terms ingroup and outgroup to describe people's feelings toward members of their own and other groups. A. Emile Durkheim B. Max Weber C. William Graham Sumner D. Charles H. Cooley Answer: C 16. A(n) __________ is a group to which a person belongs and with which the person feels a sense of identity. A. ingroup B. outgroup C. formal group D. reference group Answer: A 17. A(n) __________ is a group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility. A. ingroup B. outgroup C. formal group D. reference group Answer: B 18. Cody is a member of the L.A. Crips. The other gangs in his territory are the Bloods and Satan’s Slaves. Cody feels very antagonistic toward the Bloods and Satan’s Slaves. For Cody, these two rival gangs would be considered a(n) __________. A. formal group B. ingroup C. reference group D. outgroup Answer: D 19. Sociologists Robyn Driskell and Larry Lyon concluded that __________ on the Internet do not have geographic and social boundaries, are limited in their scope to specific areas of interest, are psychologically detached from close interpersonal ties, and have only limited concern for their “members.” A. cosmetic communities B. atmospheric communities C. virtual communities D. cyber communities Answer: C 20. The textbook points out that ingroup and outgroup distinctions __________. A. may encourage social cohesion among group members B. serve to prevent classism, racism, sexism, and ageism C. discourage feelings of group superiority D. are less likely to exist in contemporary societies than in traditional ones Answer: A 21. A(n) __________ is a group that strongly influences a person's behavior and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member. A. social group B. operational group C. reference group D. instrumental group Answer: C 22. What is the term used by sociologists to describe the awareness that individuals may have when they believe that they share commonalities with certain others? A. consciousness of kind B. outgroup feelings C. cultural relativism D. homogeneity Answer: A 23. Anne belongs to a sorority. The sorority members share a lot of beliefs and values and feel they are different from other sororities and their members. This would be labelled A. consciousness of kind B. outgroup feelings C. cultural relativism D. homogeneity Answer: A 24. Consciousness of kind best relates to which other sociological concept A. ethnocentrism B. cultural relativism C. ingroup D. outgroup Answer: C 25. Consciousness of kind can be seen as a special case of A. ingroup membership. B. outgroup membership. C. iron law of oligarchy. D. virtual community. Answer: A 26. Max Weber discussed the kind of setting or situation where the participation of others is excluded, limited, or subject to conditions. Weber termed this A. exclusionary membership. B. inclusive membership. C. closed relationships. D. open relationships. Answer: C 27. For a person who strongly believes in the value of human rights and equal opportunity, which of the following would not constitute a reference group? A. the Ku Klux Klan B. the American Civil Liberties Union C. the National Organization for Women D. the Council on Racial Equality Answer: A 28. Camryn is a senior at the local university and plans to go to graduate school to become a sociologist. During her last semester, she has been using graduate sociology student papers as standards in evaluating her own writing skills. For Camryn, the graduate sociology students have become her __________. A. objective group B. target group C. standardization group D. reference group Answer: D 29. According to __________, people form groups to meet instrumental and expressive needs. A. symbolic interactionists B. functionalists C. postmodern theorists D. conflict theorists Answer: B 30. __________ needs cannot always be met by one person, so the group works cooperatively to fulfil a specific goal. A. Expressive B. Instrumental C. Social D. Individual Answer: B 31. __________ needs are particularly important for self-expression and support from family, friends, and peers. A. Expressive B. Instrumental C. Social D. Individual Answer: A 32. __________ suggest that groups involve a series of power relationships whereby the needs of individual members may not be equally served. A. Postmodern theorists B. Functionalists C. Conflict theorists D. Symbolic interactionists Answer: C 33. __________ focus on how the size of the group influences the kind of behavior that take place among members. A. Conflict theorists B. Symbolic interactionists C. Functionalists D. Postmodern theorists Answer: B 34. Sociologist __________ suggested that small groups have distinctive interaction patterns that do not exist in larger groups. A. Emile Durkheim B. Max Weber C. Herbert Spencer D. Georg Simmel Answer: D 35. In a(n) __________, which is a group composed of two members, the active participation of both members is crucial for the group’s survival. If one member withdraws from interaction, the group ceases to exist. A. triad B. coalition C. dyad D. affiliation Answer: C 36. Examples of __________ include two people who are best friends, married couples, and domestic partnerships. They provide members with an intense bond and a sense of unity not found in most larger groups. A. coalitions B. dyads C. triads D. affiliations Answer: B 37. A group composed of three members is referred to as a(n) __________. A. triad B. affiliation C. dyad D. accommodation Answer: A 38. Larry and Cathy recently had their first baby and now they are considered to be a(n): A. affiliation B. dyad C. triad D. accommodation Answer: C 39. A(n) __________ is an alliance created in an attempt to reach a shared objective or goal. A. affiliation B. coalition C. dyad D. accommodation Answer: B 40. When the size of the group increases, the number of possible social interactions also increases. If the group size is 5, how many interactions are possible? A. 5 B. 10 C. 15 D. 20 Answer: B 41. __________ size refers to the number of members a group actually has. A. Relative B. Numeric C. Absolute D. Interaction Answer: C 42. __________ size refers to the number of potential members a group has. A. Relative B. Hypothetical C. Absolute D. Dyadic Answer: A 43. Larger groups typically have __________ leadership structures. Their leaders are expected to perform a variety of roles, some related to the internal workings of the group and others related to external relationships with other groups. A. more informal B. more formalized C. more traditional D. more nontraditional Answer: B 44. Leadership in secondary groups (such as colleges, governmental agencies, and corporations) involves __________, with written responsibilities assigned to each position in the organizational structure. A. an informal hierarchy B. a friendly orientation C. a clearly defined chain of command D. a strong personality Answer: C 45. From a __________ perspective, if groups exist to meet the instrumental and expressive needs of their members, then leaders are responsible for helping the group meet those needs. A. premodern B. conflict C. symbolic interactionist D. functionalist Answer: D 46. __________ leadership is goal- or task-oriented. A. Instrumental B. Expressive C. Relational D. Transitional Answer: A 47. __________ leadership is most appropriate when the group's purpose is to complete a task or reach a particular goal. A. Expressive B. Transitional C. Relational D. Instrumental Answer: D 48. Jane is a member of a group that is developing a questionnaire as a group project in her sociology class. Whenever they meet, Jane finds that the other group members are easily sidetracked and she is always trying to keep the group focused on developing the questionnaire together. Jane would be considered the __________ leader of the group. A. relational B. expressive C. instrumental D. transitional Answer: C 49. __________ leadership provides emotional support for members. A. Instrumental B. Expressive C. Relational D. Transitional Answer: B 50. __________ leadership is most appropriate when the group is dealing with emotional issues, and harmony, solidarity, and high morale are needed. A. Expressive B. Transitional C. Relational D. Instrumental Answer: A 51. Joe is a member of a group that is developing a questionnaire as a group project in his sociology class. Whenever they meet, Joe finds that there is conflict between several group members and that other group members are getting upset and are thinking about leaving the group. Joe has a “why can’t we all just be friends and get along” attitude. As a result, he is continuously trying to improve group harmony and trying to reduce the conflict in the group. Joe would be considered the __________ leader of the group. A. transitional B. instrumental C. expressive D. relational Answer: C 52. Three major styles of leadership exist in groups. Which of the following is not one of them? A. authoritarian B. democratic C. laissez-faire D. cooperative Answer: D 53. The __________ style of leadership makes all major group decisions and assigns tasks to members. A. democratic B. authoritarian C. laissez-faire D. cooperative Answer: B 54. The __________ style of leadership focuses on the instrumental tasks of the group and demands compliance from others. In times of crisis, such as a war or natural disaster, they may be commended for their decisive actions. In other situations, however, they may be criticized for being dictatorial and for fostering intergroup hostility. A. cooperative B. laissez-faire C. authoritarian D. democratic Answer: C 55. Suppose you are leading a dozen inexperienced backpackers in the mountains and your group is preparing to settle in for the night around the campfire. You realize that someone in the group is missing and a severe thunderstorm is forecasted. The __________ style of leadership would be most effective in this situation. A. authoritarian B. democratic C. cooperative D. laissez-faire Answer: A 56. A therapist tells a couple undergoing a marital dispute that she will not tell them what to do, that the couple has to work out an agreement between themselves. The therapist is using what kind of leadership style? A. democratic B. laissez-faire C. authoritarian D. autocratic Answer: B 57. In a disaster like Hurricane Katrina, a(n) _______ leadership style has proven to be most effective. A. democratic B. laissez-faire C. authoritarian D. autocratic Answer: C 58. The __________ style of leadership encourages group discussion and decision making through consensus building. A. democratic B. authoritarian C. laissez-faire D. cooperative Answer: A 59. Leaders using the __________ style of leadership may be praised for their expressive, supportive behavior toward group members, but they may also be blamed for being indecisive in times of crisis. A. authoritarian B. laissez-faire C. cooperative D. democratic Answer: D 60. George is the leader of a task force which is trying to determine whether there should be a change in student housing policies. He has held three group discussions and outlined the steps he feels are necessary to reach the goal of the task force. He allows the group to work at their own pace. After receiving recommendations from the task force members, he offered alternatives he felt should be made. George’s style of leadership would be best described as __________. A. laissez-faire B. democratic C. authoritarian D. cooperative Answer: B 61. Leaders using the __________ style of leadership are only minimally involved in decision making and encourage group members to make their own decisions. A. democratic B. authoritarian C. laissez-faire D. cooperative Answer: C 62. On the one hand, the __________ style of leadership may be viewed positively by group members because they do not flaunt their power or position. On the other hand, a group that needs active leadership is not likely to find it with this style of leadership, which does not work vigorously to promote group goals. A. cooperative B. laissez-faire C. democratic D. authoritarian Answer: B 63. The supervisor of the office has been informed that Sarah consistently extends her lunch hour by 30 minutes. He chooses to take a passive approach to this problem hoping that it will fix itself. This particular supervisor is exhibiting which style of leadership? A. authoritarian B. cooperative C. democratic D. laissez-faire Answer: D 64. Mary is appointed to be a group leader at a business-related seminar. She is only minimally involved with the decisions made by the group and encourages members to make their own choices. This illustrates the __________ style of leadership. A. laissez-faire B. democratic C. cooperative D. authoritarian Answer: A 65. __________ is the process of maintaining or changing behavior to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group. A. Conformity B. Anticipatory socialization C. Enforcement D. Total expectation Answer: A 66. In his study of conformity, Solomon Asch found that __________. A. subjects stood by their own answers and were not influenced by the incorrect responses of Asch's assistants B. subjects chose to conform to the incorrect responses of Asch's assistants about one third (33%) of the time C. subjects chose to conform to the incorrect responses of Asch's assistants over one half (50%) of the time D. subjects always chose to conform to the incorrect responses of Asch's assistants Answer: B 67. After conducting his research, Solomon Asch concluded that __________. A. obedience to authority may be more common than many people would like to believe B. the size of the group has little influence on the extent to which individuals respond to group pressure C. the degree of social cohesion felt by participants is very important regarding how individuals respond to group pressure D. groups wield very little power with respect to compliance Answer: C 68. __________ is a form of compliance in which people follow direct orders from someone in a position of authority. A. Cohesion B. Obedience C. Symbolic response D. Learning Answer: B 69. The research conducted by Stanley Milgram and his colleagues provides evidence that obedience to authority __________. A. is relatively uncommon B. takes place only in the presence of charismatic leadership C. may be more common than most people would like to believe D. occurs only in totalitarian situations Answer: C 70. In Stanley Milgram's experiments, none of the "teachers" challenged the process before they had applied __________ volts. A. 175 B. 225 C. 300 D. 450 Answer: C 71. Almost __________ of Stanley Milgram's research subjects went all the way to what could have been a deadly jolt of electricity if the shock generator had been real. A. one-quarter B. one-half C. two-thirds D. three-quarters Answer: C 72. In reference to Stanley Milgram's study, the text points out that __________. A. this research raises some questions concerning research ethics B. Milgram's subjects knew about the nature of the study but agreed to participate anyway C. many of the research subjects found the experiment interesting and agreed to participate in future research on the same topic D. Milgram's findings have never been confirmed by other researchers Answer: A 73. Social psychologist __________ examined group decision making among political experts and found that major blunders in U.S. history may be attributed to pressure toward group conformity. A. Robert Merton B. Stanley Miligram C. Irving Janis D. Solomon Asch Answer: C 74. __________ is the process by which members of a cohesive group arrive at a decision that many individual members privately believe is unwise. A. Group conformity B. Groupthink C. Iron Law of Oligarchy D. Self-fulfilling prophecy Answer: B 75. The leader of a work group has proposed a solution to a problem that some group members believe will have negative results. Instead of discussing their concerns, they do not want to challenge the leader’s authority. The result is an unwise decision. The group experienced __________. A. the iron law of oligarchy B. self-fulfilling prophecy C. group conformity D. groupthink Answer: D 76. In 2003, NASA engineers expressed concerns about launching the space shuttle Challenger. However, these concerns were overruled and led to a tragic explosion. This is cited as an example of A. group heterogeneity. B. the iron law of oligarchy. C. groupthink. D. self-fulfilling prophecy. Answer: C 77. A(n) __________ organization is a highly structured secondary group formed for the purpose of achieving specific goals in the most efficient manner. A. traditional B. formal C. secondary D. primary Answer: B 78. Sociologist Amitai Etzioni classified formal organizations into three categories. Which of the following was not one of the categories identified? A. normative B. coercive C. utilitarian D. totalitarian Answer: D 79. We voluntarily join __________ organizations when we want to pursue some common interest or gain personal satisfaction or prestige from being a member. A. coercive B. normative C. totalitarian D. utilitarian Answer: B 80. Political parties, ecological activist groups, religious organizations, parent-teacher associations, and college sororities and fraternities are examples of __________ organizations. A. normative B. utilitarian C. coercive D. totalitarian Answer: A 81. Class (socioeconomic status based on a person’s education, occupation, and income) is the most significant predictor of whether a person will participate in mainstream __________ organizations. A. totalitarian B. coercive C. normative D. utilitarian Answer: C 82. The National Organization for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP) is a(n) __________ organization. A. normative B. coercive C. utilitarian D. informal Answer: A 83. People do not voluntarily become members of __________ organizations (associations that people are forced to join). A. utilitarian B. normative C. totalitarian D. coercive Answer: D 84. Total institutions, such as boot camps, prisons, and some mental hospitals, are examples of __________ organizations. A. normative B. coercive C. totalitarian D. utilitarian Answer: B 85. We voluntarily join __________ organizations when they can provide us with a material reward we seek. A. normative B. coercive C. utilitarian D. totalitarian Answer: C 86. To make a living or earn a college degree, we must participate in organizations that can provide us these opportunities. Although we have some choice regarding where we work or attend school, __________ organizations are not always completely voluntary. A. utilitarian B. normative C. coercive D. totalitarian Answer: A 87. The __________ model of organization is the most universal organizational form in government, business, education, and religion. A. human relations B. bureaucratic C. democratic D. bottom-down Answer: B 88. A(n) __________ is an organizational model characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules and procedures, and impersonality in personal matters. A. democracy B. monarchy C. anarchy D. bureaucracy Answer: D 89. According to sociologist Max Weber, __________ is the process by which traditional methods of social organization, characterized by informality and spontaneity, are gradually replaced by efficiently administered formal rules and procedures. A. rationality B. oligarchy C. transition D. assimilation Answer: A 90. Sociologist __________, in his study of bureaucracies relied on an ideal type analysis, which he adapted from the field of economics. A. Irving Janis B. Solomon Asch C. Karl Marx D. Max Weber Answer: D 91. A(n) __________ is an abstract model that describes the recurring characteristics of some phenomenon (such as bureaucracy). A. symbolic representation B. ideal type C. repetitive paradigm D. archetype Answer: B 92. Which of the following is not one of the ideal-type characteristics of bureaucratic organizations, as specified by Max Weber? A. division of labor B. hierarchy of authority C. impersonality D. employment based on personal reputation Answer: D 93. A college president need not be effective in designing promotional brochures. A corporate executive need not be able to program the department’s computer system. These are examples of __________ in a bureaucratic organization. A. technological employment B. hierarchy of authority C. goal displacement D. division of labor Answer: D 94. A school district is run by a board of elected officials, which hires a superintendent, who in turn selects principals for its schools and other administrative staff. This is an example of the bureaucratic characteristic of __________. A. impersonality B. goal displacement C. employment based on technical qualifications D. hierarchy of authority Answer: D 95. Sociologist George Ritzer has applied Weber’s theories to an examination of fast-food restaurants such as McDonald’s. In the process of “McDonaldization,” he identified four dimensions of formal rationality. Which of the following was not a dimension identified? A. efficiency B. predictability C. control through human technologies D. emphasis on quantity rather than quality Answer: C 96. The text points out that when we look at an organizational chart, the official, formal structure of a bureaucracy is readily apparent. In practice, however, a bureaucracy has patterns of activities and interactions that cannot be accounted for by its organizational chart. These are referred to as __________. A. bureaucracy’s other face B. bureaucracy’s hidden personality C. bureaucracy’s alternate structure D. bureaucracy’s invisible quality Answer: A 97. An organization's __________ is composed of those aspects of participants' day-to-day activities and interactions that ignore, bypass, or do not correspond with the official rules and procedures of the bureaucracy. A. other face B. work culture C. informal structure D. casual nature Answer: C 98. The “grapevine” spreads information (with varying degrees of accuracy) much faster than do official channels of communication, which tend to be slow and unresponsive. The “grapevine” is an example of __________ A. casual nature B. informal structure C. rules and regulations D. hierarchy of authority Answer: B 99. The __________ is the "informal, customary values and rules that mediate the formal authority structure of the workplace and distance workers from its impact." A. latent culture B. other face C. hidden face D. work culture Answer: D 100. Which of the following is not a major problem of bureaucracies? A. inefficiency and rigidity B. resistance to change C. excessive rationality D. perpetuation of race, class, and gender inequalities Answer: C TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. Historically, the basic premise of groups and organizations was that individuals would engage in face-to-face interactions in order to be part of a group. Today, technological devices like the Internet or cell phone serve this function. Answer: True 2. People in aggregates share a common purpose (such as purchasing items or arriving at their destination) but generally do not interact with one another, except perhaps briefly. Answer: True 3. The Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits employers in workplaces with more than twenty-five employees from asking job applicants about medical information or requiring a physical examination prior to employment. Answer: True 4. Applying sociologist Charles H. Cooley’s theory on primary and secondary groups, twelve students in a graduate seminar may start out as a primary group but eventually become a secondary group as they get to know one another and communicate on a more personal basis. Answer: False Rejoinder: Just the opposite would be applicable to the students in a graduate seminar; they would start out as a secondary group (a larger, more specialized group in which the members engage in more impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time—the size of a secondary group may vary) and then eventually could become a primary group (a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time). 5. According to sociologist William Graham Sumner’s theory, Distinguishing between our ingroups and outgroups helps us establish our individual identity and self-worth. Likewise, groups are solidified by ingroup and outgroup distinctions; the presence of an enemy or hostile group binds members more closely together. Answer: True 6. Max Weber uses the term consciousness of kind to describe a setting in which certain individuals are excluded, limited or subjected to certain conditions. Answer: False Rejoinder: The proper term used by Weber was closed relationship. 7. Groups assist their members reach specific goals. These are called expressive needs. Answer: False Rejoinder: These kinds of goals are instrumental. 8. The size of a group is one of its most important features. Interactions are more personal and intense in a small group, a collectively small enough for all members to be acquainted with one another and to interact simultaneously. Answer: True 9. Conflict theorists focus on how the size of the group influences the kind of interaction that takes place among members. Answer: False Rejoinder: Symbolic interactionists are interested in this kind of micro level approach. 10. Sociologist Georg Simmel suggested that small groups have distinctive interaction patterns that do not exist in larger groups. A coalition is an alliance created in a dyad in an attempt to reach a shared objective or goal. Answer: False Rejoinder: A triad is a group composed of three members. Two members may unite to create a coalition that can subject the third member to group pressure to conform. If two members form a coalition, the other member may be seen as an outsider or intruder. By contrast, a dyad is a group composed of two members. 11. Larger groups typically have more formalized leadership structure. Their leaders are expected to perform a variety of roles, some related to the internal workings of the group and others related to external relationships with other groups. Answer: True 12. From a functionalist perspective, instrumental leadership provides emotional support for members; this type of leadership is most appropriate when the group is dealing with emotional issues, and harmony, solidarity, and high morale are needed. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is expressive leadership. Instrumental leadership is goal or task oriented; this type of leadership is most appropriate when the group’s purpose is to complete a task or reach a particular goal. 13. Authoritarian leaders focus on the instrumental tasks of the group and demand compliance from others. In times of crisis, such as a war or natural disaster, these leaders may be commended for their decisive actions. In other situations, however, they may be criticized for being dictatorial and for fostering intergroup hostility. Answer: True 14. In a series of experiments conducted by Solomon Asch, the pressure toward group conformity was so great that participants were willing to contradict their own best judgment if the rest of the group disagreed with them. Although 65 percent always gave correct responses, even they felt very uneasy. Answer: False Rejoinder: Asch averaged the response of all fifty actual subjects who participated in the study; he found that about 33 percent routinely chose to conform to the group by giving the same (incorrect) response to Asch’s assistants. Another 40 percent gave incorrect response in about half of the trials. Although 25 percent always gave correct responses, even they felt very uneasy. 15. The Milgram study provides evidence that obedience to authority may be more common than most of us would like to believe. None of the “teachers” challenged the process before they had applied 300 volts. Almost two-thirds went all the way to what could have been a deadly jolt of electricity if the shock generator had been real. Answer: True 16. According to social psychologist Irving Janis’ theory on “groupthink,” members usually want to be “team players.” They may not want to be the ones who undermine the group’s consensus or who challenge the group’s leaders. Consequently, members often limit or withhold their opinions and focus on consensus rather than exploring all of the options and determining the best course of action. Answer: True 17. Race/ethnicity (the physical and cultural characteristics) is the most significant predictor of whether a person will participate in mainstream normative organizations. Answer: False Rejoinder: Class, gender, and race are important determinants of a person’s participation in a normative organization. Class (socioeconomic status based on a person’s education, occupation, and income) is the most significant predictor of whether a person will participate in mainstream normative organizations. 18. People do not voluntarily become members of coercive organizations. Total institution environments are characterized by restrictive barriers (such as locks, bars, and security guards) that make it impossible for people to leave freely. Answer: True 19. Applying sociologist Max Weber’s perspectives in developing an ideal type for bureaucracy in higher education, you would need to include the relationships among the governing bodies, administrators, faculty, staff, and students. You would also have to include the rules and policies that govern the school’s activities (such as admissions criteria, grading policies, and graduation requirements). Answer: True 20. An example of a utilitarian organization is a prison. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is coercive organization. 21. According to sociologist George Ritzer, formal rationality has four dimensions: efficiency, predictability, emphasis on quantity rather than quality, and control through nonhuman technologies. Answer: True 22. The informal side of a bureaucracy is composed of those aspects of participants’ day-to-day activities and interactions that ignore, bypass, or do not correspond with the official rules and procedures of the bureaucracy. Answer: True 23. A worker who is more concerned with following the rules than getting the job done is referred to as a bureaucratic personality. Answer: True 24. According to sociologist Robert Merton, the term bureaucratic personality describes those workers who are more concerned with following correct procedures than they are with getting the job done correctly. Such workers are usually capable of handling a unique problem or an emergency effectively, but are frequently unable to handle routine situations. Answer: False Rejoinder: Such workers are usually able to handle routine situations effectively but are frequently incapable of handling a unique problem or emergency. 25. Gender inequalities are perpetuated in bureaucracies. Women in traditionally male organizations may feel more visible and experience greater performance pressure. They may also find it harder to gain credibility in management positions. Answer: True SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Distinguish between groups, aggregates, and categories from a sociological perspective. Answer: A social group is a collection of two or more people who interact frequently with one another, share a sense of belonging, and have a feeling of interdependence. An aggregate is a collection of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time but share little else in common (such as several people waiting for a traffic light to change). A category is a number of people who may never have met one another but share a similar characteristic (such as education level, age, race, or gender). 2. Differentiate between primary and secondary groups and explain how people’s relationships differ in each. Answer: Sociologist Charles H. Cooley used the term primary group to describe a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time. We have primary relationships with other individuals in our primary groups – that is, with our significant others, who frequently serve as role models. In contrast, a secondary group is a larger, more specialized group in which the members engage in more impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time. 3. Provide definitions for ingroup, outgroup, and reference group and describe the significance of these concepts in everyday life. Answer: All groups set boundaries by distinguishing between insiders who are members and outsiders who are not. Sociologist William Graham Sumner coined the terms ingroup and outgroup to describe people’s feelings toward members of their own and other groups. An ingroup is a group to which a person belongs and with which the person feels a sense of identity. An outgroup is a group to which a person does not belong and toward which the person may feel a sense of competitiveness or hostility. Distinguishing between our ingroups and our outgroups helps us establish our individual identity and self-worth. Likewise, groups are solidified by ingroup and outgroup distinctions; the presence of an enemy or hostile group binds members more closely together. Group boundaries may be formal, with clearly defined criteria for membership. Ingroup and outgroup distinctions may encourage social cohesion among members, but they may also promote classism, racism, sexism, and ageism. Ingroup members typically view themselves positively and members of outgroups negatively. These feelings of group superiority, or ethnocentrism, are somewhat inevitable. Ingroups provide us not only with a source of identity but also with a point of reference. A reference group is a group that strongly influences a person’s behavior and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member. Reference groups help explain why our behavior and attitudes sometimes differ from those of our membership groups. For most of us, our reference group attachments change many times during our life course, especially when we acquire a new status in a formal organization. 4. Contrast functionalist, conflict, symbolic interactionist, and postmodern perspectives on the purposes of groups. Answer: According to functionalists, people form groups to meet instrumental and expressive needs. Instrumental, or task-oriented, needs cannot always be met by one person, so the group works cooperatively to fulfill a specific goal. Groups help members do jobs that are impossible to do alone or that would very difficult and time-consuming at best. In addition to instrumental needs, groups also help people meet their expressive, or emotional, needs, especially those involving self-expression and support from family, friends, and peers. Conflict theorists suggest that groups also involve a series of power relationships whereby the needs of individual members may not be equally served. Symbolic interactionists focus on how the size of a group influences the kind of interaction that takes place among members. To many postmodernists, groups and organizations—like other aspects of postmodern society—are generally characterized by superficiality and depth lessness in social relationships. 5. Describe dyads and triads and explain the phenomena of changes in interaction patterns. Answer: The size of a group is one of its most important features. Interactions are more personal and intense in a small group—a collectively small enough for all members to be acquainted with one another and to interact simultaneously. Sociologist Georg Simmel suggested that small groups have distinctive interaction patterns that do not exist in larger groups. According to Simmel, in a dyad—a group composed of two members—the active participation of both members is crucial for the group’s survival. If one member withdraws from interaction or “quits,” the group ceases to exist. Dyads provide members with a more intense bond and a sense of unity not found in most large groups. When a third person is added to a dyad, a triad, a group composed of three members is formed. The nature of the relationship and interaction patterns changes with the addition of the third person. In as triad, even if one member ignores another or declines to participate, the group can still function. In addition, two members may unite to create a coalition that can subject the third member to group pressure to conform. If two members form a coalition, the other member may be seen as an outsider or intruder. As the size of a group increases beyond three people, members tend to specialize in different tasks, and everyday communication patterns change. For instance, in groups of more than six or seven people, it becomes increasingly difficult for everyone to take part in the same conversations; therefore, several conversations will probably take place simultaneously. Members are also likely to take sides on issues and form a number of coalitions. In groups of more than ten or twelve people, it becomes virtually impossible for all members to participate in a single conversation unless one person serves as moderator and guides the discussion. 6. Distinguish between the two functions of leadership and the three major styles of group leadership. Answer: Both primary and secondary groups have some type of leadership or positions that enable certain people to be leaders, or at least to wield power over others. Instrumental leadership is goal- or task-oriented; this type of leadership is most appropriate when the group’s purpose is to complete a task or reach a particular goal. Expressive leadership provides emotional support for members; this type of leadership is most appropriate when the group is dealing with emotional issues, and harmony, solidarity, and high morale are needed. Both kinds of leadership are needed for groups to work effectively. Three major styles of leadership exist in groups: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. Authoritarian leaders make all major group decisions and assign tasks to members. These leaders focus on the instrumental tasks of the group and demand compliance from others. In times of crisis, such as war or natural disaster, authoritarian leaders may be commended for their decisive actions. In other situations, however, they may be criticized for being dictatorial and for fostering intergroup hostility. By contrast, democratic leaders encourage group discussion and decision making through consensus building. These leaders may be praised for their expressive, supportive behavior toward group members, but they may also be blamed for being indecisive in times of crisis. Laissez-faire leaders are only minimally involved in decision making and encourage group members to make their own decisions. On the one hand, laissez-faire leaders may be viewed positively by group members because they do not flaunt their power or position. On the other hand, a group that needs active leadership is not likely to find it with this type of leadership, which does not work vigorously to promote group goals. 7. Describe the research of Solomon Asch and explain its contributions to our understanding of group conformity. Answer: Groups have a significant amount of influence on our values, attitudes, and behavior. In order to gain and then retain our membership in groups, most of us are willing to exhibit a high level of conformity to the wishes of other group members. Conformity is the process of maintaining or changing behavior to comply with the norms established by a society, subculture, or other group. Pressure to conform is especially strong in small groups in which members want to fit in with the group. In a series of experiments conducted by Solomon Asch, the pressure toward group conformity was so great that participants were willing to contradict their own best judgment if the rest of the group disagreed with them. When Asch averaged the responses of all fifty actual subjects who participated in the study, he found that about 33 percent routinely chose to conform to the group by giving the same (incorrect) responses to Asch’s assistants. Another 40 percent gave incorrect responses in about half of the trials. Although 25 percent always gave correct response, even they felt very uneasy. After conducting additional research, Asch concluded that the size of the group and the degree of social cohesion felt by participants were important influences on the extent to which individuals respond to group pressures. One contribution of Asch’s research is the dramatic way in which it calls our attention to the power that groups have to produce a certain type of conformity. Compliance is the extent to which people say or do things so that they may gain the approval of other people. Certainly, Asch demonstrated that people will bow to social pressure in small-group settings. 8. Describe the research of Stanley Milgram and explain its contributions to our understanding of obedience to authority. Answer: Stanley Milgram conducted a series of controversial experiments to find answers about people’s obedience to authority. Obedience is a form of compliance in which people follow direct orders from someone in a position of authority. When the experimenter indicated that the teacher should give the learner increasingly painful shocks, 65 percent of the teachers administered shocks all the way up to the 450 volt level. The study provides evidence that obedience to authority may be more common than most of us would like to believe. None of the teachers challenged the process before they had applied 300 volts. Almost two-thirds went all the way to what could have been a deadly jolt of electricity if the shock generator had been real. For many years, Milgram’s findings were found to be consistent in a number of different settings and with variations in the research design. This research raised questions concerning research ethics. Milgram’s subjects were deceived about the nature of the study in which they were asked to participate. It would be virtually impossible today to obtain permission to replicate this experiment in a university setting. 9. Explain what is meant by the concept of groupthink and elaborate on reasons why it can be dangerous for organizations. Answer: Social psychologist Irving Janis examined group decision making among political experts and found that major blunders in U.S. history may be attributed to pressure toward group conformity. He coined the term groupthink—the pressure by which members of a cohesive group arrive at a decision that many individual members privately believe is unwise. Members usually want to be “team players.” They may not want to be the ones who undermine the group’s consensus or who challenge the group’s leaders. Consequently, members often limit or withhold their opinions and focus on consensus rather than on exploring all of the options and determining the best course of action. The tragic 2003 explosion of the space shuttle Columbia while preparing to land—has been cited as an example of groupthink. 10. Compare normative, coercive, and utilitarian organizations and describe the nature of membership in each. Answer: A formal organization is a highly structured secondary group formed for the purpose of achieving specific goals in the most efficient manner. Sociologist Amitai Etzioni classified formal organizations into three categories: normative, coercive, and utilitarian—based on the nature of membership in each. We voluntarily join normative organizations when we want to pursue some common interest or gain personal satisfaction or prestige from being a member. Political parties, ecological activist groups, religious organizations, parent-teacher associations, and college sororities and fraternities are examples of normative organizations. Class, gender, and race are important determinants of a person’s participation in a normative organization. Class (socioeconomic status based on a person’s education, occupation, and income) is the most significant predictor of whether a person will participate in mainstream normative organizations. One of the central characteristics of normative organizations is that membership is voluntary. People do not voluntarily become members of coercive organizations—associations that people are forced to join. Total institutions, such as boot camps, prisons, and some mental hospitals, are examples of coercive organizations. The assumed goal of total institutions is to resocialize people through incarceration. We voluntarily join utilitarian organizations when they can provide us with a material reward we seek. To make a living or earn a college degree, we must participate in organizations that can provide us these opportunities. Although we have some choice regarding where we work or attend school, utilitarian organizations are not always completely voluntary. For example, most people must continue to work even if the conditions of their employment are less than ideal. 11. Summarize Max Weber’s perspective on rationality and outline his ideal characteristics of bureaucracy. Answer: According to sociologist Max Weber, rationality is the process by which traditional methods of social organization, characterized by informality and spontaneity, are gradually replaced by efficiently administered formal rules and procedures. In his study of bureaucracies, he relied on an ideal type analysis—which is an abstract model that describes the recurring characteristics of some phenomenon. To develop this ideal type, Weber abstracted the most characteristic bureaucratic aspects of religion, educational, political, and business organizations. Weber’s model highlights the organizational efficiency and productivity that bureaucracies strive for. Weber’s model included the following characteristics: (1) division of labor – bureaucratic organizations are characterized by specialization, and each member has a specific status with certain assigned tasks to fulfil. (2) hierarchy of authority—which inevitably influences social interaction. Those who are lower in the hierarchy report to and often take orders from those above them in the organizational pyramid. Persons at the upper levels are responsible not only for their own actions but also for those of the individuals they supervise. (3) rules and regulations—which establish authority within an organization. These rules are typically standardized and provided to members in a written format. (4) qualification-based employment – bureaucracies hire staff members and professional employees based on specific qualifications. Individual performance is evaluated against specific standards, and promotions are based on merit as spelled out in personnel policies. (5) impersonality—a detached approach should prevail toward clients so that personal feelings do not interfere with organizational decisions. 12. Describe the informal structure in bureaucracies and list its positive and negative aspects. Answer: An organization’s informal structure is composed of those aspects of participants’ day-to-day activities and interactions that ignore, bypass, or do not correspond with the official rules and procedures of the bureaucracy. An example is an informal “grapevine” that spreads information (with varying degrees of accuracy) much faster than do official channels of communication, which tend to be slow and unresponsive. The informal structure has also been referred to as work culture because it includes the ideology and practices of workers on the job. Workers create this work culture in order to confront, resist, or adapt to the constraints of their jobs, as well as to guide and interpret social relations on the job. Two schools of thought have emerged with regard to the positive and negative aspects of informal structure. Traditional management theories are based on the assumption that people are basically lazy and motivated by greed. Consequently, informal groups must be controlled (or eliminated) in order to ensure greater worker productivity. By contrast, the other school of thought asserts that people are capable of cooperation. Thus, organizations should foster informal groups that permit people to work more efficiently toward organizational goals. 13. Discuss the major shortcomings of bureaucracies and their effects on workers, clients or customers, as well as levels of productivity. Answer: Three of the major problems of bureaucracies are (1) inefficiency and rigidity, (2) resistance to change, and (3) perpetuation of race, class, and gender inequalities. Bureaucracies experience inefficiency and rigidity at both the upper and lower levels of the organization. The self-protective behavior of officials at the top may render the organization inefficient. One type of self-protective behavior is the monopolization of information in order to maintain control over subordinates and outsiders. When those at the top tend to use their power and authority to monopolize information, they also fail to communicate with workers at the lower levels. As a result, they are often unaware of potential problems facing the organization and of high levels of worker frustration. Meanwhile, those at the bottom of the structure hide their mistakes from supervisors, a practice that may ultimately result in disaster for the organization. Policies and procedures also contribute to inefficiency and rigidity. Bureaucratic regulations are written in far greater detail than is necessary to ensure that almost all conceivable situations are covered. Goal displacement occurs when the rules become an end in themselves rather than a means to an end, and organizational survival becomes more important than achievement of goals. Workers often engage in ritualism, they become most concerned with “going through the motions” and “following the rules.” Sociologist Robert Merton used the term bureaucratic personality to describe those workers who are most concerned with following correct procedures than they are with getting the job done correctly. Thorstein Veblen used the term trained incapacity to characterize situations in which workers have become so highly specialized or have been given such fragmented jobs to, that they are unable to come up with creative solutions to problems. Once bureaucratic organizations are created, they tend to resist change. Resistance to change contributes to bureaucratic enlargement. Officials tend to press for larger budgets and more staff and office space. To justify growth, administrators and managers must come up with more tasks for workers to perform. Resistance to change may also lead to incompetence. Bureaucracies tend to promote people from within the organization. Eventually, people reach a level that is beyond their knowledge, experience, and capabilities. 14. Describe the iron law of oligarchy and explain why bureaucratic hierarchies and oligarchies go hand in hand. Answer: According to political sociologist Robert Michels, all organizations encounter the iron law of oligarchy—the tendency to become a bureaucracy ruled by the few. His central idea was that those who control bureaucracies not only wield power but also have an interest in retaining their power. According to Michels, the hierarchical structures of bureaucracies and oligarchies go hand in hand. On the one hand, power may be concentrated in the hands of a few people because rank-and-file members must inevitably delegate a certain amount of decision-making authority to their leaders. Leaders then have access to information that other members do not have. They also have “clout,” which they may use to protect their own interests, sometimes at the expense of the interests of others. On the other hand, oligarchy may result when individuals have certain outstanding qualities that make it possible for them to manage, if not control, others. The members choose to look to their leaders for direction; the leaders are strongly motivated to maintain their power and privileges. 15. Compare U.S. and Japanese models of organization Answer: Until recently, many large Japanese corporations guaranteed their workers permanent employment after an initial probationary period. Thus, Japanese employees often remained with the same company for their entire career whereas their American counterparts often changed employers every few years. Likewise, Japanese employers in the past had an obligation not to “downsize” by laying off workers or cutting their wages. Unlike top managers in the United States who give themselves pay raises and bonuses, even when their companies were financially strapped and laying off workers. Japanese managers took pay cuts. When financial problems occurred, Japanese workers were frequently reassigned or retrained by their company. According to advocate, the Japanese system encourages worker loyalty and a high level of productivity. Managers move through various parts of the organization and acquire technical knowledge about the workings of many aspects of the corporation, unlike their U.S. counterparts, who tend to become highly specialized. Clearly, permanent employment has its advantages for workers. They do not have to worry about losing their jobs or having their wages cut. Employers benefit by not having to compete with one another to keep workers. Quality circles have been praised for creating worker satisfaction, helping employees develop their potential, and improving productivity. Although many Japanese corporations have used quality circles on achieve better productivity, many U.S.-based corporations have implemented automation in hopes of controlling the quality of their products. ESSAY SECTION 1. In relation to types of groups, describe sociologist Charles Horton Cooley’s theory on primary and secondary groups. Answer: Charles Horton Cooley’s Theory on Primary and Secondary Groups: Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley introduced the concepts of primary and secondary groups in his work on social structures and human interaction. According to Cooley, primary groups are small, close-knit, and typically involve intimate, face-to-face interaction. These groups are characterized by deep, emotional, and long-term bonds, where members care about each other’s well-being and support each other. Examples of primary groups include family and close friends. The relationships in primary groups are crucial for socialization and the development of personal identity and social norms. In contrast, secondary groups are larger, more impersonal, and goal-oriented. Interactions within secondary groups are often formal and based on specific roles and activities rather than personal relationships. These groups are typically organized to achieve specific objectives, such as a workplace, a school, or a political organization. Members of secondary groups may not have strong emotional ties to each other and their interactions are more superficial compared to those in primary groups. 2. In relation to types of groups, describe sociologist William Graham Sumner’s theory on ingroups and outgroups. Answer: William Graham Sumner’s Theory on Ingroups and Outgroups Sociologist William Graham Sumner is known for his work on ingroups and outgroups. According to Sumner, ingroups are social groups to which an individual feels they belong and with which they identify strongly. These groups provide members with a sense of identity, belonging, and loyalty. Members of an ingroup often see themselves as distinct from and superior to members of outgroups. Outgroups, on the other hand, are social groups with which an individual does not identify and may even feel opposition or competition. Sumner argued that the distinction between ingroups and outgroups is fundamental to social cohesion and conflict. The existence of outgroups can reinforce solidarity and loyalty within an ingroup, but it can also lead to prejudice, discrimination, and conflict between different social groups. 3. Discuss ingroups, outgroups, and “members only” clubs Answer: Ingroups, Outgroups, and “Members Only” Clubs The concepts of ingroups and outgroups are particularly relevant when discussing “members only” clubs. Such clubs are exclusive social groups that restrict membership to individuals who meet certain criteria, often based on social status, interests, or shared characteristics. Members of these clubs form an ingroup, sharing a sense of belonging and identity that is distinct from non-members, who constitute the outgroup. “Members only” clubs can reinforce social boundaries and contribute to social stratification by maintaining exclusivity and differentiating between those who are included and those who are excluded. This dynamic can foster a strong sense of loyalty and solidarity among members, but it can also perpetuate social divisions and inequalities. The existence of exclusive clubs often highlights the ways in which social groups create and maintain boundaries, reinforcing the ingroup/outgroup distinction described by Sumner. 4. Regarding group characteristics and dynamics, discuss sociologist Georg Simmel’s theory on group size. Answer: Georg Simmel’s Theory on Group Size Sociologist Georg Simmel’s theory on group size explores how the size of a group influences its characteristics and dynamics. Simmel argued that small groups, such as dyads (two-member groups) and triads (three-member groups), have unique social dynamics compared to larger groups. In a dyad, the relationship is highly intimate and direct, as each member has a strong influence on the other. The group’s existence depends entirely on the involvement and cooperation of both members, making it very fragile. The dynamics in a dyad are intense and personal, with a high level of mutual dependence. In a triad, the addition of a third member changes the group dynamics significantly. The group becomes more stable because the interactions and relationships can be more complex and less dependent on any single member. Triads can introduce the possibility of alliances, coalitions, and mediating roles, which are not possible in dyads. This added complexity can also lead to power dynamics and hierarchies within the group. As groups grow larger, they tend to become more formal and structured. Larger groups require more organization and often develop distinct roles and norms to manage interactions and achieve group goals. The intensity of relationships tends to decrease as the group size increases, leading to more impersonal and less emotionally intense interactions. Simmel’s analysis highlights the importance of group size in shaping social interaction and group dynamics. 5. Discuss group leadership including functions and styles. Answer: Group leadership is essential for guiding, directing, and motivating group members to achieve their goals. Leadership functions include setting goals, making decisions, providing direction, and resolving conflicts. Effective leaders can inspire and influence others, foster cooperation, and create a vision for the group. Leadership styles vary, and the main styles include: 1. Authoritarian Leadership: Leaders make decisions independently and expect obedience from group members. This style can be efficient in crisis situations but may lead to low morale and lack of creativity among members. 2. Democratic Leadership: Leaders encourage group participation in decision-making processes. This style fosters collaboration, creativity, and higher member satisfaction but can be time-consuming. 3. Laissez-Faire Leadership: Leaders take a hands-off approach, allowing members to make their own decisions. This style can lead to high creativity and independence but may result in a lack of direction and coordination. 4. Transformational Leadership: Leaders inspire and motivate members by creating a vision and encouraging personal development. This style can lead to high levels of performance and satisfaction. 6. In relation to group conformity, summarize Solomon Asch’s research. Answer: Solomon Asch’s research on group conformity demonstrated the power of social pressure on individual behavior. In his famous experiments, participants were asked to match line lengths in the presence of confederates who intentionally gave wrong answers. Asch found that a significant number of participants conformed to the incorrect majority, even when the correct answer was obvious. This research highlighted the influence of group pressure on conformity and the tendency of individuals to align their behavior and opinions with those of the group, even against their own judgment. 7. In relation to obedience to authority, summarize Stanley Milgram’s research. Answer: Stanley Milgram’s research on obedience to authority explored the extent to which individuals would follow orders from an authority figure, even if those orders involved harming another person. In his experiments, participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a learner (a confederate) whenever they made a mistake on a task. Despite the apparent distress of the learner, many participants continued to administer shocks up to dangerous levels when encouraged by the authority figure. Milgram’s findings revealed that people are surprisingly willing to obey authority figures, even when it conflicts with their moral beliefs. 8. Discuss social psychologist Irving Janis’ groupthink theory. Answer: Irving Janis’ groupthink theory describes a phenomenon where the desire for group cohesion and unanimity leads to poor decision-making. Groupthink occurs when group members prioritize consensus over critical analysis, leading to irrational or dysfunctional outcomes. Symptoms of groupthink include the illusion of invulnerability, collective rationalization, suppression of dissenting opinions, and an unquestioned belief in the group’s morality. Groupthink can result in defective decisions and failures, as seen in historical events such as the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Challenger Space Shuttle disaster. To avoid groupthink, groups should encourage open dialogue, seek outside opinions, and have leaders who welcome and consider dissenting views. 9. Summarize sociologist Amitai Etzioni’s theory on the types of formal organizations. Answer: Amitai Etzioni’s theory categorizes formal organizations based on their means of controlling members and achieving goals. He identified three types of formal organizations: 1. Utilitarian Organizations: These organizations, such as businesses, use incentives and rewards to motivate members. Membership is typically based on voluntary association and the pursuit of personal gain. 2. Normative Organizations: These organizations, such as religious groups and non-profits, rely on shared values and norms to guide behavior. Members join voluntarily and are motivated by moral or ethical commitments. 3. Coercive Organizations: These organizations, such as prisons and mental institutions, use force and compulsion to control members. Membership is typically involuntary, and compliance is enforced through strict rules and regulations. 10. Summarize sociologist Max Weber’s ideal characteristics of bureaucracy. Answer: Max Weber’s ideal characteristics of bureaucracy describe a rational and efficient form of organization based on legal-rational authority. The key characteristics include: 1. Hierarchy of Authority: A clear chain of command with each level subordinate to the one above. 2. Division of Labor: Specialized roles and tasks assigned to individuals based on expertise and competence. 3. Formal Rules and Regulations: Standardized procedures and guidelines that govern operations and ensure consistency. 4. Impersonality: Decision-making and interactions based on objective criteria rather than personal preferences or relationships. 5. Merit-Based Advancement: Recruitment and promotion based on qualifications, performance, and competence, ensuring that the most capable individuals occupy positions of authority. These characteristics aim to create an efficient and predictable organizational structure, though Weber also acknowledged the potential for rigidity and dehumanization in bureaucratic systems. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154