CH-5-6 Selection – Management of Human Resources: The Essentials : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 5 to 6 CHAPTER 5 SELECTION LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. DEFINE selection and DISCUSS its strategic importance. 2. DEFINE reliability and validity and EXPLAIN their importance in selection techniques. 3. DESCRIBE at least four types of testing used in selection, and ANALYZE the conflicting legal concerns related to alcohol and drug testing. 4. DESCRIBE the major types of selection interview by degree of structure, type of content, and manner of administration. 5. EXPLAIN the importance of reference checking, DESCRIBE strategies to make such checking effective, and ANALYZE the legal issues involved. REQUIRED PROFESSIONAL CAPABILITIES  Analyzes position and competency requirements to establish selection criteria  Supports managers in the selection of candidates  Establishes screening and assessment procedures  Evaluates the effectiveness of selection processes, tools, and outcomes  Determines the appropriate selection tools and develops new tools as required  Administers a variety of selection tools, including tests, interviews, reference checks, and so on  Establishes appointment procedures for candidates selected through the recruitment process, ensuring that conditions of employment are documented and consistent with established policies  Supports managers in the negotiation of terms and conditions of employment CHAPTER SUMMARY Selection is the process of choosing among individuals who have been recruited to fill existing or projected job openings, and has considerable strategic importance. Reliable (consistent) and valid (accurate) selection methods are critically important to effective and legally defensible selection of the best candidate. HR professionals need to provide hiring managers with guidance in regards to choosing among the many different types of selection tests and the various ways to conduct selection interviews. Reference checking is an important source of information, which if ignored can lead to negligent or wrongful-hiring lawsuits. However, feat of civil litigation has led some Canadian companies to adopt a policy of “not references” or only to confirm former position and dates of employment. LECTURE OUTLINE I. THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEE SELECTION Selection is the process of choosing among individuals with the relevant qualifications to fill existing or projected job openings. The purpose of selection is to find the “best” candidate for the job – an individual who possesses the required KSAs and personality, who will perform well, embrace the corporate mission and values, and fit the organizational culture. Hiring the wrong people means strategic objectives cannot be met due to underperformance, and additional cost (time and money) has to be spent in starting over with recruitment and selection for that vacancy. Ineffective selection can also mean increased legal liability in regards to failure to protect human rights, liability for negligent hiring and wrongful dismissal. Suggested guidelines for avoiding these negative legal consequences (see p. 118) are: 1. Ensuring all selection criteria and strategies are based on the job description and specification. 2. Do not Ask questions that, directly or indirectly, violate human rights legislation. 3. Obtaining written authorization for reference checking from prospective employees, and check references carefully. 4. Save all records and information obtained about the applicant during each stage of the selection process. 5. Rejecting applicants who make false statements on their application forms or résumés. 6. Treat all applicants in the same manner regardless of personal factors 1. Supply Challenges Although it is desirable to have a larger, rather than smaller pool of recruits there may be labour shortages for some positions and labour surpluses for others. Selection ratio = # of applicants hired/total # of applicants Teaching Tip: have students discuss the pros and cons of having too many and too few qualified recruits. Discuss the problem of not being able to know who saw your posting/advertisement but did not apply, for whatever reason. 2. The Selection Process Most firms use a sequential selection system involving a series of successive steps – multiple hurdle strategy. Candidate only move forward in the process if they meet each hurdle in turn. Teaching Tip: An alternate less common strategy is the compensatory strategy where selection decisions are not made until a number of pieces of information have been collected about each candidate. This way a higher score on a later assessment can compensate for a lower score on an early assessment. Have students discuss the pros and cons in regards to GPA being used as an early hurdle. The selection process involves drawing on multiple sources of information acquired through a range of selection instruments/tools/devices; processes vary across organizations. Six common steps are shown in Fig. 5.1 on p. 116; at each step carefully selected selection criteria should be used. Designing an effective selection process involves: • Deciding who will be involved in the selection process and developing selection criteria • Specifying must criteria and want criteria, and weighting the wants • Determining assessments and developing an evaluation form • Developing interview questions for each KSA (e.g. job-knowledge, worker requirements) • Developing candidate-specific questions based on application form/résumé Teaching Tip: Discuss the possibility that must and want criteria will vary by members of the selection committee; what a must is for someone may only be a want for someone else. Also discuss the challenges of weighting education and experience (e.g. 2 years versus 5 years of experience). Teaching Tip: Discuss the ordering of interviews, tests, and background investigations/reference checks. Identify situations in which the order shows in Fig. .5.1 (p. 116) might be different. 3. Acquiring Employees and the Law The entire recruitment and selection procedures must comply with human rights legislation. All information collected from time an ad is posted to selection decision must be free from questions that would directly or indirectly classify candidates on the basis of any of the prohibited grounds under human rights legislation or an unsuccessful candidate may challenge the legality of the process. There are four guidelines for managing a legally defensible process: • Do not ask questions that would violate human rights indirectly or directly (see Appendix 5.1, p.141 – 143) • Treat all candidates in exactly the same manner, offering accommodation where warranted (see Workforce Diversity box, p. 119) • Do not cut interviews short based on pre-conceived views • Use the phrase “this job requires…” to stay focused on the job description and specifications Teaching Tip: This is a great point at which to have students in pairs or groups discuss past experiences (self or relatives/friends) that they believe were legally questionable. STEP 1: PRELIMINARY APPLICANT SCREENING First contact is often through the Web. Initial applicant screening is generally performed by members of the HR department. Application forms and résumés are reviewed. Those candidates not meeting the "must have" selection criteria are eliminated first. Then the remaining applications are examined, and those candidates who most closely match the remaining job specifications are identified and given further consideration. Teaching Tip: Bring in or have students research the use of HRIS to automate pre-screening and discuss how students can improve the chances of their application making it through the first cut. You may want to have student go to the campus career centre website for relevant tips and available workshops. STEP 2: SELECTION TESTING Approximately 2/3 of Canadian organizations report using selection tests; tests are efficient, standardized procedures for screening large numbers of applicants. Organizations can purchase pre-made tests or develop their own in-house tests, however, all tests and other selection techniques are only useful if they can be shown to be reliable and valid. Information on reliability and validity is available for reputable tests. 1. The Importance of Reliability and Validity a. Reliability captures the degree to which interviews, tests, and other selection procedures yield comparable data over time; in other words, the degree of dependability, consistency, or stability of the measures used. Diminished when applicant is tired/unwell, test setting is noisy or uncomfortable, or questions are just answered randomly b. Validity, in the context of selection, captures the accuracy with which a predictor measures what it is intended to measure. There are three distinct types of validity: criterion related; content; and construct validity. i. Criterion-Related validity is the extent to which a selection tool predicts or significantly correlates with important elements of work behaviour ii. Content validity is the extent to which a selection instrument adequately samples the knowledge and skills needed to perform the job iii. Construct validity – The extent to which a selection tool measures a theoretical construct or trait deemed necessary to perform the job successfully (e.g. intelligence, or leadership) Teaching Tip: Students often have difficulty with the concepts of validity and reliability. It is often easy to understand when looking at a tangible example, for example, a rule is a valid tool for measuring the depth of my coffee cup but is quite inappropriate for measuring temperature. The concepts are more difficult when students consider measures that they view as more abstract such as behaviour in a job interview or whether a particular test is valid for a particular position Experts also recommend that separate validation studies be administered for different subgroups, such as visible minorities and women. If differential validity is not assessed, it is possible for a test or other procedure to be a valid predictor of job success for one group (such as white male applicants) but not for all candidates, thereby leading to systemic discrimination. This is true particularly for personality, intelligence testing or other psychological measures. Teaching Tip: Discuss why test results would be different for different groups (not different individuals) to uncover issues associated with experience-based content and second language literacy and fluency. For instance, many tests assume domestic education (e.g. historical facts) and are timed for a native speaking audience. 2. Tests of Cognitive Abilities Cognitive (mental) abilities capture various aspects of the power of the brain (e.g. intelligence, emotional intelligence, memory, and inductive reasoning). a. Intelligence tests (IQ) tests (e.g. Wonderlic, Stanford-Binet, Wechsler) are tests of general intellectual abilities. They measure not a single "intelligence" trait, but rather a number of abilities including memory, vocabulary, verbal fluency, and numerical ability. Easy to administer via pen & paper or online and Wonderlic can be used with groups. b. Emotional intelligence (EI) tests (e.g. EQ-I), EQ Map, MSCEIT), and EIQ) provide a score referred to as the emotional quotient (EQ) which measures a person’s ability to monitor his or her own emotions and the emotions of others and to use that knowledge to guide thoughts and actions. Someone with a high emotional quotient (EQ) is self aware, can control his or her impulses, motivates him or herself, and demonstrates empathy and social awareness; however, EI tests have limited and controversial empirical evidence to support validity claims. c. Specific cognitive abilities tests, often called aptitude tests (e.g. GATB), include tests of thinking skills such as inductive and deductive reasoning, verbal comprehension, memory and numerical ability (see example in Fig. 5.2, p. 122). Aptitude measures an individual’s potential to perform a job, provided s/he is given proper training. 3. Tests of Motor and Physical Abilities (e.g. Stromberg Dexterity Test, Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test, Purdue Pegboard, and the Crawford Small Parts Dexterity Test (see Fig. 5.3, p. 123)) assess abilities such as finger dexterity, manual dexterity, speed for arm movement, and reaction time. Functional ability evaluations (FAE) measure abilities related to lifting, pulling, pushing, sitting, squatting, climbing, and carrying Avoid problems by making sure all motor and physical ability tests are based on job duties identified through an up to date job analysis. Teaching Tip: Have students identify the motor and physical abilities necessary for a past or current job, and whether this requirement could be reasonably accommodated without undue hardship for someone who was disabled in this regard. 4. Measuring Personality and Interests focuses on motivational forces that would explain why one candidate would be more suited to a job than another. Personality tests (e.g. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, MMPI, and Big Five) measure basic aspects of an applicant's personality, such as introversion, stability, motivation, neurotic tendency, self-confidence, self-sufficiency, and sociability). The Big Five measures extraversion, emotional stability (neuroticism), agreeableness, openness to experience and conscientiousness, with conscientiousness being the number one predictor of job performance across all performance criteria for every occupation. Openness and extroversion predict training proficiency and extraversion predicts performance for managers and sales employees. Applicants do try to fake personality tests when they are motivated to do so but individual differences exist in the ability to fake. Thematic apperception tests present an ambiguous stimulus (see Fig. 7.5, p. 186) and ask for applicant’s interpretation which supposedly projects existing established attitudes. Interest inventories (e.g. Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory) compare a candidate’s interests with those of people already in various occupations, as a good fit means new employees are more likely to be successful. Teaching Tip: Use a show of hands to find out how many students have taken a personality test of some kind (M-B, Big Five or something in a magazine). Assign students to take an interest inventory offered online by the campus career centre, before class and discuss the results. 5. Achievement Tests are widely used in selection to measure what an individual has learned to date through education and/or experience; achievement tests capture both knowledge (know about) and proficiency/skill (know how). 6. Work Sampling is among the best predictors of job performance, because it is based on having the applicant perform actual key tasks. Work samples are validated by comparing applicant scores to later job performance scores to establish nature of relationship and cutoff-scores (i.e. once a baseline has been established, there is no need to validate every time). Teaching Tip: Have students describe a valid work sample for a particular type of job. 7. Management Assessment Centres are not a place, but are comprehensive, systematic procedures used to assess the management potential of groups of candidates (often 10 – 12). This is done using a combination of realistic exercises and management games (e.g. in basket exercise, leaderless group discussion, problem-solving/simulations) in combination with objective testing, presentations and interviews 8. Situational Testing presents candidates with hypothetical situations representative of the job for which they are applying and are evaluated on their responses. Situational tests are one way of providing a realistic job preview and tend to be an integral part of management assessment centres. They have high validity for predicting overall job performance as well as core technical proficiency, job dedication and interpersonal facilitation. They provide valid predictive information over and above cognitive ability tests, personality tests, and job experience. 9. Micro-Assessments are a series of verbal, paper-based, or computer-based questions and exercises that a candidate is required to complete covering the range of activities required on the job for which s/he is applying (entirely performance-based). 10. Physical Examination, Substance Abuse Testing, and Polygraph Tests The use of medical examinations has decreased, due to decline in manufacturing but also legal concerns. They are only permitted after a written offer of employment has been extended (except in the case of bona fide occupational requirements). Three main reasons why firms may include a medical examination as a step in the selection process: (1) to determine that the applicant qualifies for the physical requirements of the position and, if not, to document any accommodation requirements; (2) to establish a record and baseline of the applicant’s health for the purpose of future insurance or compensation claims; and (3) to reduce absenteeism and accidents by enabling the applicant and physician to identify any health- or safety-related issues or concerns that need to be addressed. Substance Abuse In Canada employers are not permitted to screen candidates for substance abuse, because addiction to drugs or alcohol is considered to be a disability, and an applicant cannot be discriminated against during selection based on a disability. Preemployment alcohol and drug testing is only permitted after a written job offer has been extended and a bona fide case has been established, although this is rare even in safety intensive industries. Teaching Tip: Discuss recent news stories that the Canadian oil and gas industry are regularly testing for substance abuse despite being on shaky legal ground, particularly as recent court rulings have further restricted the practice in the oil patch. Compare the perspective on drug testing by American organizations (pervasive) versus the limited perspective of Canadian organizations. Discuss the issue of use versus abuse and whether selection tests can make the distinction (without condoning use of illegal substances). Another issue is whether tests measure past use versus present impairment. A further potential topic is performance enhancing versus performance-impairing substances. STEP 3: THE SELECTION INTERVIEW Both interviewers and applicants have objectives that they try to fulfil through a selection interview. Interviewer objectives include: assessing applicants' qualifications; observing relevant aspects of applicants' behaviour, such as verbal communication skills, degree of self confidence, and interpersonal skills; gathering information about applicants that helps to predict future performance (how long they are likely to remain in the organization); providing candidates with information about the job; promoting the organization and highlighting its attractiveness; and determining how well the applicants would fit into the organization. Typical objectives of job applicants include: presenting a positive image of themselves; selling their skills and marketing their positive attributes; and gathering information about the job and the organization so that they can make an informed decision. 1. Types of Interviews (structure, content, administration) a. Structure - unstructured, structured (high validity and reliability, but low flexibility), mixed (semi-structured); gender differences affected by interview structure b. Content – situational interview (questions about future behaviour) and/or behavioural description interview (BDI) (questions about past behaviour) c. Administering the interview – one-on-one, panel interview or mass interview; sequentially or all at once; face-to-face or technology-aided (phone, videoconferencing, including Skype) Teaching Tip: Do a survey to find out what types of interviews students have had and their perceptions of the various types. Discuss comfort level with phone and Skype interviews. 2. Common Interviewing Mistakes Research shows that interviewers (both HR staff and hiring managers) make one or more common mistakes that reduce the validity and reliability of selection interviews. Interviews can be improved by paying attention the following: a. Poor planning – questions not written in advance, no thought to structure or administration b. Snap judgements – decision based on first impressions c. Negative emphasis – more weight given to unfavourable information d. Halo effects – subsequent ratings distorted by first impression on one or more factors e. Poor knowledge of the job – ratings end up being made based on stereotypes f. Contrast (candidate-order) error – distortion due to rating of prior candidate (good or bad) g. Influence of non-verbal behaviour – eye contact, head moving, smiling affect ratings, but non-verbal behaviour is tied to ethnicity cultural background. Attractiveness and gender also affect ratings – old is unattractive h. Leading – guiding candidates directly or indirectly to “right” answer i. Too much/too little talking – 30/70 rule (70% of interview time should be for applicant) j. Similar-to-me bias – distortion due to similarity in demographics, personality, attitudinal characteristics. Suppresses workplace diversity Teaching Tip: Use the Workforce Diversity Discussion Box (see p. 181) to discuss how to plan for assessment accommodation, rather than get caught off guard. Also reinforce that it is up to the candidate to request accommodation, not for the recruiter to assume accommodation is needed or wanted. Teaching Tip: This is a great opportunity to have students discuss past experiences but more importantly the steps organizations should take in regards to choosing and training those involved in the selection process, particularly in training interviewers as there is significant potential for perceptual error. 3. Designing an Effective Interview Combine formats to gain advantages of each and offset disadvantages of each. Recommended approach is semi-structured with focus on job-related situational and behavioural questions. 4. Conducting an Effective Interview a. Planning the interview – who will be involved, where will interview be held, how will questions be asked and by whom b. Establishing rapport – friendly greeting, put at ease but avoid human rights related topics e.g. what’s the origin of that name? c. Asking questions – write out in advance, listen carefully, encourage expression, record answers; taking notes improves validity – reduces likelihood of forgetting or reconstructing to confirm biases/stereotypes; reduces snap judgements and helps prevent halo error, negative emphasis, and candidate-order errors; ensures consistent treatment of all applicants (see Fig. 5.5, p. 133) for suggested supplementary questions) d. Closing the interview – allow time for candidates’ own questions, advocate/promote firm and position, inform candidate about next steps and timelines Teaching Tip: Ask students by a show of hands whether they had sufficient opportunity to ask questions and whether they received information on the decision-making process. Also, reinforce the importance of having questions to ask when you go to a job interview, especially questions that show that you already know something about the organization. e. Evaluating the candidate – independently rate candidate immediately following interview, based on review of notes or observation form; do not share ratings until all selection information for that stage has been obtained. STEP 4: BACKGROUND INVESTIGATION/REFERENCE CHECKING Background investigation (education, work history, criminal record, and so on) and reference checking are important to verify accuracy of candidate-provided information (answers, documentation). At least 1/3 of candidates lie about missing or inadequate qualifications, even for senior management and healthcare jobs (see Fig. 5.6, p. 134). Surveys indicate that most (at least 90%) of Canadian organizations conduct background checks typically using a third party reference-checking service or a hired consultant. 1. Information to Be Verified – criminal record, education, five years of employment, 3 performance-related references from past supervisors, credit check for financially sensitive positions 2. Obtaining Written Permission – must be obtained in advance from applicant, usually through a permission section on the application form; some employers will ask for written authorization before providing reference. Note that there is an increasing use of social media sources which may increase possibility of bringing non-job related information into consideration (see Fig. 5.7, p. 136) and obtaining information that is related to a prohibited ground or discrimination (e.g. age, marital or family status) 3. Providing References – qualified privilege protects the reference giver if they provide information that is negative as long as it is honest, fair, candid and given in confidence for a public purpose (not gossip). Overly positively references are considered negligent misrepresentation. “no reference” policy adopted by a number of organizations means confirmation only of position(s) held and dates of employment. Teaching Tip: There are a number of good examples in the textbook (p. 134) but there are also news stories that appear almost on a daily basis about forged qualifications and/or failure to adequately verify background information and references. You can assign research by province/territory or have students do some international research to find examples from other countries, as this tends to be a global phenomenon. STEP 5: SUPERVISORY INTERVIEW AND REALISTIC JOB PREVIEW Supervisory interviews are usually conducted after pre-screening; immediate supervisor interviews short-list of candidates. This is because the supervisor knows technical aspects of job, can provide a more realistic job preview, has to work closely and must feel comfortable with person, knows the current group into which the new person must fit. Involvement by supervisor tends to increase commitment and responsibility to new hire (provision of advice and guidance) increasing chances of successful transition. Teaching Tip: Discuss how supervisor discomfort with “different” or less familiar types of candidates (women, visible minorities, Aboriginal persons, disabled) could highjack an otherwise objective process and what you as HR person would do if you thought this was happening. STEP 6: HIRING DECISION AND CANDIDATE NOTIFICATION To make the hiring decision, information from the multiple selection techniques and sources must be combined; the applicant who is the best fit with the selection criteria must be identified. HR department can help integrate information and present in easy to view manner; immediate supervisors usually responsible for final decision. Review of data is often subjective which can reduce validity and reliability unless tests are objectively scored and candidate-rating sheets are developed based on weighted want criteria. An alternate approach which tends to maintain higher validity and reliability is to use a mathematically-driven statistical strategy (identification of valid and weighting of scores through statistical methods, such as multiple regression). Teaching Tip: Use the Ethical Dilemmas (p. 116 and p. 137) to discuss the role of nepotism in the final hiring decision and how much feedback should be given to unsuccessful candidates. All information collected during recruitment and selection should be kept on file, in the event of a human rights challenge, negligent hiring charge, or union grievance. Initial job offers can be extended to the successful candidate by phone, but must be followed up with a written employment offer that clearly specifies important terms and conditions of employment, such as starting date, starting salary, probation period, and so on. Time to respond should be reasonable and closely qualified candidates can be offered the job if the first choice declines. If there isn’t a good second choice candidate then the organization can choose to leave the position vacant or start a brand new recruitment search. DISCUSSION BOXES WORKFORCE DIVERSITY: Principles for Assessment Accommodation (p. 119) There are four principles that should guide the determination of assessment accommodations for persons with disabilities: provide all applicants with an equal opportunity to fully demonstrate their qualifications; determine assessment accommodation on a case-by-case basis; do not alter the nature or level of the qualification being assessed; and, base assessment accommodations on complete information. Interview etiquette tips for interviewing applicants with a variety of physical disabilities. ETHICAL DILEMMAS As the company recruiter, how would you handle a request from the CEO that you hire her son for a summer job, knowing that, given current hiring constraints, the sons and daughters of other employees will not be able to obtain such positions? (p. 116) Some will argue that when the CEO makes a request, it cannot be ignored. After all, she is the boss! Others, however, will indicate that they feel it would be morally and ethically incorrect to give preferential treatment in the form of a summer job to the son of the CEO, when the sons and daughters of other employees will not have equal opportunity to attain such positions. While a request from the CEO cannot be ignored, perhaps a compromise is possible. After all, presumably her request is based on a desire to see her son working for the summer. Thus, helping her son to obtain employment – at another firm – would meet her needs and yet not compromise my ethics as the firm’s recruiter. As the HR manager, how much feedback should you provide to those individuals not selected for a position? (p. 137) Some will strongly recommend that I should provide those individuals not selected for a position with as little feedback as possible and should rarely, if ever, discuss the underlying reasons for the firm’s decision. There are several sound arguments to support this viewpoint: • It is frequently awkward, if not tactically impossible, to tell the applicant the real reason for his or her rejection. • Trying to provide honest feedback may lead to a time-consuming argument that I, as the individual relaying the message, cannot win. Some experts feel strongly that candidates should never be rejected. Instead, the impression should be conveyed that the applicant was not found wanting, but that the candidate selected simply matches the selection criteria more closely. Others will argue that it is both appropriate and desirable for me to provide honest feedback to those candidates who were not selected, especially if the hiring decision is based on bona fide selection criteria and a series of valid and reliable steps. It can be very helpful to job seekers to receive tactfully worded and honest feedback, especially if it is developmental in nature. For example, listening to such feedback and acting upon it may enable them to correct a problem, such as the need to practice interview skills to present themselves more effectively, or to overcome a skills weakness by acquiring additional experience, training, or education. Such feedback is particularly desirable for internal applicants. Sometimes applicants who were not selected for the position in question may be worthy of consideration for future openings. If so, most will argue that they should be informed of this fact and reassured that their résumé and application form data will be filed appropriately. KEY TERMS achievement tests Tests used to measure knowledge and/or proficiency acquired through education, training, or experience. (p. 125) aptitude tests Tests that measure an individual's aptitude or potential to perform a job provided he or she is given proper training. (p.122) behavioural or behaviour descriptive interview (BDI) A series of job-related questions that focus on relevant past job-related behaviours. (p. 129) construct validity The extent to which a selection tool measures a theoretical construct or trait deemed necessary to perform the job successfully. (p. 121) content validity The extent to which a selection instrument, such as a test, adequately samples the knowledge and skills needed to perform the job. (p. 121) contrast or candidate-order error An error of judgment on the part of the interviewer because of interviewing one or more very good or very bad candidates just before the interview in question. (p. 131) criterion-related validity The extent to which a selection tool predicts or significantly correlates with important elements of work behaviour. (p. 120) differential validity Confirmation that the selection tool accurately predicts the performance of all possible employee subgroups, including white males, women, visible minorities, persons with disabilities, and Aboriginal peoples. (p. 120) emotional intelligence (EI) tests Tests that measure a person’s ability to monitor his or her own emotions and the emotions of others and to use that knowledge to guide thoughts and actions. (p. 122) halo effect A positive initial impression that distorts an interviewer’s rating of a candidate because subsequent information is judged with a positive bias. (p. 131) intelligence (IQ) tests Tests that measure general intellectual abilities, such as verbal comprehension, inductive reasoning, memory, numerical ability, speed of perception, spatial visualization, and word fluency. (p. 121) interest inventories Tests that compare a candidate’s interests with those people in various occupations. (p. 125) management assessment centre A comprehensive, systematic procedure used to assess candidates’ management potential that uses a combination of realistic exercises, management games, objective testing, presentations, and interviews. (p. 125) micro-assessment A series of verbal, paper-based, or computer-based questions and exercises that a candidate is required to complete, covering the range of activities required on the job for which he or she is applying. (p. 127) mixed (semi-structured) interview An interview format that combines the structured and unstructured techniques. (p. 128) multiple-hurdle strategy An approach to selection involving a series of successive steps or hurdles. Only candidates clearing the hurdle are permitted to move on to the next step. (p. 116) must criteria Requirements that are absolutely essential for the job, include a measurable standard of acceptability, or are absolute and can be screened initially on paper. (p. 117) panel interview An interview in which a group of interviewers questions the applicant. (p. 129) personality tests Instruments used to measure basic aspects of personality, such as introversion, stability, motivation, neurotic tendency, self-confidence, self-sufficiency, and sociability. (p.124) realistic job preview (RJP) A strategy used to provide applicants with realistic information – both positive and negative – about the job demands, the organization's expectations, and the work environment. (p. 136) reliability The degree to which interviews, tests, and other selection procedures yield comparable data over time; in other words, the degree of dependability, consistency, or stability of the measures used. (p. 120) selection The process of choosing individuals who have been recruited to fill existing or projected job openings. (p. 115) selection interview A procedure designed to predict future job performance on the basis of applicants' oral responses to oral inquiries. (p. 128) selection ratio The ratio of the number of applicants hired to total number of applicants. (p. 116) situational interview A series of job-related questions that focus on how the candidate would behave in a given situation. (p. 129) situational tests Tests in which candidates are presented with hypothetical situations representative of the job for which they are applying and are evaluated on their responses. (p. 129) statistical strategy A more objective technique used to determine whom the job should be offered to; involves identifying the most valid predictors and weighting them through statistical methods, such as multiple regression. (p. 137) structured interview An interview following a set sequence of questions. (p. 128) unstructured interview An unstructured, conversational-style interview. The interviewer pursues points of interest as they come up in response to questions. (p. 128) validity The accuracy with which a predictor measures what it is intended to measure. (p. 120) want criteria Those criteria represent qualifications that cannot be screened on paper or are not readily measurable, as well as those that are highly desirable but not critical. (p. 117) PART THREE: DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE HUMAN RESOURCES CHAPTER 6 ORIENTATION AND TRAINING LEARNING OUTCOMES 1. EXPLAIN how to develop an orientation program. 2. DESCRIBE the five-step training process. 3. DISCUSS two techniques used for assessing training needs and DESCRIBE how to evaluate the training effort. 4. EXPLAIN the strategic importance of career planning and development in the context of today’s talent shortage. 5. ANALYZE the factors that affect career choices. 6. EXPLAIN the evolution of career development and the impact of that on employers and employees. REQUIRED PROFESSIONAL CAPABILITIES  Develops orientation policies and procedures for new employees  Ensures compliance with legislated training obligations  Conducts training needs assessments  Recommends the most appropriate way to meet identified learning needs  Recommends the selection of external training providers  Participates in course design and selection and delivery of learning materials  Ensures arrangements are made for training schedules, facilities, trainers, participants, and equipment and course material  Facilitates post-training support activities to ensure transfer of learning to the workplace  Applies general principles of adult learning to ensure appropriate methods and techniques  Provides assessment tools for career development  Assists employees in identifying career paths, establishing learning plans and activities required for achieving personal and organizational success  Implements deployment procedures ensuring that necessary compensation and benefits changes and education plans are addressed CHAPTER SUMMARY A strategic approach to recruitment and retention of employees includes a well-integrated orientation (onboarding) program that reduces reality shock for new employees by clarifying policies and performance expectations, and socializing them into the prevailing attitudes, standards, values and patterns of behaviour expected by the organization. Training teaches employees the basic skills and competencies to do their job through a five step process: needs analysis (task and performance), instructional design, validation, implementation, and evaluation. Training is delivered both through traditional techniques (e.g. on-the-job- classroom, audiovisual, and so on) as well as through e-learning (e.g. computer-based, online, and electronic performance support systems). The effectiveness of training is evaluated on four dimensions: reaction, learning, behaviour, and results. Special purpose training includes diversity training, customer service training, training for teamwork, and training for first-time supervisors/managers. Career planning and development is a critical strategic issue in ensuring that the supply of necessary talent is available. It is a deliberate process that has evolved from identification of occupational orientation(s) to a new focus on identifying skills, aptitudes, career anchors and life trajectories and becoming a learning organization. Learning organizations use behaviour modelling (role plays, simulations, management games and mentoring). Career development transfers now often require career-transition programs for spouses. Firms have to make a number of policy decisions when it comes to promotions (seniority or competence; measure of competence; formal or informal). Management development improves managerial performance and prepares employees for future jobs. Succession planning to avoid leadership shortages is an essential part of a management development program. LECTURE OUTLINE I. ORIENTING NEW EMPLOYEES A strategic approach to recruitment and retention of employees includes a well-integrated orientation (onboarding) program before and after hiring. Benefits of a comprehensive onboarding program include lower turnover, increased morale, fewer instance of corrective discipline, fewer employee grievances, and can reduce workplace injuries especially for new workers. 1. Purpose of Orientation Programs Orientation (onboarding) delivered in-person and/or online provides new employees with basic background information about the firm and the job. A strong onboarding program, which can begin before the first day of employment, can speed up socialization, which is the process of instilling in all employees the prevailing attitudes, standards, values, and patterns of behaviour that are expected by the organization. It can only reduce reality shock (cognitive dissonance) because it lessens the discrepancy between what the new employee expected from his/her job and its realities. Online onboarding can increase first day productivity by taking care of routine form completion in advance. Teaching Tip: Ask for a show of hands as to who has taken a job that was not as it was promised and ask what they did about the discrepancy. 2. Content of Orientation Programs The content can range from brief, informal introductions to length, formal programs. Typical components include: • Review of internal publications, including employee handbooks, which should clarify that handbooks are not employment contracts • Facility tours and staff introductions • Review of and completion of job-related documents • Expected training (when and why) • Performance appraisal criteria and estimated time to achieve full productivity Teaching Tip: Use the Strategic HR Discussion Box on onboarding in the fast food industry (p. 147) to launch small group discussions about first-days on the job (good and bad) then debrief. There are several humorous videos on YouTube about first day on the job. 3. Responsibility for Orientation Orientation usually starts with the HR specialist (if there is one), followed by a meeting with the supervisor then introductions to new colleagues. A co-worker may be assigned as a “buddy” or “mentor” for a short initial period. HR should follow-up after three months to address adjustment and any remaining questions. 4. Special Orientation Situations a. Diverse workforce – differences in values, variety of reactions from co-workers and tips on handling them b. Mergers and acquisitions – details on merger/acquisition, unresolved operational issues, resocialization c. Union versus non-union employees – copy of collective bargaining agreement, introduction to union steward, payroll deduction for union dues, names of union executives, clarification of unionized jobs versus non-unionized jobs d. Multi-location organizations – where other locations are and business functions, for consistency consider online and virtual onboarding 5. Executive Integration Typically newly hired executives do not participate in formal orientation activities and there is little planning regarding how they will be integrated into their new position and company, especially if they are brought in as change agents. However, executive integration can take up to 18 months. Key aspects of executive integration include: • Identifying position specifications • Providing realistic information to job candidates (pre-hire) and providing support regarding reality shock (post-hire) • Assessing each candidate’s previous record with organizational transitions • Announcing the hiring with enthusiasm • Stressing the importance of listening to the newly hired executive as well as demonstrating competency. Promote talking with their boss. • Assist new executive with changing the organizational culture around work balance 6. Problems with Orientation Programs A number of potential problems can arise with orientation programs. These include: • Too much information in a short time • Little or no orientation • Orientation information is too broad (HR dept.) or too detailed (supervisor) Teaching Tip: This is an alternate or additional time at which to collect feedback from students about their past experiences and to probe further into how this did or did not change their initial impressions of the organization (employee’s brand). 7. Evaluation of Orientation Programs Orientation programs should be evaluated to assess whether they are providing timely, useful information to new employees in a cost-effective manner. Three approaches are: • Capture employee reactions through interviews and/or surveys and track job performance • Assess socialization effects by checking employee understanding of organizational beliefs, values and norms • Conduct a cost-benefit analysis by comparing orientation costs (time and materials) with benefits of orientation (error reduction, productivity, efficiency, and so on) II. THE TRAINING PROCESS Training is the process of teaching employees the basic skills/competencies that they need to perform their jobs, in contrast to development, which is training for future jobs. Business and training goals must be aligned and training must be managed as strategic investment in human capital. Training can help firms to compete and can generate higher levels of employee commitment. However, in recent years firms have reduced investments in training. Teaching Tip: Use articles regarding skills shortages to debate the pros and cons of reduced training investment, especially in light of these skills shortages in Canada. 1. Training and Learning Training is essential a learning process that takes place through one or more of three learning styles: auditory, visual, and kinesthetic. Training effectiveness can be enhanced by identifying learning styles and personalizing the training accordingly. Four best practices are to: a. Make the material meaningful – provide an overview, use visuals and examples, organize logically, and link to familiar terms and concepts b. Enable transfer of new skills and behavior – replicate setting and provide multiple opportunities for practice, training mangers first and employees second, provide rewards for completion AND integration of training back on the job c. Motivate the trainee – provide realistic practice, allow self-pacing, recognition achievement/effort, and use technology to engage learners d. Prepare the trainee – create perceived need for training in minds of participants and provide preparatory information Teaching Tip: Survey the students about whether they have ever received preparation before receiving training. How would this have made a difference, if any to their attitude and behaviour before, during, and after training? 2. Legal Aspects of Training Human rights legislation requires equal opportunity to receive training; discrimination in terms of not providing access to a training program must be based on valid grounds (e.g. literacy). On the other hand, employees who refuse a lawful and reasonable order to attend a training program may be considered to have abandoned their position. Organizations must ensure that training is adequate or could risk being charged with negligent training, if an employee subsequently harms a third party. Teaching Tip: What are the legal issues around requiring employees to participate in training outside of work hours and whether training should be paid or unpaid. 3. The Five-Step Training Process A typical training program consists of five steps (see Fig. 6.3, p. 155) beginning with needs analysis, followed by instructional design, validation with a small representative audience (pilot), implementation, and concluding with evaluation. III. STEP 1: TRAINING NEEDS ANALYSIS Training needs must be analyzed for both new hires and existing employees. Training may not necessarily be the solution if an existing employee has a performance issue. The training needs of new hires are assessed through task analysis, whereas training needs of current employees are assessed through performance analysis. 1. Task Analysis: Assessing the Training Needs of New Employees Task analysis involves a detailed study of a job to identify the skills and competencies it requires so that an appropriate training program can be instituted. If up to date job descriptions and job specifications are readily available these will provide the necessary information, but some employers supplement these with a task analysis record form. a. Task analysis record form provides specific detail on sub-tasks in order to determine required knowledge, competencies, and suitable training environment. Some new hires may already be proficient in some areas. 2. Performance Analysis: Determining the Training Needs of Current Employees Performance analysis means verifying that there is a performance deficiency and determining whether that deficiency should be rectified through training or through some other means (such as transferring the employee). Training can help to solve a “can’t do” problem but not a “won’t do” problem. 3. Training Objectives After identification of training needs, training objectives should be set that are concrete and measurable. Objectives specific what the trainee should be able to do after successfully completing the training program, and provide a focus for both trainer and trainee. IV. STEP 2: INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN Once needs and objectives have been established then the training program can be designed by considering and selecting among traditional and e-learning training techniques. 1. Traditional Training Techniques a. Informal learning – learning from colleagues through unplanned interactions, 2/3 of industrial training takes place this way b. Classroom training – still primary method of corporate training in Canada, quick and simple for knowledge dissemination to large groups, has evolved into blended learning (integrated instructor-led and online e-learning components) c. On-the-job training – “hands-on”, relatively inexpensive, immediate contribution to business, facilitates learning through quick feedback d. Apprenticeship training – learn from “master”, critical for skilled trades e. Job instruction training – listing of each job’s basic tasks along with key points to provide step-by-step training for employees (what, how, why), useful in manufacturing but being superseded by behaviour modelling (Ch. 9) in service industry f. Audiovisual techniques – CDs and DVDs– more expensive, good for showing sequences and special/unusual events, and for training mass or remote audiences; three options – buy existing product, make your own, or work with production company; videoconferencing – using A/V equipment to reach two or more distant groups g. Programmed learning – presents questions/facts/problems, allows learner response, provides feedback on accuracy of answers; can be done through textbook or computer, reduces training time by 1/3, self-paced but less is learned in accelerated mode than from traditional textbook h. Teaching Tip: Note that the interactive web quizzes that come with most textbooks are examples of programmed learning i. Vestibule or simulated training – training employees on special off-the-job equipment (actual or simulator), whereby training costs and hazards can be reduced and regular operations are not disrupted 2. E-learning E-learning is delivery and administration of learning opportunities and support via computer, networked, and web-based technology to enhance employee performance and development; allows for more flexible, personalized, and cost-effective training; can promote life-long learning instead of just episodic learning; requires good instructional design and high trainee motivation; enhanced by human interaction in online environment; mobile training now being offered via smartphones. Three types of e-learning are computer-based, online, and electronic performance support systems (EPSS). a. Computer-based training – multimedia simulations, role plays, CBT more common in Canada than USA; accessible 24/7; facilitates instructional consistency, mastery of learning, flexibility and trainee motivation b. On-line training – providing training via Web costs 50% less than classroom training, flexible, engaging, but requires content management, sound educational strategy, learner support, and system administration. 50% - 90% of online courses are not completed by learners; blended learning better than pure online c. Electronic performance support systems (EPSS) are computer-based job aids, or sets of computerized tools and displays that automate training, documentation, and phone support; faster than traditional manuals, reduces need to memorize multiple specific solutions; maximizes impact of training because material is always available V. STEPS 3 AND 4: VALIDATION AND IMPLEMENTATION Validation means doing a pilot study or “run through” with a small group to assess learning, identify issues, and make revisions before large scale implementation. Implementation can be handled by professional trainers or in-house trainers who attend train-the trainer workshops to get up to speed on new material and/or new methods. VI. STEP 5: EVALUATION OF TRAINING It is important to assess the return on investment in human capital made through training by assessing whether the training achieved pre-set objectives. Effective training if reflected by transfer of training, which is the application of the skills acquired during the raining program into the work environment and the maintenance of these skills over time. Keys to ensuring that training is transferred back to the job are: • assessing trainee ability, aptitude and motivation for upcoming training • trainee involvement in instructional design • management support • frequent feedback and opportunities for practice • positive reinforcement • goal-setting and relapse-prevention techniques Profitable companies spend the most on training and those rated as being among the 100 best companies to work for in Canada spend the most per employee. However, the effectiveness of training has to be evaluated in a disciplined manner, ideally through controlled experimentation (pre-test and post-test, control group) 1. Training Effects to Measure Four basic categories of training outcomes can be measured: a. Reactions –Did the trainee think the training was worthwhile b. Learning – facts, principles, skills c. Behaviour – same, better or worse than before d. Results – organizational metrics (sales, turnover, productivity, quality, and so on) I. CAREER PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT A career is a series of work-related positions, paid or unpaid, that help a person to grow in job skills, success, and fulfillment. Facilitating career planning has become a critical strategic issue for CEOs and board of directors, as well as HR executives. HRM activities play an important role in career planning and development, which is a deliberate process through which a person becomes aware of personal career-related attributes and the lifelong series of activities that contribute to his or her career fulfillment. Career planning can play a significant role in retaining employees in the organization and reducing turnover of valued workers. Teaching Tip: Reinforce the fact that unpaid (volunteer work, unpaid internships) are career builders. Some research evidence shows that unpaid experience that has built job-relevant skills is valued by employers, especially for those who have not had the opportunity for extensive paid work experience. II. THE EVOLUTION OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT In the early stages of career development research, career patterns were assumed to be stable, predictable, linear, and based on hierarchies. Age-based career stages and personality-based occupational orientations were seen as determining factors. Six types of orientations uncovered using Holland’s Vocational Preference Test are: realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic. Most people have more than one orientation; if the orientations are incompatible the person will experience high levels of indecision and internal conflict. Teaching Tip: If your school’s Career Services department subscribes to online interest assessments there may be one that is based on Holland’s six orientations. Have students take it as preparation for class and also to get them connected to Career Services to see all of the available tools and support. 1. New Approaches to Career Development As job transitions became increasingly common in the early twenty-first century, occupational prospects and linear career patterns became less definable and predictable. The new approach sees the person (not the organization) as the primary stakeholder in a dynamic and holistic career development process that includes lifelong learning, flexibility, and adaptability. The new approach begins with identification of skills and aptitudes for various jobs/occupations. a. Identify skills and aptitudes – education-based skills, experience-based skills, general aptitude test battery (GATB) b. Identify career anchors – concerns or values that a person will not give up (Schein): eight anchors, of which one may be dominant: technical/functional, managerial competence, creativity, autonomy/independence, security, service/dedication, pure challenge, and lifestyle Technical/Functional - their career decisions enable them to remain and grow in their chosen technical or functional fields, rather than go into general management. Managerial Competence - show a strong motivation to become managers, convinced by past experience that they have the skills and values required to rise to high responsibility general-management positions requiring analytical, interpersonal, and emotional competence. Creativity – often successful entrepreneurs who have a need to build or create something that is entirely their own. Autonomy and Independence - driven to be on their own, many also have a strong technical/functional orientation. Often become consultants, business professors, freelance e writers, or proprietors of a small retail business. Security - mostly concerned with long-run career stability, will do what it takes. to maintain job security, a decent income, and a stable future (retirement program and benefits). Geographic security, maintaining a stable, secure career in familiar surroundings more important than pursuing superior career choices. Organizational security letting employers decide what their careers should be. Service/dedication - need to do something meaningful in a larger context. Information technology has made global problems, such as the environment, overpopulation, and poverty, highly visible (growing number of people) Pure challenge - define their career in terms of overcoming impossible odds, solving unsolved problems, and winning out over competitors (small number of people). Lifestyle - define their careers as part of a larger lifestyle integrating two careers and two sets of personal and family concerns (growing number of people). Teaching Tip: You can use this as an in-class exercise (individual), then do a show of hands to illustrate that not everyone has the same career anchors. Alternatively you can have them assess someone else to see if they can figure out what that person’s career anchor is (family member, friend). c. Focus on life trajectories – person builds life and career simultaneously, often seeking work-life balance; involved shifts in career development thinking: • From traits and states (internal factors) to context (external factors) • From prescriptive to process – frequent job change, no more single lifelong choice • From linear to non-linear – career plans require more frequent updating • From scientific facts to narrative evaluations – employees self-assess, interpret and make meaning of their own life experiences • From describing to modelling – career forecasting has to model different configurations and monitor interacting variables Teaching Tip: Ask students to differentiate between “job hopping” and having progressive work experiences that contribute to a career. How can you show evidence of the latter on your résumé. 2. Roles in Career Development The individual has primary responsibility for their career Individual’s entrepreneurial goal oriented approach needs four key skills: self-motivation, independent learning, effective time and money management, and self-promotion through networking, an organized process of arranging and conducting face-to-face meetings to mutually share information with colleagues and contacts, plus individuals that they recommend (see Fig. 6.4, Personal Networking Chart, p. 166). Support roles played by manager and employer help to maintain employee commitment. Manager’s role is to provide timely and objective performance feedback, offer developmental assignments and support, and participate in carer development discussions (clarify plans, generate career options, link to resources and options). Employer’s role is to provide career-oriented training and development opportunities, offer career information and career programs, and give employees a variety of career options. Teaching Tip: Assign students to do a personal networking chart as preparation for class by considering who they know and then asking those people who they know, who have experience in a particular occupation or occupation related field. For example, their friend’s father or their neighbour’s daughter may be an accountant or work as an administrative assistant for an accountant. Alternatively, they can use their social network (Facebook) to find out who knows an accountant, or an engineer, or a certain type of healthcare provider. III. MANAGING INTERNAL EMPLOEE MOVEMENT Transfers and promotions are significant career-related decisions that mangers make on an ongoing basis. Making Promotion Decisions Employers must decide on the criteria on which to promote employees while maintaining employees’ motivation, performance, and commitment. Three key decisions to be made include: a. Decision 1: Is seniority or competence the rule? – in union settings seniority is the rule unless there is a substantial difference in abilities b. Decision 2: How is competence measured? – past performance and/or potential; use valid tests and assessment centres for identifying executive potential c. Decision 3: Is the process formal or informal – often informal (secret and based on personal connections), but formal (published policies, criteria, procedures) ensures all qualified employees are considered (Ch. 5 - skill inventories, replacement summaries, replacement charts) and performance-promotion link is strengthened Teaching Tip: Ask students if they know the basis on which people are promoted to higher level positions in their organization (e.g. who gets to be crew chief/team leader). DISCUSSION BOXES STRATEGIC HR: Onboarding: The First Step in Motivation and Retention (p. 147) Research findings from the fast-food industry show how the first days and weeks on the job are critical to employee retention. In particular the onboarding (employee orientation) process plays a significant role in long-term perceptions of management’s leadership abilities and the quality of non-monetary rewards. WORKFORCE DIVERSITY: Career Development for Older Workers (p. 162) If an employer doesn’t pay attention to the career development of staff as they approach age 60, it won’t have the benefit of their productivity during their second middle age. As second middle-agers could be organizational gold (less absenteeism, fewer accidents, higher job satisfaction, stronger work ethic. Practical career development strategies for older workers include: adopting a new attitude; provision of career counselling; investing in training and development; and honouring the need for work/life balance. ETHICAL DILEMMAS Is it ethical to withhold information from an incoming executive about critical problems that he or she will face? (p. 213) Most will argue that doing so is not only unethical, but is not in the best interests of the company or its employees. Withholding information about critical problems can have very high costs associated therewith, since it may lead to ineffective decisions, needless delays, interpersonal conflicts that could have been avoided or even turnover shortly after hire. Ideally a realistic view of the situation should have been provided during recruitment and selection to ensure that the best person to handle the challenges was hired. Superior candidates would also have asked about the issues that they would be facing. On the other hand, the organization may limit the information provided until after hire to protect itself from having confidential information find its way to competitors. KEY TERMS career A series of work-related positions, paid or unpaid, that help a person to grow in job skills, success, and fulfillment. (p. 161) career anchor A concern or value that you will not give up if a choice has to be made. (p. 163) career planning The deliberate process through which a person becomes aware of personal career-related attributes. (p. 161) Career development The lifelong series of activities that contribute to his or her career fulfillment. (p.161 controlled experimentation Formal methods for testing the effectiveness of a training program, preferably with a control group and with tests before and after training. (p. 161) employee orientation (onboarding) A procedure for providing new employees with basic background information about the firm and the job. (p. 147) job instruction training (JIT) The listing of each job's basic tasks, along with key points, in order to provide step-by-step training for employees. (p. 158) learning organization An organization skilled at creating, acquiring, and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights. (p. 145) negligent training Occurs when an employer fails to adequately train an employee how subsequently harms a third party. (p. 154) networking An organized process whereby the individual arranges and conducts a series of face-to-face meeting with her or her colleagues and contacts, plus individuals that they recommend. (p. 165) occupational orientation The theory that there are six basic personal orientations that determine the sorts of careers to which people are drawn. (p. 162) performance analysis Verifying that there is a performance deficiency, and determining whether that deficiency should be rectified through training or through some other means (such as transferring the employee). (p. 156) programmed learning A systematic method for teaching job skills that involves presenting questions or facts, allowing the person to respond, and giving the learner immediate feedback on the accuracy of his or her answers. (p. 157) reality shock (cognitive dissonance) The state that results from the discrepancy between what the new employee expected from his or her new job, and the realities of it. (p. 148 socialization The ongoing process of instilling in all employees the prevailing attitudes, standards, values, and patterns of behaviour that are expected by the organization. (p. 148) task analysis A detailed study of a job to identify the skills and competencies it requires so that an appropriate training program can be instituted. (p. 154) training The process of teaching employees the basic skills/competencies they need to perform their jobs. (p. 152) transfer of training Application of the skills acquired during the training program into the work environment, and maintenance of these skills over time. (p. 160) vestibule or simulated training Training employees on special off-the-job equipment, as in airplane pilot training, whereby training costs and hazards can be reduced. (p. 159) videoconferencing Connecting two or more distant groups by using audiovisual equipment. (p. 159) Instructor Manual for Management of Human Resources: The Essentials Nina D. Cole, Gary Dessler, Nita Chhinzer 9780132114905, 9780133807332, 9780134305066