CHAPTER 3 - SOCIALIZATION MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. __________ includes physical abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional mistreatment of children and young adolescents. A. Infant maladjustment B. Child neglect C. Child maltreatment D. Toddler neglect Answer: C 2. __________ is the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society. A. Acculturation B. Socialization C. Assimilation D. Self-representation Answer: B 3. A teenage boy, nervous because he is about to go out on his first date, receives advice from his older sister about how to act. This is an example of: A. self-representation B. acculturation C. socialization D. assimilation Answer: C 4. From a __________ perspective, individual conformity to existing norms is not taken for granted; rather basic individual needs and desires must be balanced against the needs of the social structure. A. functionalist B. symbolic interactionist C. conflict D. postmodernist Answer: A 5. In the “nature versus nurture” debate regarding socialization, the “nature” component refers to __________. A. cultural tradition B. heredity C. contact with others D. social environment Answer: B 6. In the “nature versus nurture” argument regarding socialization, the “nurture” component refers to __________. A. social environment B. contact with others C. cultural tradition D. heredity Answer: A 7. __________ is the systematic study of how biology affects social behavior and asserts that nature, in the form of our genetic makeup, is a major factor in shaping human behavior. A. Psychophysiology B. Genetic analysis C. Sociobiology D. Cybernation Answer: C 8. __________ focus on how humans design their own culture and transmit it from generation to generation through socialization. By contrast, __________ assert that nature, in the form of our genetic makeup, is a major factor in shaping human behavior. A. Psychologists; sociologists B. Sociologists; sociobiologists C. Sociobiologists; psychologists D. Sociobiologists; sociologists Answer: B 9. According to zoologist __________, who pioneered sociobiology, genetic inheritance underlies many forms of social behavior such as war and peace, envy and concern for others, and competition and cooperation. A. Sigmund Freud B. Lawrence Kohlberg C. Jean Piaget D. Edward Wilson Answer: D 10. Children whose biological and emotional needs are met in settings characterized by affection, warmth, and closeness see the world __________. A. as a non-trustworthy and abusive place B. with suspicion and fear C. as a safe and comfortable place D. as a hostile place Answer: C 11. Full-day child care may cost up to $______ per child. A. 2,000 B. 5,000 C. 10,000 D. 15,000 Answer: C 12. In a series of laboratory experiments, psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow attempted to __________. A. demonstrate the effects of social isolation on nonhuman primates raised without contact with others of their own species B. demonstrate that human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of the personality C. demonstrate how conflicts that coincide with major changes in a person’s social environment can be resolved in a positive manner D. demonstrate that cognitive development occurs in stages and children’s activities are governed by their perception of the world around them Answer: A 13. Sociologist Kingsley Davis was interested in the case of Anna, a child who was kept in an attic like room in her grandfather’s house, because __________. A. he was studying parental attitudes of young, unmarried mothers B. he wanted to know more about what happens when a child is raised in isolation C. he was attempting to determine how children develop a generalized other D. he was examining the relationship between sexual motives and human behavior Answer: B 14. The case of Anna illustrates the effects of __________ and provides insights into the importance of a positive socialization process and the negative effects of social isolation. A. sexual abuse B. cognitive abuse C. physical abuse D. emotional abuse Answer: D 15. The case of Genie, an isolated child, illustrates that __________. A. with proper therapy, children who have been isolated can become a part of the mainstream B. children who have experienced extreme isolation do not live long enough to reach adulthood C. children who experience social isolation and neglect may be defined as "retarded" when they reach adulthood D. isolated children actually can recover quickly from any physical damages Answer: C 16. What is the most frequent form of child maltreatment? A. physical abuse B. emotional abuse C. criminal sexual assault D. neglect Answer: D 17. __________ occurs when children’s basic needs including emotional warmth and security, adequate shelter, food, health care, education, clothing, and protection are not met, regardless of cause. A. Child neglect B. Infant maladaptive Ness C. Child mistreatment D. Toddler maladjustment Answer: A 18. The basic assumption in psychologist __________ psychoanalytic approach is that human behavior and personality originate from unconscious forces within individuals. A. George Herbert Mead’s B. Charles Horton Cooley’s C. Jean Piaget’s D. Sigmund Freud’s Answer: D 19. According to psychologist Sigmund Freud, human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of the personality. Which of the following is not one of the states? A. id B. superego C. libido D. ego Answer: C 20. According to psychologist Sigmund Freud, human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of the personality. The __________ is the component of personality that includes all of the individual's basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification. A. id B. ego C. superego D. libido Answer: A 21. According to psychologist Sigmund Freud, human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of the personality. The __________ is the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate pleasure-seeking drives of individuals. A. id B. ego C. superego D. libido Answer: B 22. According to psychologist Sigmund Freud, human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of the personality. The __________, or conscience, consists of the moral and ethical aspects of personality. A. id B. ego C. superego D. libido Answer: C 23. According to psychologist Sigmund Freud, the __________ is first expressed as the recognition of parental control and eventually matures as the child learns that parental control is a reflection of the values and moral demands of the larger society. A. superego B. id C. ego D. libido Answer: A 24. John and Nancy really would like to have a new sports utility vehicle now, but with the newborn baby they can’t afford the monthly payments. After thinking about it, John says to Nancy, “I guess we’ll have to wait until we have the money to buy it.” According to psychologist Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality, which level is illustrated by this example? A. libido B. ego C. id D. superego Answer: B 25. According to psychologist Sigmund Freud, the newborn child’s personality is all __________, and from birth the child finds that urges for self-gratification such as wanting to be held, fed, or changed are not going to be satisfied immediately. A. ego B. libido C. superego D. id Answer: D 26. According to Sigmund Freud, the id remains with us throughout life in the form of A. psychic energy. B. id impulses. C. impulse control. D. the ego ideal. Answer: A 27. Psychologist Jean Piaget was a pioneer in the field of __________, which relates to changes over time in how people think. A. psychoanalysis B. psychosocial development C. cognitive development D. interactionism Answer: C 28. Psychologist Jean Piaget believed that in each stage of human development (from birth through adolescence), children's activities are governed by their __________. A. individual psyches B. perception of the world around them C. socialization D. interactions with others Answer: B 29. Psychologist Jean Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development are organized around specific tasks that, when mastered, lead to the acquisition of new mental capacities, which then serve as the basis for the next level of development. Which of the following is the correct sequence Piaget’s stages of cognitive development? A. preoperational, sensorimotor, formal operational, and concrete operational B. concrete operational, preoperational, formal operational, and sensorimotor C. preoperational, formal operational, concrete operational, and sensorimotor D. sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational Answer: D 30. According to psychologist Jean Piaget, in the __________ stage, children understand the world only through sensory contact and immediate action because they cannot engage in symbolic thought or use language. A. sensorimotor B. formal operational C. preoperational D. concrete operational Answer: A 31. According to psychologist Jean Piaget, toward the end of the second year of life, children begin to use words as mental symbols and to form mental images. He referred to this as the __________ stage. A. concrete operational B. preoperational C. sensorimotor D. formal operational Answer: B 32. According to psychologist Jean Piaget, in the __________ stage, children are limited in their ability to use logic to solve problems or to realize that physical objects may change in shape or appearance while still retaining their physical properties. A. sensorimotor B. preoperational C. concrete operational D. formal operational Answer: B 33. Psychologist Jean Piaget showed children two identical glasses filled with the same amount of water. After the children agreed that both glasses held the same amount of water, Piaget poured the water from one glass into a taller, narrower glass and then asked them about the amounts of water in each glass. Bobby, still in the __________ stage, believed that the taller glass held more water because the water line was higher than in the shorter, wider glass. A. sensorimotor B. concrete operational C. preoperational D. formal operational Answer: C 34. Psychologist Jean Piaget showed children two identical glasses filled with the same amount of water. After the children agreed that both glasses held the same amount of water, Piaget poured the water from one glass into a taller, narrower glass and then asked them about the amounts of water in each glass. Sally, in the __________ stage, says that the containers (even though they are different shapes) have the same amount of water. A. sensorimotor B. concrete operational C. formal operational D. preoperational Answer: B 35. In psychologist Jean Piaget's theory, during the __________ stage, children think in terms of tangible objects and actual events. They can draw conclusions about the likely physical consequences of an action without always having to try the action out. Additionally, they begin to take the role of others and start to empathize with the viewpoints of others. A. sensorimotor B. formal operational C. preoperational D. concrete operational Answer: D 36. In psychologist Jean Piaget's theory, by the __________ stage, adolescents are able to engage in highly abstract thought and understand places, things, and events they have never seen. They can think about the future and evaluate different options or courses of action. A. sensorimotor B. preoperational C. formal operational D. concrete operational Answer: C 37. When asking a child what they want to be when they grow up; a seven-year-old child might say a “teacher,” but a twelve-year-old child might reply that they would like a job that helps others. In relation to psychologist Jean Piaget’s theory, the seven-year-old child would be in the __________ stage. By contrast, the twelve-year-old child would be in the __________ stage. A. sensorimotor; preoperational B. concrete operational; formal operational C. preoperational; sensorimotor D. formal operational; concrete operational Answer: B 38. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg elaborated on Piaget's theories by conducting a series of studies in which children, adolescents, and adults were presented with a(n) __________ that took the form of stories. A. moral dilemma B. ethical principle C. philosophical problem D. tautology Answer: A 39. In psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory, during the __________ level, children’s perceptions are based on punishment and obedience. Evil behavior is that which is likely to be punished; good behavior is based on obedience and avoidance of unwanted consequences. A. conventional B. sub conventional C. postconventional D. preconventional Answer: D 40. According to psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory, in the __________ level, people are most concerned with how they are perceived by their peers and on how one conforms to rules. A. preconventional B. conventional C. postconventional D. sub conventional Answer: B 41. In psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory, in the __________ level, people view morality in terms of individual rights. “Moral conduct” is judged by principles based on human rights that transcend government and laws. A. sub conventional B. conventional C. postconventional D. preconventional Answer: C 42. According to psychologist Carol Gilligan, the key weakness of Lawrence Kohlberg's model was that it __________. A. underestimated human potential for immorality B. was based on only male respondents C. ignored key social psychological insights D. overemphasized the subconscious mind Answer: B 43. Psychologist Carol Gilligan concluded that women and men often have divergent views on morality based on differences in __________ and life experiences. A. social class B. education C. religion D. socialization Answer: D 44. Psychologist Carol Gilligan believes that women and men often have divergent views on morality. She stated that men become more concerned with __________. A. law and order B. social skills C. social relationships D. personal maturity Answer: A 45. Psychologist Carol Gilligan believes that women and men often have divergent views on morality. She concluded that women tend to analyze __________ and the social consequences of behavior. A. personal maturity B. social relationships C. law and order D. social skills Answer: B 46. The __________ represents the sum total of perceptions and feelings that an individual has of being a distinct and unique person (a sense of who and what one is). A. personality B. psyche C. self D. individual orientation Answer: C 47. __________ is the totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves. A. Personality B. Psyche C. Self-concept D. Individual orientation Answer: C 48. George Herbert Mead breaks down the development of the self into three stages. Which is not one of them? A. preparatory B. conventional C. play D. game Answer: B 49. According to the sociological perspective, four components make up our self-concept. Which of the following is not one of the components of our self-concept? A. physical self B. creative self C. active self D. social self Answer: B 50. A body builder admires her muscular physique while standing in front of a mirror. She thinks to herself, "I am muscular and strong." This perception is part of the woman's ________________. A. personality B. psyche C. subconscious mind D. self-identity Answer: D 51. According to __________, we do not know who we are until we see ourselves as we believe that others see us. This perspective helps us understand how our self-identity is developed through our contact with others. A. functionalists B. conflict theorists C. symbolic interactionists D. postmodernists Answer: C 52. According to sociologist Charles Horton Cooley, the __________ refers to the way in which a person’s sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others. A. human psyche B. looking-glass self C. process of role-taking D. significant others Answer: B 53. Based on sociologist Charles Horton Cooley’s theory, how ___________ is not a step in the process of self-identity. A. we imagine how our personality and appearance will look to other people B. we imagine how other people judge the appearance and personality that we think we present C. we develop a self-concept D. we continually scrutinize the reactions of others Answer: D 54. According to sociologist George Herbert Mead, __________ refers to the process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person or group in order to understand the world from that person's or group’s point of view. A. role-exploration B. role-assumption C. role-taking D. role-searching Answer: C 55. Based on sociologist George Herbert Mead’s theory, __________ often occurs through play and games, as children try out different roles (such as being mommy, daddy, doctor, or teacher) and gain an appreciation of them. A. role-searching B. role-assumption C. role-exploration D. role-taking Answer: D 56. Sociologist George Herbert Mead stated that __________ others are those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self. A. significant B. perceived C. generalized D. primary Answer: A 57. Bob’s football coach is a very important influence in his life. Many of Bob’s actions are attempts to win the approval of his coach. Sociologist George Herbert Mead would suggest that the coach is one of Bob’s __________. A. generalized others B. secondary group members C. significant others D. reference group members Answer: C 58. Sociologist __________ divided the self into the "I" and the "me." A. Charles Horton Cooley B. Erik Erikson C. Neil Smelser D. George Herbert Mead Answer: D 59. The "I" is the __________ element of the self and represents the spontaneous and unique traits of each person. A. subjective B. objective C. imaginary D. neutral Answer: A 60. The "me" is the __________ element of the self, which is composed of the internalized attitudes and demands of other members of society and the individual’s awareness of those demands. A. imaginary B. subjective C. objective D. neutral Answer: C 61. According to sociologist George Herbert Mead, in the __________ stage of self-development, interactions lack meaning and children largely imitate the people around them. A. play B. preparatory C. game D. assimilation Answer: B 62. Tory is four years of age. He loves to dress up like Batman and pretend to save Gotham City from The Penguin. According to sociologist George Herbert Mead’s theory, he is in the __________ stage of self-development. A. preparatory B. assimilation C. play D. game Answer: C 63. According to sociologist George Herbert Mead, during the __________ stage of self-development, children understand not only their own social position but also the positions of others around them. A. preparatory B. play C. assimilation D. game Answer: D 64. Sociologist George Herbert Mead’s concept of the __________ other refers to the child’s awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the child’s subculture. A. generalized B. perceived C. secondary D. significant Answer: A 65. The __________ approach emphasizes that socialization is a collective process in which children are active and creative agents, not just passive recipients of the socialization process. From this view, childhood is a socially constructed category. A. postmodernist B. functionalist C. symbolic interactionist D. conflict Answer: C 66. Sociologist William Corsaro states that __________ is a stable set of activities or routines, artifacts, values, and concerns that children produce and share. It emerges through interaction as children “borrow” from the adult culture but transforms it so that it fits their own situation. A. peer culture B. universal society C. social culture D. transitional society Answer: A 67. The research of sociologist William Corsaro suggests that the __________ is the most significant arena in which children and young people acquire cultural knowledge. A. peer group B. mass media C. family D. school Answer: A 68. __________ are the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know in order to participate in society. A. Interaction forums B. Agents of socialization C. Sources of social reference D. Role sets Answer: B 69. We are exposed to many __________ throughout our lifetime. According to the text, the most pervasive ones in childhood include the family, the school, peer groups, and the mass media. A. total institutions B. moral structures C. agents of socialization D. counter groups Answer: C 70. According to the text, the __________ is the most important agent of socialization in all societies. A. school B. peer group C. family D. mass media Answer: C 71. Theorists using a __________ perspective emphasize that families serve important duties in society because they are the primary source for the procreation and socialization of children. A. conflict B. symbolic interactionist C. postmodern D. functionalist Answer: D 72. Sociologist Melvin Kohn concluded that working-class parents, who are closely supervised and expected to follow orders at work, typically emphasize to their children the importance of __________. A. creativity B. independence C. obedience and conformity D. cooperation Answer: C 73. Sociologist Melvin Kohn stated that parents from the middle and professional classes, who have more flexibility at work, tend to give their children more freedom to make their own decisions and to be __________. A. dependent on others B. creative C. obedient and conform D. cooperative Answer: B 74. __________ theorists stress that socialization contributes to false consciousness, which is a lack of awareness and a distorted perception of the reality of class as it affects all aspects of social life. Socialization reaffirms and reproduces the class structure in the next generation rather than challenging the conditions that presently exist. A. Conflict B. Postmodern C. Functionalist D. Symbolic interactionist Answer: A 75. The __________ perspective is illustrated in the following example: children in low-income families may be unintentionally socialized to believe that acquiring an education and aspiring to lofty ambitions are pointless because of existing economic conditions in the family. A. symbolic interactionist B. conflict C. postmodern D. functionalist Answer: B 76. The __________ perspective is illustrated in the following example: middle-income and upper-income families typically in still ideas of monetary and social success in children while encouraging them to think and behave in “socially acceptable” ways. A. postmodern B. functionalist C. conflict D. symbolic interactionist Answer: C 77. From a __________ perspective, schools are responsible for (1) socialization, or teaching students to be productive members of society; (2) transmission of culture; (3) social control and personal development; and (4) the selection, training, and placement of individuals on different rungs in the society. A. functionalist B. conflict C. postmodern D. symbolic interactionist Answer: A 78. __________ theorists assert that students have different experiences in the school system depending on their social class, their racial/ethnic background, the neighbourhood in which they live, and their sex/gender. A. Postmodern B. Conflict C. Symbolic interactionist D. Functionalist Answer: B 79. According to sociologists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, much of what happens in school amounts to teaching a(n) __________ in which children learn to be neat, to be on time, to be quiet, to wait their turn, and to remain attentive to their work. A. discipline scenario B. authoritarian agenda C. hidden curriculum D. media program Answer: C 80. A __________ is a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually) similar age. A. reference group B. peer group C. social group D. primary group Answer: B 81. The __________ functions as a socializing agent in several ways: (1) they inform us about events; (2) they introduce us to a wide variety of people; (3) they provide an array of viewpoints on current issues; (4) they make us aware of products and services; and (5) they entertain us by providing the opportunity to live vicariously (through other people’s experiences). A. family B. school C. peer group D. mass media Answer: D 82. You are studying for an important exam. Three of your friends convince you to go out drinking although you’re really feel like you should study. You have experienced A. anticipatory strain. B. anomie. C. peer pressure. D. interactional strain. Answer: C 83. __________ is the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society. A. Developmental maturation B. Gender socialization C. Cultural acquisition D. Exchange theory Answer: B 84. In the text, it is observed that throughout childhood and adolescence, boys and girls typically are assigned different household chores and given different privileges (such as how late they may stay out at night). This illustrates __________. A. exchange theory B. developmental maturation C. gender socialization D. cultural acquisition Answer: C 85. In the U.S., many parents want to have their child have a cell phone because A. it acts as an “electronic security blanket.” B. they want their child to have the same “toys” as other children. C. the cost is not that much. D. it is more convenient for them to talk with their friends, thus freeing up the home phone. Answer: A 86. What is a concern for the parents as far as children and cell phones? A. bullying B. sexual exploitation C. taking time away from studying D. both (a) and (b) Answer: D 87. In a study of African American families, sociologist Janice Hale Benson found that __________. A. children are taught to think of gender strictly in "male female" terms B. both daughters and sons are socialized toward autonomy, independence, self-confidence, and nurturance of children C. children had "othermothers" who played an important role in their socialization D. children were socialized no differently than in white, middle class families Answer: B 88. __________ is the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of one’s racial or ethnic status as it relates to our identity, interpersonal relationships, and location in the social hierarchy. A. Racial socialization B. Racial devaluation C. Racial orientation D. Racial isolation Answer: A 89. A young woman decides that she wants to become a professional basketball player. She joins her school basketball team, reads articles about the best basketball players, and attends basketball camps. This is an example of __________. A. preparatory socialization B. occupational socialization C. anticipatory socialization D. indoctrination socialization Answer: C 90. A person with very long hair plans to enlist in the armed forces. Prior to the date of his/her enlistment, this individual goes to a stylist and instructs the barber or beautician to cut his/her hair to military specifications. This exemplifies __________ socialization. A. indoctrination B. anticipatory C. occupational D. preparatory Answer: B 91. A business firm holds an annual dinner for all retiring employees. This dinner would be considered a __________. A. media event B. staff meeting C. dysfunction D. rite of passage Answer: D 92. __________ emphasize that during infancy and early childhood, family support and guidance are crucial to a child’s developing self-concept A. Conflict theorists B. Functionalists C. Symbolic interactionists D. Postmodern theorists Answer: C 93. Middle adulthood consists of ages ______. A. 30 - 50 B. 35 - 55 C. 40 - 65 D. 45 - 70 Answer: C 94. The oldest-old are those people over the age of ____. A. 70 B. 75 C. 80 D. 85 Answer: D 95. Older adults in industrialized societies may experience __________, where a person or group is considered to have less social value than other persons or groups It is especially acute when people are leaving roles that have defined their sense of social identity and provided them with meaningful activity. A. social re-evaluation B. involuntary socialization C. social devaluation D. value clarification Answer: C 96. Negative images regarding older persons reinforce __________, which is prejudice and discrimination against people on the basis of age, particularly older persons. It is reinforced by stereotypes, whereby people have narrow, fixed images of certain groups. A. socialism B. ethnocentrism C. ageism D. genderism Answer: C 97. __________ is the process of learning a new and different set of attitudes, values, and behavior from those in one's background and previous experience. It may be voluntary or involuntary. A. Social re-evaluation B. Resocialization C. Value clarification D. Social devaluation Answer: B 98. A(n) __________ is a place where people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and come under the control of the officials who run the institutions. Examples include military boot camps, jails and prisons, and concentration camps. A. bureaucratic institution B. social institution C. total institution D. universal institution Answer: C 99. Joe has decided to join a monastery. At this monastery there will be silence for eight hours a day and fast from food on a regular basis. Joe will experience ______ resocialization. A. voluntary B. involuntary C. forced D. rapid Answer: A 100. The process by which individuals are stripped of their former selves is called a A. resocializing influence. B. resocializing process. C. degradation ceremony. D. devaluation paradigm. Answer: C TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. Child maltreatment includes physical abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional mistreatment of children and young adolescents. Answer: True 2. Sociologists assert that nature, in the form of our genetic makeup, is a major factor in shaping human behavior. By contrast, sociobiologists focus on how humans design their own culture and transmit it from generation to generation through nurture (socialization). Answer: False Rejoinder: Just the opposite is true; sociologists focus on nurture (socialization) and sociobiologists focus on nature (genetic makeup). 3. Psychologists Harry and Margaret Harlow observed that infant rhesus monkeys, having been deprived of social contact with other monkeys during their first six months of life, never learned how to relate to other monkeys or to become well-adjusted adult monkeys. Answer: True 4. In the case of “Genie,” extensive therapy was used in an attempt to socialize her and develop her language abilities. These efforts were highly successful and at about age 18, she was able to live independently. Answer: False Rejoinder: “Genie” was found in 1970 at the age of 13. The extensive therapy efforts were met with limited success. In the 1990s, she was living in a board-and-care home for retarded adults. 5. The basic assumption in psychologist Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic approach is that human behavior and personality originate from unconscious forces within individuals. Answer: True 6. Sally, age six, is being sexually abused by a relative. She is experiencing child abuse, which is the most frequent form of child maltreatment. Answer: False Rejoinder: The most common form of child maltreatment is child neglect. This occurs when a child does not receive such things as adequate physical or emotional care; the child’s basic needs are not being met. 7. Based on psychologist Sigmund Freud’s theory, the superego is the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate, pleasure-seeking drives of the id. Answer: False Rejoinder: Correct term is the ego. The ego channels the desire of the id for immediate gratification into the most advantageous direction for the individual. The superego, or conscience, consists of the moral and ethical aspects of personality. It is in opposition to both the id and the ego. When a person is well adjusted, the ego successfully manages the opposing forces of the id and superego. 8. According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children in the preoperational stage are still limited in their ability to use logic to solve problems or to realize that physical objects may change in shape or appearance while still retaining their physical properties. Answer: True 9. Psychologist Jean Piaget labelled the formal operational stage as the one where individuals are able to engage in abstract thought. Answer: True 10. Two criticisms of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development are that it says little about individual differences among children nor does it take into account cultural differences. Answer: True 11. Based on his findings presented with moral development, psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg identified the conventional level (age ten through adulthood) as the stage in which people are most concerned with how they are perceived by their peers and how one conforms to rules. Answer: True 12. According to psychologist Carol Gilligan, women become more concerned with law and order, but men tend to analyze social relationships and the social consequences of behavior. Answer: False Rejoinder: Just the opposite is true. Gilligan argued that men become more concerned with law and order; and women tend to analyze social relationships and the social consequences of behavior. 13. According to a sociological perspective, we cannot form a sense of self or personal identity without intense social contact with others. The self represents the sum total of perception and feelings that an individual has of being a distinct, unique person (a sense of who and what one is). Answer: True 14. Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley developed the looking-glass self-theory. He believed that our sense of self is permanently fixed once we reach adulthood. Answer: False Rejoinder: According to Cooley, we use our interactions with others as a mirror for our own thoughts and actions; our sense of self depends on how we interpret what others say and do; and consequently, our sense of self is not permanently fixed; it is always developing as we interact with others in the larger society. 15. Sociologist George Herbert Mead linked the idea of self-concept to role-taking. He believed that role-taking often occurs through play and games, as children try out different roles (such as being mommy, daddy, doctor, or teacher) and gain an appreciation for them. Answer: True 16. Educational analyst Alfie Kohn has written extensively about the role that race and gender play in our public schools. Answer: False Rejoinder: Kohn has written about self-esteem. He sees a problem with the practice of praising children for almost everything they say or do. 17. According to sociologist George Herbert Mead, generalized others are those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is significant others. Generalized other refers to the child’s awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the child’s subculture. 18. The family is the most important agent of socialization in all societies. From infancy, our families transmit cultural and social values to us. Answer: True 19. Sociologist Melvin Kohn has suggested that social class (as measured by parental occupation) is one of the strongest influences on what and how parents teach their children. He discovered that working-class parents tend to give their children more freedom to make their own decisions than do middle-class parents. Answer: False Rejoinder: Just the opposite is true. Kohn found that working-class parents, who are closely supervised and expected to follow orders at work, typically emphasize to their children the importance of obedience and conformity. On the other hand, parents from the middle and professional classes, who have more freedom and flexibility at work, tend to give their children more freedom to make their own decisions and to be creative. 20. As the number of one-parent families and families in which both parents work outside the home has increased dramatically, the number of children in day-care and preschool programs has also grown rapidly. Currently, about 60 percent of all U. S. preschool children are in day care, either in private homes or institutional settings. Answer: True 21. Generally, studies have found that quality day-care and preschool programs have little effect on the overall socialization of children. Answer: False Rejoinder: Actually studies have found that quality day-care and preschool programs have a positive effect on the overall socialization of children. These programs provide children with the opportunity to have frequent interactions with teachers and to learn how to build their language and literacy skills. 22. In adolescence, peer groups are typically made up of people with similar interests and social activities. As adults, we continue to participate in peer groups of people with whom we share common interests and comparable occupations, income, and/or social position. Answer: True 23. Recent studies have shown that U.S. children, on average, are spending less time each year in front of TV sets, computers, and video games, and spending more time in school. Answer: False Rejoinder: New technologies have supplemented the television, resulting in an increase in electronic media penetration and use by America’s youth. It is estimated that U.S. children spend 2.5 hours per day watching television programs and about 2 hours with computers, video games, or a VCR, which adds up to about 1,642 hours per year. By contrast, U.S. children spend about 1,000 hours per year in school. 24. Gender socialization is important in determining what we think the “preferred” sex of a child should be and in influencing our beliefs about acceptable behavior for males and females. In some families, gender socialization starts before birth. Answer: True 25. Cell-phone usage is relevant to socialization in that it represents a shift away from parental (and other relatives) control and socialization. Answer: True SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Define socialization and explain why this process is essential for the individual and society. Answer: Socialization is the lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society. It is the essential link between the individual and society. Socialization enables each of us to develop our human potential and to learn the ways of thinking, talking, and acting that are necessary for social living. Socialization is essential for the individual’s survival and for human development. The many people who met the early material and social needs of each of us are central to our establishing our own identities. Socialization is also essential for the survival and stability of society. Members of a society must be socialized to support and maintain the existing social structure. 2. Distinguish between sociological and sociobiological perspectives on the development of human behavior. Answer: Every human being is a product of biology (nature), society, and personal experiences (nurture)\—that is, of heredity (nature) and/or environment (nurture). Sociologists focus on how humans design their own culture and transmit it from generation to generation through socialization (nurture). By contrast, sociobiologists assert that (nature), in the form of our genetic makeup, is a major factor in shaping human behavior. Most sociologists disagree with the notion that biological (nature) principles can be used to explain all human behavior. However, some aspects of our physical makeup—such as eye colour, hair colour, height, and weight—are largely determined by our heredity (nature). 3. Explain the process of socialization and human development and provide an example. Answer: There is hardly a single behavior that is not influenced socially. Except for simple reflexes, most human actions are social, either in their causes or in their consequences. Social environment probably has a greater effect than heredity on the way we develop and the way we act. However, heredity does provide the basic material from which other people help to mold an individual’s human characteristics. Our biological needs and emotional needs are related in a complex equation. Children whose needs are met in settings characterized by affection, warmth, and closeness see the world as a safe and comfortable place and see other people as trustworthy and helpful. By contrast, infants and children who receive less-than-adequate care or who are emotionally rejected or abused often view the world as hostile and have feelings of suspicion and fear. 4. Explain why cases of isolated children are important to understanding the socialization process. Answer: From analysis of these situations, social scientists have documented cases in which children were deliberately raised in isolation. A look at the lives of children (such as Anna and Genie described in the text) who suffered emotional abuse provides important insights into the importance of a positive socialization process and the negative effects of social isolation. Additionally, these types of cases help clarify terms such as child maltreatment and child abuse. In regards to what constitutes child maltreatment, many people first think of cases that involve severe physical injuries or sexual abuse. However, neglect is the most frequent form of child maltreatment. Child neglect occurs when children’s basic needs—including emotional warmth and security, adequate shelter, food, health care, education, clothing, and protection—are not met, regardless of cause. Neglect often involves acts of omission (where parents or caregivers fail to provide adequate physical or emotional care for children) rather than acts of commission (such as physical or sexual abuse). 5. Explain psychologist Sigmund Freud’s views on the conflict between individual desires and the demands of society. Answer: According to Freud, human development occurs in three states that reflect different levels of the personality, which he referred to as the id, ego, and superego. The id is the component of personality that includes all of the individual’s basic biological drives and needs that demand immediate gratification. The newborn child’s personality is all id, and from birth the child finds that urges for self-gratification—such as wanting to be held, fed, or changed—are not going to be satisfied immediately. By contrast, the ego develops as infants discover that their most basic desires are not always going to be met by others. The ego is the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the innate, pleasure-seeking drives of the id. The ego channels the desire of the id for immediate gratification into the most advantageous direction for the individual. The superego is in opposition to both the id and the ego. The superego, or conscience, consists of the moral and ethical aspects of personality. It is first expressed as the recognition of parental control and eventually matures as the child learns that parental control is a reflection of the values and moral demands of the larger society. When a person is well adjusted, the ego successfully manages the opposing forces of the id and the superego. 6. Outline the stages of cognitive development as set forth by psychologist Jean Piaget. Answer: Piaget was a cognitive theorist and was interested in how people obtain, process, and use information—how we think. Cognitive development relates to changes over time in how we think. According to Piaget, in each stage of human development (from birth through adolescence), children’s activities are governed by their perception of the world around them. His four stages of cognitive development are organized around specific tasks that, when mastered, lead to the acquisition of new mental capacities, which then serve as the basis for the next level of development. (1) sensorimotor stage (birth to age two). Children understand the world only through sensory contact and immediate action; they cannot engage in symbolic thought or use language. Children gradually comprehend object permanence—the realization that objects exist even when the items are placed out of their sight. (2) preoperational stage (age two to seven). Children begin to use words as mental symbols and to form mental images. They have limited ability to use logic to solve problems or to realize that physical objects may change in shape or appearance but still retain their physical properties. (3) concrete operational stage (age seven to eleven). Children think in terms of tangible objects and actual events. They can draw conclusions. Children begin to take the role of others and start to empathize with the viewpoints of others. (4) formal operational stage (age twelve through adolescence). Adolescents have the potential to engage in highly abstract thought and understand places, things, and events they have never seen. They can think about the future and evaluate different opinions or courses of action. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development provide us with useful insights on children’s logical thinking and how children invent or construct the rules that govern their understanding of the world. 7. Describe the moral development theory of psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg and discuss psychologist Carol Gilligan’s view on gender and moral development. Answer: Kohlberg conducted a series of studies in which children, adolescents, and adults were presented with moral dilemmas that took the form of stories. He classified moral reasoning into three sequential levels: (1) preconventional level (age seven to ten). Children’s perceptions are based on punishment and obedience. (2) conventional level (age ten through adulthood). People are most concerned with how they are perceived by their peers and on how one conforms to rules. (3) postconventional level (few adults reach this stage). People view morality in terms of individual rights; “moral conduct” is judged by principles based on human rights that transcend government and laws. Gilligan was a major critic of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. According to Gilligan, Kohlberg’s model was developed solely on the basis of research with male respondents, and women and men often have divergent views on morality based on differences in socialization and life experiences. Gilligan believes that men become more concerned with law and order but that women analyse social relationships and the social consequences of behavior. 8. Explain the key components of sociologist Charles Horton Cooley’s looking-glass self-theory and evaluate the contribution to our understanding of the socialization process. Answer: According to Cooley, the looking-glass self refers to the way in which a person’s sense of self is derived from the perceptions of others. He asserted that we base our perception of who we are on how we think other people see us and whether this opinion seems good or bad to us. The looking-glass self is a self-concept derived from a three-step process: (1) we imagine how our personality and appearance will look to other people; (2) we imagine how other people judge the appearance and personality that we think we present; and (3) we develop a self-concept. We use our interaction with others as a mirror for our own thoughts and actions; our sense of self depends on how we interpret what others do and say. Consequently, our sense of self is not permanently fixed; it is always developing as we interact with others in the larger society. 9. Explain the key components of sociologist George Herbert Mead’s role-taking theory and evaluate the contribution to our understanding of the socialization process. Answer: According to Mead, role-taking is the process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person or group in order to understand the world from that person’s or group’s point of view. Role-taking often occurs through play and games, as children try out different roles (such as being mommy, daddy, doctor, or teacher) and gain an appreciation of them. First, people come to take the role of the other (role-taking). By taking the roles of others, the individual hopes to ascertain the intention or direction of the acts of others. Then the person begins to construct his or her own roles (role-making) and to anticipate other individuals’ responses. Finally, the person plays at her or his particular role (role-playing). 10. Describe sociologist George Herbert Mead’s concept of the significant others and generalized other and explain socialization as an interactive process. Answer: Shortly after birth, infants start to notice the faces of those around them, especially the significant others, whose faces start to have meaning because they are associated with experiences like feeding and cuddling. Significant others are those persons whose care, affection, and approval are especially desired and who are most important in the development of the self. Gradually, we distinguish ourselves from our caregivers and begin to perceive ourselves in contrast to them. As we develop language skills and learn to understand symbols, we begin to develop a self-concept. When we can represent ourselves in our minds as objects distinct from everything else, our self has been formed. Generalized other refers to the child’s awareness of the demands and expectations of the society as a whole or of the child’s subculture. According to Mead, socialization is a two-way process between society and the individual. 11. Briefly explain Alfie Kohn’s views on praising children. Answer: Educational analyst Kohn states that it has become common practice to praise children for almost everything they say or do. Rather than being a positive thing, it may increase a child’s dependence on adults and they may not be able to develop the ability to make meaningful judgments about what they have done. He suggests that these children may grow into adults who will continue to have to have someone “pat them on the head and tell them whether what they did was OK.” 12. How does Alfie Kohn’s views on children reflect those of George Herbert Mead? Answer: Educational analyst Alfie Kohn has written on the issue of praising children for almost everything they say or do. Mead wrote about children learning to take into account the expectations of the larger society and to balance the “I” with the “me.” According to Mead, role-taking is essential to the formation of a mature sense of self. The excessive praising of children (which Kohn is concerned) may make it more difficult for them to develop a positive self-concept and visualize and an accurate picture of what is expected of them as they grow into adulthood. 13. Define agents of socialization, identity the major agents of socialization, and describe their effects on children’s development. Answer: Agents of socialization are the persons, groups, or institutions that teach us what we need to know in order to participate in society. The family is the most important agent of socialization in all societies. From infancy, our families transmit cultural and social values to us. As the amount of time that children are in educational settings has increased, schools continue to play an enormous role in the socialization of young people. Although schools teach specific knowledge and skills, they also have a profound effect on children’s self-image, beliefs, and values. As children enter school for the first time, they are evaluated and systematically compared with one another by the teacher. A permanent, official record is kept of each child’s personal behavior and academic activities. As soon as we are old enough to have acquaintances outside the home, most of us begin to rely heavily on peer groups as a source of information and approval about social behavior. A peer group is a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social position, and (usually) similar age. Recent studies have found that preadolescence is an age period in which children’s peer culture has an important effect on how children perceive themselves and how they internalize society’s expectations. In adolescence, peer groups are typically made up of people with similar interests and social activities. As adults, we continue to participate in peer groups of people with whom we share common interests and comparable occupations, income, and/or social position. Peer groups function as agents of socialization by contributing to our sense of “belonging” and our feelings of self-worth. The mass media is composed of large-scale organizations that use print or electronic means (such as radio, television, film, and the Internet) to communicate with large numbers of people. The media function as socializing agents in several ways: (1) they inform us about events; (2) they introduce us to a wide variety of people; (3) they provide an array of viewpoints on current issues; (4) they make us aware of products and services that, if we purchase them, will supposedly help us to be accepted by others; and (5) they entertain us by providing the opportunity to live vicariously (through other people’s experiences). We frequently underestimate the enormous influence this agent of socialization may have on children’s attitudes and behavior. 14. Briefly discuss the role of the mass media in the socialization process. Answer: The media has become one of the major socializing influences in America today. It acts as a socializing influence in various ways: (1) informing us about events, (2) introducing readers/viewers to a wide variety of people, (3) provide a wide variety of viewpoints on current issues, (4) making us aware of products and services, and (5) entertain us. It is estimated that children spend 2.5 hours per day watching TV and another 2 hours per day with other forms of media (DVD, video games, etc.) It is also estimated that a young person will have seen 16,000 simulated murders and 200,000 acts of violence by the time the child reaches age 18. Therefore, there is concern about the portrayal of violence and its effects on children. In addition, the media has been criticized for projecting negative images of women and people of colour. 15. Define and explain what is meant by gender socialization. Answer: Gender socialization is the aspect of socialization that contains specific messages and practices concerning the nature of being female or male in a specific group or society. Gender socialization is important in determining what we think the “preferred” sex of a child should be and in influencing our beliefs about acceptable behavior for males and females. In some families, gender socialization starts before birth. Parents who learn the sex of the fetus often purchase color-coded and gender-typed clothes, toys, and nursery decorations in anticipation of their daughter’s or son’s arrival. After the child has been born, parents may respond differently toward male and female infants; they often play more roughly with boys and talk more lovingly to girls. Throughout childhood and adolescence, boys and girls are typically assigned different household chores and given different privileges (such as how late they may stay out at night). When we look at the relationship between gender socialization and social class, the picture becomes more complex. We are limited in our knowledge about gender socialization practices among racial/ethnic groups because most studies have focused on white, middle-class families. Like the family, schools, peer groups, and the media contribute to our gender socialization. From kindergarten through college, teachers and peers reward gender-appropriate attitudes and behavior. Sports reinforce traditional gender roles through a rigid division of events into male and female categories. The media are also a powerful source of gender socialization; starting in children’s books, television programs, movies, and music provide subtle and not-so-subtle messages about “masculine” and “feminine” behavior. ESSAY SECTION 1. Drawing from a sociological perspective, discuss why you believe socialization is important to society. Answer: Socialization is crucial to society for several reasons, all of which can be understood through a sociological lens: • Cultural Transmission: Socialization is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, norms, and behavior necessary to function in their society. It ensures the continuity of culture by passing it down from one generation to the next. • Identity Formation: Through socialization, individuals develop their sense of self and identity. This includes understanding their roles and statuses within society, which helps them navigate social interactions and relationships. • Social Integration: Socialization fosters social cohesion and integration by teaching individuals the norms and values that unite them. It helps create a sense of belonging and community, reducing social conflicts and promoting harmony. • Role Preparation: Socialization prepares individuals for their future roles in society, such as occupational roles, family roles, and citizenship roles. It equips them with the necessary skills and knowledge to perform these roles effectively. • Behavior Regulation: Through socialization, individuals learn to conform to societal expectations and norms, which regulates behavior and maintains social order. It helps prevent deviant behavior and ensures that people act in ways that are predictable and acceptable to others. • Social Change and Adaptation: While socialization maintains continuity, it also allows for adaptation and change. As society evolves, socialization processes adapt to incorporate new norms, values, and technologies, helping individuals adjust to changes. From a sociological perspective, socialization is foundational to the functioning and stability of society, shaping individuals to become competent, contributing members of their communities. 2. Discuss the issue of child maltreatment and what we can do when we become aware of its existence. Answer: Child maltreatment, which includes physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect, is a serious issue with far-reaching consequences: • Impact on Children: Maltreatment can lead to physical injuries, emotional trauma, developmental delays, and psychological disorders. It often results in long-term negative effects on a child's mental and physical health, academic performance, and social relationships. • Societal Costs: The effects of child maltreatment extend beyond the individual, leading to societal costs such as increased healthcare expenses, social services involvement, and legal costs. It can also contribute to cycles of abuse and criminal behavior in adulthood. Actions to Take When Aware of Child Maltreatment: • Reporting: If you suspect or become aware of child maltreatment, it is crucial to report it to the appropriate authorities, such as child protective services or law enforcement. Reporting can trigger an investigation and intervention to protect the child. • Providing Support: Offer support to the affected child and family, which can include emotional support, resources, and referrals to counseling services. Support networks are essential for helping children recover from trauma. • Education and Prevention: Engage in community education efforts to raise awareness about the signs of child maltreatment and the importance of early intervention. Prevention programs that support parenting skills and provide resources to families can help reduce the incidence of maltreatment. • Advocacy: Advocate for policies and programs that protect children and support families. This can include advocating for funding for child protective services, mental health resources, and educational programs. • Professional Training: Ensure that professionals who work with children, such as teachers, healthcare providers, and social workers, are trained to recognize and respond to signs of maltreatment. Addressing child maltreatment requires a multifaceted approach involving reporting, support, education, advocacy, and professional training to protect children and promote their well-being. 3. Analyze Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective. Answer: Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective is a foundational theory in psychology that focuses on the role of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior. Key elements of Freud’s theory include: • Structure of Personality: • Id: The id is the primal, instinctual part of the personality that seeks immediate gratification of basic drives and desires, operating on the pleasure principle. • Ego: The ego is the rational part of the personality that mediates between the demands of the id and the realities of the external world, operating on the reality principle. • Superego: The superego is the moral component of the personality, representing internalized societal and parental standards, and striving for perfection. • Psychosexual Stages of Development: • Freud proposed that personality develops through a series of stages during childhood, each characterized by the focus on a different erogenous zone. • Oral Stage (0-1 year): Pleasure centers on the mouth (sucking, biting). • Anal Stage (1-3 years): Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control. • Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Pleasure centers on the genitals; the Oedipus and Electra complexes occur during this stage. • Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual feelings are dormant as the focus shifts to social and intellectual activities. • Genital Stage (puberty onward): Maturation of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships. • Defense Mechanisms: • Freud identified defense mechanisms as strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety and conflict between the id and superego. • Examples include repression (pushing threatening thoughts into the unconscious), denial (refusing to acknowledge reality), and projection (attributing one’s own unacceptable desires to others). • Unconscious Mind: • Freud emphasized the significance of the unconscious mind, which contains thoughts, memories, and desires not accessible to conscious awareness but that influence behavior. • Techniques like free association, dream analysis, and transference were developed to explore the unconscious. Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective has been influential in understanding the complexity of human behavior and the importance of early experiences. However, it has also faced criticism for its lack of empirical support, overemphasis on sexuality, and deterministic view of personality development. 4. Summarize Jean Piaget’s views on cognitive development. Answer: Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development outlines how children’s thinking evolves in stages as they grow: 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): • Description: Infants learn about the world through their senses and actions. They develop object permanence (the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen). • Key Concepts: Sensory experiences, motor activities, object permanence. 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): • Description: Children begin to use language and symbols to represent objects and experiences. They engage in pretend play but struggle with understanding different perspectives (egocentrism). • Key Concepts: Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, animism (attributing life to inanimate objects). 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): • Description: Children develop logical thinking about concrete events. They understand the concepts of conservation (quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance) and reversibility (actions can be reversed). • Key Concepts: Logical thinking, conservation, reversibility, classification. 4. Formal Operational Stage (11+ years): • Description: Adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically. They can consider multiple perspectives and solve complex problems. • Key Concepts: Abstract thinking, hypothetical-deductive reasoning, systematic problem-solving. Piaget’s theory emphasizes that cognitive development is a progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting from biological maturation and environmental experiences. His work has had a profound impact on education, emphasizing the importance of developmental stages in learning. 5. Compare and contrast the moral development theories of Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan. Answer: Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: • Stages: Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development, grouped into three levels: • Preconventional Level: • Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation (behavior driven by avoiding punishment). • Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange (behavior driven by self-interest and rewards). • Conventional Level: • Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships (behavior driven by social approval and maintaining relationships). • Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order (behavior driven by obeying laws and respecting authority). • Postconventional Level: • Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights (behavior driven by the recognition of social contracts and individual rights). • Stage 6: Universal Principles (behavior driven by internal moral principles). • Focus: Kohlberg’s theory emphasizes justice, rights, and abstract principles. He believed moral reasoning progresses through these stages as individuals encounter moral dilemmas and develop more sophisticated ethical understandings. Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development: • Critique of Kohlberg: Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s theory was male-centric and did not adequately represent the moral development of women. She believed that women’s moral reasoning often focuses more on relationships and care rather than abstract principles of justice. • Stages: • Preconventional: Focus on individual survival. • Conventional: Focus on self-sacrifice and caring for others. • Postconventional: Focus on the balance between caring for others and self-care, with an emphasis on interdependence and relationships. • Focus: Gilligan’s theory emphasizes an ethic of care, highlighting the importance of empathy, compassion, and maintaining relationships in moral reasoning. Comparison: • Justice vs. Care: Kohlberg’s theory focuses on justice and abstract principles, while Gilligan’s theory emphasizes care and relational considerations. • Stages: Both theories propose stages of moral development but differ in their criteria and focus. • Gender Differences: Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for not adequately representing female moral reasoning, which Gilligan addresses by highlighting the relational and care-focused aspects of morality. Contrast: • Methodology: Kohlberg’s research was based on moral dilemmas presented primarily to boys and men, while Gilligan’s research included a broader range of participants, including women. • Theoretical Focus: Kohlberg’s stages are based on cognitive development and logical reasoning, whereas Gilligan’s stages are rooted in emotional and relational development. 6. Describe Charles Horton Cooley’s looking-glass self. Of the major sociological perspectives, which would this be? Why? Answer: Charles Horton Cooley's concept of the "looking-glass self" describes how individuals develop their self-identity based on their perceptions of how others view them. The process involves three main components: 1. Imagining How We Appear to Others: We consider how we present ourselves to others in various social interactions. 2. Imagining the Judgment of Others: We interpret how others evaluate us based on their reactions and feedback. 3. Self-Feeling: We develop feelings about ourselves based on our perceptions of others’ judgments, such as pride, embarrassment, or confidence. This process suggests that self-identity is not formed in isolation but through social interactions and the feedback we receive from others. The "looking-glass self" emphasizes the importance of social context in shaping individual identity. Of the major sociological perspectives, Cooley’s concept of the "looking-glass self" aligns most closely with the symbolic interactionist perspective. Symbolic interactionism focuses on how individuals create and interpret symbols in social interactions, and how these interactions shape their perceptions of self and society. Cooley's theory underscores the importance of social interactions and the subjective meanings individuals assign to others' reactions, which are core elements of symbolic interactionism. 7. Elaborate on George Herbert Mead’s efforts to link the idea of self-concept to role-taking. Answer: George Herbert Mead, a key figure in symbolic interactionism, linked the development of self-concept to the ability to take on the roles of others, a process he called role-taking. Mead proposed that self-concept develops through social interaction and the internalization of others' perspectives. His theory involves several key stages: 1. Preparatory Stage (Imitation): In early childhood, individuals mimic the behaviors of others without understanding the underlying intentions. This stage involves simple imitation and helps lay the foundation for more complex role-taking. 2. Play Stage: Children begin to take on specific roles during play, such as pretending to be a parent, teacher, or superhero. This stage allows children to experiment with different perspectives and understand the behaviors and expectations associated with these roles. 3. Game Stage: In this stage, children participate in organized games that require understanding and adhering to established rules. They learn to consider multiple roles simultaneously and understand how their actions affect others within a group. This stage involves the development of the "generalized other," where individuals internalize the attitudes and expectations of the broader society. Mead’s concept of the self involves two components: • "I": The spontaneous, impulsive aspect of the self that responds to the immediate environment. • "Me": The socialized aspect of the self that reflects the internalized attitudes and expectations of others. By taking on the roles of others, individuals develop a more complex and organized self-concept, learning to balance their impulses ("I") with societal expectations ("Me"). Mead’s theory highlights the importance of social interaction in the formation of self-identity and the ability to navigate different social roles. 8. Alfie Kohn has written on children and their self-esteem. Discuss this issue. How do Kohn’s ideas remind us of the ideas of George Herbert Mead? Answer: Alfie Kohn, an education and parenting expert, has written extensively on children and self-esteem. Kohn argues that traditional approaches to building self-esteem, such as praise and rewards, can be counterproductive. Instead, he advocates for a more intrinsic approach to fostering self-worth, emphasizing the importance of unconditional support, genuine engagement, and meaningful learning experiences. Key points from Kohn’s perspective include: • Intrinsic Motivation: Encouraging children to find joy and satisfaction in their own efforts and achievements rather than relying on external validation. • Unconditional Support: Providing children with consistent, unconditional love and acceptance, helping them feel valued for who they are, not just for what they achieve. • Autonomy and Competence: Allowing children to make choices, take on challenges, and develop a sense of competence and agency in their actions. • Avoiding Over-Praise: Excessive praise can create dependency on external approval and undermine genuine self-esteem. Instead, Kohn suggests offering specific, sincere feedback that acknowledges effort and progress. Kohn’s ideas remind us of George Herbert Mead’s theories in several ways: • Social Interaction: Both Kohn and Mead emphasize the importance of social interaction in the development of self-concept. Mead’s role-taking and the development of the "generalized other" highlight how individuals internalize societal attitudes, while Kohn stresses the impact of supportive, meaningful interactions on self-esteem. • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic: Mead’s concept of the self, balancing the impulsive "I" and the socialized "Me," aligns with Kohn’s focus on intrinsic motivation. Kohn’s critique of external praise parallels Mead’s idea that self-identity is shaped by internalized social expectations rather than external rewards. • Developmental Process: Both theorists view self-concept and self-esteem as dynamic processes that develop through social experiences. Mead’s stages of role-taking and Kohn’s emphasis on autonomy and competence highlight the importance of gradual, interactive learning in building a strong sense of self. In summary, Kohn’s approach to fostering self-esteem through intrinsic motivation, unconditional support, and meaningful engagement resonates with Mead’s theories on the development of self-concept through social interaction and role-taking. Both perspectives underscore the significance of genuine, supportive relationships in shaping a healthy, resilient self-identity. 9. Major agents of socialization are the family, school, peer groups and the mass media. Discuss these agencies. Answer: Family: • Role in Socialization: The family is the primary agent of socialization, especially in early childhood. It shapes the child’s initial beliefs, values, norms, and behaviors. • Impact: Family influences language acquisition, emotional development, and the formation of identity. It instills cultural traditions, religious beliefs, and social roles. • Examples: Parents teaching manners, values, and societal roles through direct instruction, modeling behavior, and reinforcement. School: • Role in Socialization: Schools are critical in secondary socialization, providing education and fostering social skills and cultural norms. • Impact: Schools teach academic knowledge, social norms (e.g., punctuality, discipline), and citizenship values. They also expose children to diverse ideas and peer interactions. • Examples: Formal curriculum (academic subjects) and hidden curriculum (social expectations, behavior norms). Peer Groups: • Role in Socialization: Peer groups offer a social network outside the family, becoming particularly influential during adolescence. • Impact: Peers provide opportunities for social interaction, independence from family, and experimentation with different roles and identities. • Examples: Friendship groups, cliques, and extracurricular groups that shape interests, behaviors, and social skills. Mass Media: • Role in Socialization: Mass media, including television, the internet, and social media, are powerful agents of socialization that reach a broad audience. • Impact: Media influences perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors by providing information, cultural norms, and role models. It shapes public opinion and consumer behavior. • Examples: Television shows, movies, news outlets, advertisements, and social media platforms that influence lifestyle choices, political views, and cultural trends. These agents of socialization work together to shape individuals' understanding of the world, their place in it, and how they should behave in various social contexts. Each agent contributes uniquely to the development of identity, values, and social norms. 10. Describe socialization through the life course and resocialization. Answer: Socialization Through the Life Course: • Childhood: During early childhood, primary socialization occurs within the family. Children learn language, basic norms, values, and behaviors through imitation, instruction, and reinforcement. • Examples: Learning to speak, understanding right from wrong, and developing initial social roles. • Adolescence: As children grow, secondary socialization occurs in schools and peer groups. Adolescents begin to form their own identities, develop critical thinking skills, and explore independence. • Examples: Developing friendships, participating in extracurricular activities, and preparing for adult roles. • Adulthood: In adulthood, socialization continues as individuals enter the workforce, form families, and engage in civic responsibilities. This stage involves adjusting to new roles and environments. • Examples: Starting a career, getting married, becoming a parent, and participating in community activities. • Old Age: In later life, socialization includes adjusting to retirement, coping with aging, and reflecting on life experiences. This stage often involves renegotiating social roles and finding new sources of fulfillment. • Examples: Engaging in hobbies, volunteering, and maintaining social connections. Resocialization: • Definition: Resocialization involves the process of unlearning old behaviors and norms and adopting new ones, typically occurring in a new social environment or role. • Contexts: Resocialization can occur in various contexts, such as transitioning into a new career, entering the military, joining a religious order, or being incarcerated. • Examples: • Military Training: New recruits undergo rigorous training to adopt military discipline, values, and behaviors, replacing civilian norms. • Rehabilitation Programs: Individuals in rehabilitation programs for substance abuse are resocialized to adopt healthier lifestyles and coping mechanisms. • Prison: Inmates are resocialized to conform to the rules and norms of the prison environment, although the effectiveness and ethics of such resocialization are often debated. Stages of Resocialization: 1. Stripping Away Previous Identity: The individual’s previous identity and behaviors are systematically stripped away. This can involve physical changes (e.g., uniforms, haircuts) and new rules. 2. Building a New Identity: New norms, values, and behaviors are instilled through structured activities, education, and reinforcement. Resocialization is often intense and can be stressful, but it is crucial for adapting to new roles and environments, contributing to personal growth and social stability. Socialization through the life course and resocialization illustrate the dynamic nature of social learning and adaptation in response to changing circumstances and life stages. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154
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