CH-15 Population and Urbanization – Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials : Exam Guide

CHAPTER 15 - POPULATION AND URBANIZATION MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. The world’s population of almost 6.6 billion in 2008 is increasing by more than 78 million people per year as a result of the larger number of births than deaths worldwide. Between 2000 and 2030, almost all of the world’s 1.4 percent annual population growth will occur __________. A. in high-income countries in South America and Europe B. in low-income countries in South America and Europe C. in low-income countries in Africa and Asia D. In high-income countries in Africa and Asia Answer: C 2. __________ is a subfield of sociology that examines population size, composition, and distribution. A. Ecology B. Demography C. Social psychology D. Graphology Answer: B 3. An important relationship exists between population size and the availability of food, water, energy, and housing. Population size, composition, and distribution are also connected to issues such as poverty, racial and ethnic diversity, shifts in the age structure of society, and concerns about environmental degradation. These issues are of interest to researchers in the field of __________. A. Graphology B. Ecology C. Social psychology D. Demography Answer: D 4. As used by demographers, a __________ is a group of people who live in a specified geographic area. A. society B. culture C. sect D. population Answer: D 5. Changes in population occur as a result of three processes. Which of the following is not a process that results in a change in population? A. fertility B. mortality C. social pathology D. migration Answer: C 6. __________ is the actual level of childbearing for an individual or a population. A. Reproduction B. Fecundity C. Fertility D. Fruitfulness Answer: C 7. Approximately ____ percent of the children living in unauthorized immigrant families in the U.S. are U.S. citizens by birth. A. 15 B. 46 C. 64 D. 88 Answer: C 8. Which statement concerning immigration into the U.S. is false? A. The majority of unauthorized adult immigrants consist of males. B. Over 90 percent of unauthorized male immigrants are in the work force. C. Undocumented male workers are often younger than legal immigrant or native-born males. D. The percentage of unauthorized immigrant workers in white-collar occupations has risen substantially in the 2000s. Answer: D 9. Most unauthorized immigrants come from _____. A. Mexico B. China C. Canada D. Brazil Answer: A 10. The level of fertility in a society is based on biological and social factors, the primary biological factor being __________. A. the general health and nutrition of the women B. the roles available to women in a society C. the prevalent viewpoint regarding what constitutes the “ideal” family size D. the number of women of childbearing age Answer: D 11. __________ is the potential number of children that could be born if every woman reproduced at her maximum biological capacity. A. Reproduction B. Fecundity C. Fertility D. Fruitfulness Answer: B 12. The most basic measure of fertility is the __________ rate. A. total fertility B. age-specific birth C. crude birth D. non-refined fertility Answer: C 13. The __________ is the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. A. total fertility rate B. crude birth rate C. age-specific rate D. non-refined fertility Answer: B 14. In 2006, the crude birth rate in the United States was __________, as compared with an all-time high rate of 27.0 per 1,000 in 1947 (following World War II). A. 5.3 per 1,000 B. 10.4 per 1,000 C. 14.1 per 1,000 D. 17.6 per 1,000 Answer: C 15. The primary cause of world population growth in recent years has been a decline in __________, which is the incidence of death in a population. A. the crude death rate B. the total death rate C. the death quota D. mortality Answer: D 16. The simplest measure of mortality is the __________ rate. A. crude death B. total death C. death quota D. refined death Answer: A 17. The __________ is the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. A. total death rate B. crude death rate C. death quota rate D. refined death rate Answer: B 18. In __________ mortality rates have declined dramatically as diseases such as malaria, polio, typhoid, and measles have been virtually eliminated by vaccinations, improved sanitation, and personal hygiene. A. low-income, less-developed nations B. high-income, less-developed nations C. low-income, developed nations D. high-income, developed nations Answer: D 19. In 1900, the leading cause of death in the United States was __________. A. kidney disease B. influenza/pneumonia C. tuberculosis D. diphtheria Answer: B 20. In 2000, the leading cause of death in the United States was __________. A. cancer B. chronic lung disease C. diabetes D. heart disease Answer: D 21. The __________ refers to the number of deaths of infants under 1 year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year. A. underage mortality rate B. infant mortality rate C. child death index D. infant death quotient Answer: B 22. The __________ is an important reflection of a society’s level of preventive (prenatal) medical care, maternal nutrition, childbirth procedures, and neonatal care for infants. A. infant death quotient B. child death index C. infant mortality rate D. underage mortality rate Answer: C 23. In 2004, the U.S. infant mortality rate for white infants was __________ live births. A. 3.2 per 1,000 B. 5.7 per 1,000 C. 7.3 per 1,000 D. 9.4 per 1,000 Answer: B 24. In 2004, the U.S. infant mortality rate for African American infants was __________ live births. A. 7.2 per 1,000 B. 10.6 per 1,000 C. 13.8 per 1,000 D. 19.8 per 1,000 Answer: C 25. __________ is an estimate of the average lifetime in years of people born in a specific year. A. Life expectancy B. Longevity determination C. Life prospects D. Life projection Answer: A 26. For persons born in the United States in 2006, life expectancy at birth was __________. A. 71.6 years B. 74.3 years C. 77.8 years D. 80.1 years Answer: C 27. Life expectancy varies by sex. Females born in the United States in 2004 could expect to live about __________ years. A. 68.7 B. 75.8 C. 80.4 D. 84.2 Answer: C 28. Life expectancy varies by sex. Males born in the United States in 2003 could expect to live about __________ years. A. 63.9 B. 68.2 C. 75.2 D. 80.1 Answer: C 29. Life expectancy varies by race. African American men have a life expectancy at birth of about __________ years. A. 64.4 B. 69.5 C. 72.7 D. 75.5 Answer: B 30. Life expectancy varies by race. White males have a life expectancy at birth of about __________ years. A. 65.7 B. 70.5 C. 75.7 D. 80.2 Answer: C 31. __________ is the movement of people from one geographic area to another for the purpose of changing residency. It affects the size and distribution of the population in a given area. A. Immigration B. Distribution C. Migration D. Emigration Answer: C 32. __________ refers to the physical location of people throughout a geographic area. A. Migration B. Distribution C. Density D. Immigration Answer: B 33. __________ is the number of people living in a specific geographic area. A. Distribution B. Migration C. Emigration D. Density Answer: D 34. In urbanized areas, __________ may be measured by the number of people who live per room, per block, or per square mile. A. density B. migration C. distribution D. emigration Answer: A 35. __________ migration has occurred throughout U.S. history. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a major population shift occurred as thousands of people moved from rural to urban areas. A. International B. Extrinsic C. Internal D. Intrinsic Answer: C 36. __________ is the movement of people into a geographic area to take up residency. A. Distribution B. Migration C. Immigration D. Emigration Answer: C 37. __________ is the movement of people out of a geographic area to take up residency elsewhere. A. Distribution B. Migration C. Immigration D. Emigration Answer: D 38. People migrate either voluntarily or involuntarily. Which of the following is not a “pull” factor at the international level? A. a natural disaster B. a democratic government C. religious freedom D. employment opportunities Answer: A 39. People migrate either voluntarily or involuntarily. Which of the following is not a “push” factor at the international level? A. political unrest B. violence C. war D. a more temperate climate Answer: D 40. __________ usually occurs as a result of political oppression, such as when Jews fled Nazi Germany in the 1930s or when Afghans left their country to escape oppression there in the late 1990s. A. Internal migration B. Voluntary migration C. Involuntary migration D. External migration Answer: C 41. Slavery is the most striking example of __________; the 10 – 20 million Africans forcibly transported to the Western Hemisphere prior to 1800 did not come by choice. A. external migration B. involuntary migration C. internal migration D. voluntary migration Answer: B 42. Changes in fertility, mortality, and migration affect the __________ which refers to the biological and social characteristics of a population, including age, sex, race, marital status, education, occupation, income, and size of household. A. gender/sex composition B. sex ratio C. population composition D. rate of natural increase Answer: C 43. One measure of population composition is the __________ which is the number of males for every hundred females in a given population. A. sex ratio B. rate of gender composition C. demographic diagrams D. refined gender rate Answer: A 44. In the United States, the estimated sex ratio for 2006 was __________ A. 75.4 B. 82.3 C. 88.6 D. 97.1 Answer: D 45. The __________ distribution of a population has a direct bearing on the demand for schooling, health, employment, housing, and pensions. A. sex B. age C. race D. education Answer: B 46. __________ are a series of bar graphs divided into five-year age cohorts, with the left side depicting the number or percentage of males in each age bracket; the right side provides the same information for females. A. Demographic diagrams B. Population pyramids C. Ecological portraits D. Actuarial graphs Answer: B 47. Sociologist Robert Crosnoe has suggested that A. recent immigration will produce a major upheaval in our society. B. putting a wall along the U.S.-Mexico border will do no good. C. recent immigrants do not show “the American Dream.” D. recent immigrants should be seen not as a threat but as a potential resource for our nation. Answer: D 48. English economist __________ was one of the first scholars to systematically study the effects of population. Displeased with societal changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution in Europe, he argued that "the power of population is infinitely greater than the power of the earth to produce subsistence (food) for man." A. Emile Durkheim B. Max Weber C. Karl Marx D. Thomas Malthus Answer: D 49. According to economist Thomas Malthus, the population, if left unchecked, would exceed the __________. A. earth's carrying capacity B. available food supply C. ecological balance D. earth's water supply Answer: B 50. English economist Thomas Malthus argued that the population would increase in a geometric (exponential) progression while the food supply would increase only by an arithmetic progression; thus, a __________ occurs. A. doubling effect B. positive check C. preventive check D. moral restraint Answer: A 51. According to economist Thomas Malthus, when a __________ occurs, population growth inevitably surpasses the food supply; and the lack of food ultimately ends population growth and perhaps eliminates the existing population. A. moral restraint B. positive check C. doubling effect D. preventive check Answer: C 52. According to economist Thomas Malthus, which of the following is not a positive check on population? A. famine B. disease C. war D. moral restraint Answer: D 53. For economist Thomas Malthus, _________ is the only acceptable preventive check on population. A. war B. moral restraint C. famine D. disease Answer: D 54. According to economist Thomas Malthus, people should practice sexual abstinence before marriage and postpone marriage as long as possible in order to have only a few children. This reflects his views on __________ checks. A. positive B. balanced C. preventive D. bounced Answer: C 55. Sociologist Karl Marx provided several views on overpopulation. Which of the following was not a view offered by Marx on overpopulation? A. The food supply is threatened by overpopulation. B. Overpopulation occurs because capitalists desire to have a surplus of workers so as to suppress wages and force workers to be more productive. C. Poverty is a consequence of exploitation of workers by the owners of the means of production. D. Technology makes it possible to produce the food and other goods needed by a growing population. Answer: A 56. According to some contemporary economists using a Marxist perspective, the greatest crisis today facing low-income nations is __________. A. natural disaster B. war C. food shortage D. capital shortage Answer: D 57. According to the __________, overpopulation and rapid population growth result in global environmental problems, ranging from global warming and rain-forest destruction to famine and vulnerability to epidemics. A. Malthusian perspective B. neo Malthusian perspective C. Marxist perspective D. demographic transition theory Answer: B 58. Neo-Malthusians refer to ___________ as the point at which no population increase occurs from year to year as because the number of births plus immigrants is equal to the number of deaths plus emigrants. A. population lag B. zero population growth C. the transitional point D. the demographic transition Answer: B 59. __________ is the process by which some societies have moved from high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates as a result of technological development. A. Zero population growth B. Population lag C. Demographic transition D. Cultural lag Answer: C 60. During the demographic transition stage of ____________, little population growth occurs because high birth rates are offset by high death rates. Food shortages, poor sanitation, and lack of adequate medical care contribute to high rates of infant and child mortality. A. post industrialization B. early industrialization C. advanced industrialization and urbanization D. preindustrial societies Answer: D 61. During the demographic transition stage of __________, significant population growth occurs because birth rates are relatively high whereas death rates decline. Improvements in health, sanitation, and nutrition produce a substantial decline in infant mortality rates. Overpopulation is likely to occur because more people are alive than the society has the ability to support. A. post industrialization B. early industrialization C. advanced industrialization and urbanization D. preindustrial societies Answer: B 62. During the demographic transition stage of __________, very little population growth occurs because both birth rates and death rates are low. The birth rate declines as couples control their fertility through contraceptives and become less likely to adhere to religious directives against their use. A. post industrialization B. early industrialization C. advanced industrialization and urbanization D. preindustrial societies Answer: C 63. During the demographic transition stage of __________, birth rates continue to decline as more women gain full-time employment and the cost of raising children continues to increase. The population grows very slowly, if at all, because the decrease in birth rates is coupled with a stable death rate. A. post industrialization B. early industrialization C. advanced industrialization and urbanization D. preindustrial societies Answer: A 64. Several major theories have been developed in an attempt to explain international migration. The __________ assumes that migration patterns occur based on geographic differences in the supply and demand for labor. A. epidemiological transition B. neoclassical economic approach C. new households economics of migration approach D. split-labor market theory Answer: B 65. The __________ emphasizes the part the entire family plays in the migration process. By having a diversity of family income (originating from more than one source), the family is cushioned from the economic woes of the nation that most of the family members think of as “home.” A. split-labor market theory B. world systems theory C. new households economies of migration approach D. network theory Answer: C 66. A conflict perspective on migration, the __________ suggests that immigrants from low-income countries are often recruited for secondary-labor market positions, dead-end jobs with low wages, unstable employment, and sometimes hazardous working conditions. A. network theory B. institutional theory C. world systems theory D. split-labor market theory Answer: D 67. __________ views migration as linked to the problems caused by capitalist development around the world. As the natural resources, land, and work force in low-income countries with little or no industrialization have come under the influence of international markets, there has been a corresponding flow of migrants from those nations to the highly industrialized, high-income countries. A. World Systems theory B. Split-Labor Market theory C. Network theory D. Institutional theory Answer: A 68. A newspaper article portrays recent immigrants sending money back home to their relatives. This is an example of __________ framing by the media. A. gratuitous B. biased C. sympathetic D. tertiary Answer: C 69. ______ framing by the TV industry describes immigrants as nothing more than cheap labor that benefits employers. A. Sustained B. Negative C. Biased D. Sympathetic Answer: B 70. Known as the __________, this approach suggests that after flows of migration commence, the pattern may continue because potential migrants have personal ties with relatives and friends who now live in the country of destination and can serve as a source of stability when the potential migrants relocate to the new country. A. world systems theory B. institutional theory C. neoclassical economic approach D. network theory Answer: D 71. The __________ suggests that migration may be fostered by groups, such as humanitarian aid organizations relocating refugees or smugglers bringing people into a country illegally, and that the actions of these groups may produce a larger stream of migrants than would otherwise be the case. A. network theory B. institutional theory C. world systems theory D. neoclassical economic approach Answer: B 72. __________ is a subfield of sociology that examines social relationships and political and economic structures in the city. A. Metropolitan sociology B. Civic sociology C. Urban sociology D. Municipal sociology Answer: C 73. According to urban sociologists, a __________ is a relatively dense and permanent settlement of people who secure their livelihood primarily through non-agricultural activities. A. metropolitan area B. township C. city D. territory Answer: C 74. According to sociologist Gideon Sjoberg, three preconditions must be present in order for a city to develop. Which of the following is not a precondition cited in order for a city to develop? A. a favourable physical environment B. an advanced technology C. a wall built around the city for protection D. a well-developed social organization Answer: C 75. Based on his preconditions for the development of cities, sociologist Gideon Sjoberg places the first cities in __________. A. Egypt B. Italy C. Sicily D. the Middle Eastern region of Mesopotamia Answer: D 76. The largest preindustrial city was __________. A. Jericho B. Athens C. Rome D. Babylon Answer: C 77. Preindustrial cities were limited in size by a number of factors. Which of the following factors was not identified as limiting the size of preindustrial cities? A. crowded housing conditions and a lack of adequate sewage facilities B. food supplies were limited C. migration to the cities was difficult D. lack of a sense of community Answer: D 78. Many preindustrial cities had a sense of __________, which is a set of social relationships operating within given spatial boundaries or locations that provides people with a sense of identity and a feeling of belonging. A. society B. community C. brotherhood D. companionship Answer: B 79. According to sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies, many preindustrial cities could be described as being __________, which is a society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability, such that people have a commitment to the entire group and feel a sense of togetherness. A. Gemeinschaft B. Oligarchy C. Gesellschaft D. Monarchy Answer: A 80. Based on sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies’ theory, many industrial cities were characterized as being __________, which is a society exhibiting impersonal and specialized relationships with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values. Even neighbours are “strangers” who perceive that they have little in common with one another. A. Gemeinschaft B. Oligarchy C. Gesellschaft D. Monarchy Answer: C 81. A __________ refers to one or more central cities and their surrounding suburbs that dominate the economic and cultural life of a region. A. metropolis B. megalopolis C. conglomeration D. census district Answer: A 82. According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, __________ is characterized by a simple division of labor and shared religious beliefs such as are found in small agrarian societies. A. technological solidarity B. mechanical solidarity C. ecological solidarity D. organic solidarity Answer: B 83. According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, __________ is characterized by interdependence based on the elaborate division of labor found in large, urban societies. A. organic solidarity B. ecological solidarity C. mechanical solidarity D. technological solidarity Answer: A 84. __________ is the study of the relationship between people and their physical environment. A. Demography B. Urban sociology C. Human ecology D. Physical sociology Answer: C 85. Sociologist Ernest Burgess developed the __________ which is a description of the process of urban growth that views the city as a series of circular areas, each characterized by a different type of land use, that developed from a central core. A. concentric zone model B. sector model C. multiple nuclei model D. social area analysis Answer: A 86. According to sociologist Ernest Burgess’ concentric zone model, __________ refers to the central business district and cultural centre. A. Zone 1 B. Zone 2 C. Zone 3 D. Zone 4 Answer: A 87. Based on the concentric zone model developed by sociologist Ernest Burgess, __________ includes houses formerly occupied by wealthy families which have been divided into rooms and rented to recent immigrants and poor persons. It also contains light manufacturing and marginal businesses (such as second-hand stores, pawnshops, and taverns). A. Zone 1 B. Zone 2 C. Zone 3 D. Zone 4 Answer: B 88. Citing sociologist Ernest Burgess’ concentric zone model, __________ contains working-class residences and shops and ethnic enclaves. A. Zone 2 B. Zone 3 C. Zone 4 D. Zone 5 Answer: B 89. Applying sociologist Ernest Burgess’ concentric zone model, __________ comprises homes for affluent families, single-family residences of white-collar works, and shopping centres. A. Zone 2 B. Zone 3 C. Zone 4 D. Zone 5 Answer: C 90. In relation to the concentric zone model developed by sociologist Ernest Burgess, __________ is a ring of small cities and towns populated by persons who commute to the central city to work and by wealthy people living on estates. A. Zone 2 B. Zone 3 C. Zone 4 D. Zone 5 Answer: D 91. Considered an important ecological process involved in the concentric zone model, __________ is the process by which a new category of people or type of land use arrives in an area previously occupied by another group or land use. A. invasion B. gentrification C. succession D. diffusion Answer: A 92. Sociologist Ernest Burgess noted that recent immigrants and low-income individuals moved into Zone 2, formerly occupied by wealthy families. This illustrated the ecological process of __________. A. succession B. diffusion C. invasion D. gentrification Answer: C 93. Regarded as an important ecological process involved in the concentric zone model, __________ is the process by which a new category of people or type of land use gradually predominates in an area formerly dominated by another group or activity. A. diffusion B. succession C. gentrification D. invasion Answer: B 94. Sociologist Ernest Burgess observed that when some of the single-family residences were sold and subsequently divided into multiple housing units, the remaining single-family owners moved out because the “old” neighbourhood had changed. This exemplified that the ecological process of __________ had occurred. A. gentrification B. invasion C. diffusion D. succession Answer: D 95. __________ is the process by which members of the middle and upper-middle classes, especially whites, move into the central city area and renovate existing properties. A. Invasion B. Succession C. Gentrification D. Diffusion Answer: C 96. Centrally located, naturally attractive areas are the most likely candidates for __________. To urban ecologists, this process is the solution to revitalizing the central city. A. gentrification B. diffusion C. invasion D. succession Answer: A 97. To __________, gentrification creates additional hardships for the poor by depleting the amount of affordable housing available and by “pushing” them out of the area. A. functionalist B. conflict theorists C. symbolic interactionists D. postmodern theorists Answer: B 98. Urban ecologist Homer Hoyt’s __________ emphasizes the significance of terrain and the importance of transportation routes in the layout of cities. A. social area analysis B. multiple nuclei model C. concentric zone model D. sector model Answer: D 99. Applying urban ecologist Homer Hoyt’s __________, residences of a particular type and value tend to grow outward from the centre of the city in wedge-shaped parts, with the more-expensive residential neighbourhoods located along the higher ground near lakes and rivers or along certain streets that stretch in one direction or another from the downtown area. A. social area analysis B. concentric zone model C. sector model D. multiple nuclei model Answer: C 100. According to the __________ developed by urban sociologists Chauncey Harris and Edward Ullman, cities do not have one centre from which all growth radiates, but rather have numerous centres of development based on specific urban needs or activities. A. the sector model B. social area analysis C. multiple nuclei model D. concentric zone model Answer: C TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. An important relationship exists between population size and the availability of food, water, energy, and housing. Population size, composition, and distribution are also connected to issues such as poverty, racial and ethnic diversity, and shifts in the age structure of society, and concerns about environmental degradation. Answer: True 2. Undocumented male workers are often older than legal immigrants. Answer: False Rejoinder: Undocumented workers tend to by younger. 3. Undocumented immigrant workers are over-represented in occupational groupings such as farming, cleaning, construction, and food preparation. Answer: True 4. Cancer is the number one killer in the U.S. Answer: False Rejoinder: The number one killer currently is heart disease. 5. The most basic measure of fertility is the cultivated birth rate—the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. In 2006, the cultivated birth rate in the United States was 14.1 per 1,000. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term defined is the crude birth rate. 6. In low-income, less-developed nations, infectious diseases remain the leading cause of death; in some areas, mortality rates are increasing rapidly as a result of HIV/AIDS. Children under age 15 constitute a growing number of those who are infected with HIV/AIDS. Answer: True 7. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a major population shift occurred in the United States as thousands of people moved from rural to urban areas. This illustrates the international form of migration. Answer: False Rejoinder: This example actually relates to the internal form of migration. Migration may be either international (movement between two nations) or internal (movement within national boundaries). Internal migration has occurred throughout U.S. history and has significantly changed the distribution of the population over time. 8. Immigration is the movement of people into a geographic area to take up residency, whereas emigration is the movement of people out of a geographic area to take up residency elsewhere. Answer: True 9. One measure of population composition is the sex ratio. In the United States, the estimated sex ratio for 2006 was 97.1, which means there were about 97 females per 100 males. Answer: False Rejoinder: The sex ratio is the number of males for every hundred females in a given population. If the number is greater than 100, there are ore males than females; if it is less than 100, there are more females than males. Thus, if the sex ratio in the United States was 97.1 in the year 2006, there were about 97 males per 100 females. 10. The age distribution of a population has a direct bearing on the demand for schooling, health, employment, housing, and pensions. The current distribution of a population can be depicted in a population pyramid, which is a graphic representation of the distribution of a population by sex and age. Answer: True 11. In his book on immigration, sociologist Robert Crosnoe argues that recent immigrants to the U.S. should not be seen as a threat but as a potential resource for our nation. Answer: True 12. Economist Thomas Malthus stated that the elimination of the existing population might be averted by either positive or preventive checks on population. Preventive checks are mortality risks such as famine, disease, and war, compared with positive checks which are limits on fertility. For Malthus, the only acceptable positive check was moral restraint. Answer: False Rejoinder: Just the opposite is true. Positive checks are mortality risks such as famine, disease, and war; compared with preventive checks which are limits on fertility. For Malthus, the only acceptable preventive check was moral restraint; people should practice sexual abstinence before marriage and postpone marriage as long as possible in order to have only a few children. 13. According to the demographic transition theory, in stage 3—advanced industrialization and urbanization very little population growth occurs because both birth rates and death rates are low. The birth rate declines as couple control their fertility through contraceptives and become less likely to adhere to religious directives against their use. Answer: True 14. Episodic framing refers to news writing that focuses on the human interest side of a story and shows that the individuals involved are caring people. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is sympathetic framing. 15. According to sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies, Gesellschaft is a society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability, such that people have a commitment to the entire group and feel a sense of togetherness. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term described is Gemeinschaft. A Gesellschaft is a society that exhibits impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values. Even neighbours are “strangers” who perceive that they have little in common with one another. 16. Since the 1950s, post-industrial cities have emerged in nations such as the United States as their economies have gradually shifted from secondary (manufacturing) production to tertiary (service and information processing) production. Answer: True 17. Sociologist Emile Durkheim applied natural ecology to his analysis of organic solidarity, characterized by a simple division of labor and shared religious beliefs such as those found in small, agrarian societies; and mechanical solidarity, characterized by interdependence based on the elaborate division of labor found in large, urban societies. Answer: False Rejoinder: The terms are switched around, mechanical solidarity—is characterized by a simple division of labor and shared religious beliefs such as those found in small, agrarian societies; and organic solidarity—is characterized by interdependence based on the elaborate division of labor found in large, urban societies. 18. Human ecology is the study of the relationship between people and their physical environment. According to sociologist Robert Park, economic competition produces certain regularities in land-use patterns and population distributions. Answer: True 19. An important ecological process in the concentric zone model, succession is the process by which a new category of people or type of land use arrives in an area previously occupied by another group or type of land use. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct process defined is referred to as invasion. The process of succession is the process by which a new category of people or type of land use gradually predominates in an area formerly dominated by another group or activity. 20. Gentrification is the process by which members of the middle and upper-middle classes, especially whites, move into the central-city area and renovate existing properties. Answer: True 21. According to the multiple nuclei model, cities do not have one centre from which all growth radiates, but rather have numerous centres of development based on specific urban needs or activities. As cities began to grow rapidly, they annexed formerly outlying and independent townships that had been communities in their own right. Answer: True 22. Functionalists argue that cities do not grow or decline by chance. Rather, they are the product of specific decisions made by members of the capitalist class and political elites. These far-reaching decisions regarding land use and urban development benefit the members of some groups at the expense of others. Answer: False Rejoinder: This describes the conflict perspective on political economy models. Functionalists examine the interrelations among the parts that make up the whole, therefore, in studying the growth of cities, they emphasize the life cycle of urban growth (the ecological models). 23. Sociologists Joe Feagin and Robert Parker asserted that urban space has an “exchange value” which refers to the profits that industrialists make from buying, selling, and developing land and buildings; and a “use value” which is the utility of space, land, and buildings for everyday life, family life, and neighbourhood life. Answer: True 24. Symbolic interactionists argue that “uneven development” —the tendency of some neighbourhoods, cities, or regions to grow and prosper whereas others stagnate and decline—reflects inequalities of wealth and power in society. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is definitely a conflict perspective on capitalism and urban growth in the United States. Symbolic interactionists examine the experience of urban life. How does city life affect the people who live in a city? 25. Sociologist Herbert Gans referred to urbanities as those individuals who choose to live in the city so that they can be close to cultural activities. Answer: True SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Describe the study of demography and define the basic demographic concepts. Answer: Demography is a subfield of sociology that examines population size, composition, and distribution. Many sociological studies use demographic analysis as a component of the research design because all aspects of social life are affected by demography. For example, an important relationship exists between population size and the availability of food, water, energy, and housing. Population size, composition, and distribution are also connected to issues such as poverty, racial and ethnic diversity, shifts in the age structure of society, and concerns about environmental degradation. Increases or decreases in population can have a powerful impact on the social, economic, and political structures of societies. As used by demographers, a population is a group of people who live in a specified geographic area. Changes in populations occur as a result of three processes: fertility (births), mortality (deaths), and migration. 2. Discuss fertility as it relates to the study of population. Answer: Fertility is the actual level of childbearing for an individual or a population. The level of fertility in a society is based on biological and social factors. The primary biological factor being the number of women of childbearing age (usually between ages 15 and 45). Other biological factors affecting fertility include the general health and level of nutrition of women of childbearing age. Social factors influencing the level of fertility include the roles available to women in a society and prevalent viewpoints regarding what constitutes the “ideal” family size. Based on biological capability alone, most women could produce twenty or more children during their childbearing years. Fecundity is the potential number of children who could be born if every woman reproduced at her maximum biological capacity. Fertility rates are not as high as fecundity rates because people’s biological capabilities are limited by social factors such as practicing voluntary abstinence and refraining from sexual intercourse until an older age, as well as by contraception, voluntary sterilization, abortion, ad infanticide. Additional social factors affecting fertility include significant changes in the number of available partners for sex and//or marriage (for example, as a result of war), increases in the number of women of childbearing age in the work force, and high rates of unemployment. The most basic measure of fertility is the crude birth rate—the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. In 2006, the crude birth rate in the United States was 14.1 per 1,000, as compared with an all-time high rate of 27 per 1,000 in 1947 (following World War II). In most areas of the world, women are having fewer children. Women who have six or seven children tend to live in agricultural regions of the world, where children’s labor is essential to the family’s economic survival and child mortality rates are very high. For example, Uganda has a crude birth rate of 49.1 per 1,000, as compared with 14.1 per 1,000 in the United States. However, in Uganda and some other African nations, families need to have many children in order to ensure that one or two live to adulthood due to high rates of poverty, malnutrition, and disease. 3. Discuss mortality as it relates to the study of population. Answer: The primary cause of world population growth in recent years has been a decline in mortality—the incidence of death in a population. The simplest measure of mortality is the crude death rate—the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. In 2006 the U.S. crude death rate was 8.3 per 1,000. In high income, developed nations, mortality rates have declined dramatically as diseases such as malaria, polio, typhoid, and measles have been virtually eliminated by vaccinations and improved sanitation and personal hygiene. In 1900, the leading cause of deaths in the United States was influenza/pneumonia and in 2000 the leading cause of deaths in the United States was heart disease. In low-income, less-developed nations, infectious diseases remain the leading cause of death; in some areas, mortality rates are increasing rapidly as a result of HIV/AIDS. On a global basis, large numbers of newborn infants do not live to see their first birthday. The measure of these deaths is referred to as the infant mortality rate, which is defined as the number of deaths of infants under1 year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year. The infant mortality rate is an important reflection of a society’s level of preventive (prenatal) medical care, maternal nutrition, childbirth procedures, and neonatal care for infants. In 2004, for example, the U.S. mortality rate for white infants was 5.7 per 1,000 live births; as compared with 13.8 per l, 000 live births for Africa American infants. Life expectancy is an estimate of the average lifetime in years of people born in a specific. For persons born in the United States in 2004, for example, life expectancy at birth was 77.8 years, compared with 82.0 years in Japan and 50 years or less in the African nations of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda. Life expectancy varies by sex; for instance, females born in the United States in 2004 could expect to live about 80.4 years as compared with 75.2 years for males. Life expectancy also varies by race; for example, African American men have a life expectancy at birth of about 69.5 years, compared to 75.7 years for white males. 4. Discuss migration as it relates to the study of population. Answer: Migration is the movement of people from one geographic area to another for the purpose of changing residency. Migration affects the size and distribution of the population in a given area. Distribution refers to the physical location of people throughout a geographic area. In the United States, people are not evenly distributed throughout the country; many people live in densely populated areas. Density is the number of people living in a specific geographic area. In urbanized area, density may be measured by the number of people who live per room, per block, or per square mile. Migration may be either international (movement between two nations) or internal (movement within national boundaries). Internal migration has occurred throughout U.S. history and has significantly changed the distribution of the population over time. Migration involves two types of movement: immigration and emigration. Immigration is the movement of people into a geographic area to take up residency. Each year about 1 million people enter the United States, primarily from Latin America and Asia; however, immigration rates are not an accurate reflection of the actual number of immigrants who enter a country. The U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service records only legal immigration based on entry visas and change-of-immigration-status forms. Similarly, few records are maintained regarding emigration—the movement of people out of a geographic area to take up residency elsewhere. People migrate either voluntarily or involuntarily. Pull factors at the international level, such as a democratic government, religious freedom, employment opportunities, or a more temperate climate, may draw voluntary immigrants into a nation. Within nations people from large cities may be pulled to rural areas by lower crime rates, more space, and a lower cost of living. Push factors at the international level, such as political unrest, violence, was, famine, plagues, and natural disasters, may encourage people to leave one area and relocate elsewhere. Push factors in regional U.S. migration include unemployment, harsh weather conditions, a high cost of living, inadequate school systems, and high crime rates. Involuntary, or forced, migration usually occurs as a result of political oppression, such as when Jews fled Nazi Germany in the 1930s or when Afghans left their country to escape oppression there in the late 1990s. 5. Discuss population composition as it relates to the study of population. Answer: Changes in fertility, mortality, and migration affect the population composition – the biological and social characteristics of a population, including age, sex, race, marital status, education, occupation, income, and size of household. One measure of population composition is the sex ratio—the number of males for every hundred females in a given population. A sex ratio of 100 indicates an equal number of males and females in the population. If the number is greater than 100, there are more males than females; if it is less than 100, there are more females than males. In the United States, the estimated sex ratio for 2006 was 97.1, which means there were about 97 males per 100 females. Although approximately 124 males are conceived for every 100 females, male fetuses miscarry at a higher rate. From birth to age 14, the sex ratio is 105; in the age 40 – 44 category, however, the ratio shifts to 99.3, and from this point on, women outnumber men. By age 65, the sex ratio is about 84.6—that is, there are 84 men for every 100 women. The ratio of males to females varies among racial and ethnic categories in addition to varying by age. For demographers, sex and age are significant population characteristics; they are key indicators of fertility and mortality rates. The age distribution of a population has a direct bearing on the demand for schooling, health, employment, housing, and pensions. The current distribution of a population can be depicted in a population pyramid—a graphic representation of the distribution of a population by sex and age. Population pyramids are a series of bar graphs divided into five-year age cohorts; the left side of the pyramid shows the number or percentage of males in each age bracket; the right side provides the same information for females. The age/sex distribution in the United States and other high-income nations does not have the appearance of a classic pyramid, but rather is more rectangular or barrel-shaped. By contrast, low-income nations, such as Mexico and Iran, which have high fertility and mortality rates, do fit the classic population pyramid. 6. From a global context, explain the Malthusian perspective on population growth. Answer: English clergyman and economist Thomas Robert Malthus was one of the first scholars to systematically study the effect of population. Displeased with societal changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution in England, he argued that “the power of population is infinitely greater than the power of the earth to produce subsistence (food) for man.” According to Malthus, the population, if left unchecked, would exceed the available food supply. He argued that the population would increase in a geometric (exponential) progression (2, 4, 8, 16,) while the food supply would increase only by an arithmetic progression (1, 2, 3,). In other words, a doubling effect occurs. Thus, population growth inevitably surpasses the food supply; and the lack of food ultimately ends population growth and perhaps eliminates the existing population. However, Malthus suggested that this disaster might be averted by either positive or preventive checks on population. Positive checks are mortality risks such as famine, disease, and war; preventive checks are limited to fertility. For Malthus, the only acceptable preventive check was moral restraint; people should practice sexual abstinence before marriage and postpone marriage as long as possible in order to have only a few children. Malthus has had a lasting impact on the field of population studies. Most demographers refer to his dire predictions when they examine the relationship between fertility and subsistence needs. Overpopulation is still a daunting problem that capitalism and technological advances thus far have not solved, especially in middle- and low-income nations with rapidly growing populations and very limited resources. 7. From a global context, discuss the Marxist perspective on population growth. Answer: According to sociologists Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, the food supply is not threatened by overpopulation; technologically, it is possible to produce the food and other goods needed to meet the demands of a growing population. They viewed poverty as a consequence of exploitation of workers by the owners of the means of production. For example, they argued that England had poverty because the capitalists skimmed off some of the workers’ wages as profits. The labor of the working classes was used by capitalists to earn profits, which, in turn, were used to purchase machinery that could replace the workers rather than supply food for all. From this perspective, overpopulation occurs because capitalists desire to have a surplus of workers (an industrial reserve army) so as to suppress wages and force workers concerned about losing their livelihoods to be more productive. Marx believed that overpopulation would contribute to the eventual destruction of capitalism: unemployment would make the workers dissatisfied, resulting in a class consciousness based on their shared oppression and the eventual overthrow of the system. According to some contemporary economists, the greatest crisis today facing low-income nations is capital shortage, not food shortage. Through technological advances, agricultural production has reached the level at which it can meet the food need of the world if food is distributed efficiently. Capital shortage refers to the lack of adequate money or property to maintain a business; it is a problem because the physical capital of the past no longer meets the needs of modern economic development. In the past, self-contained rural economies survived on local labor, using local materials to produce the capital needed for other laborers. Marx and Engels made a significant contribution to the study of demography by suggesting that property not overpopulation is the most important issue with regard to food supply in a capitalist economy. 8. From a global context, elaborate on the Neo-Malthusian perspective on population growth. Answer: More recently, neo-Malthusians (or new Malthusians) have reemphasized the dangers of overpopulation. To neo-Malthusians, Earth is “a dying planet” with too many people and too little food, compounded by environmental degradation. Overpopulation and rapid population growth result in global environmental problems, ranging from global warming and rain-forest destruction to famine and vulnerability to epidemics. Unless significant changes are made, including improving the status of women, reducing racism and religious prejudice, reforming the agriculture system, and shrinking the growing gap between rich and poor, the consequences will be dire. Early neo-Malthusians published birth control handbooks, and widespread acceptance of birth control eventually reduced the connection between people’s sexual conduct and fertility. Later neo-Malthusians have encouraged people to be part of the solution to the problem of overpopulation by having only one or two children in order to bring about zero population growth—the point at which no population increase occurs from year to year because the number of births plus immigrants is equal to the number of deaths plus emigrants. 9. From a global context, expand on the Demographic Transition theory on population growth. Answer: The theory of demographic transition offers a more accurate picture of future population growth. Demographic transition is the process by which some societies have moved from high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates as a result of technological development. Demographic transition is linked to four stages of economic development: Stage 1 Preindustrial societies—little population growth occurs because high birth rates are offset by high death rates. Food shortages, poor sanitation, and lack of adequate medical care contribute to high rates of infant and child mortality. Stage 2 Early industrialization—significant population occurs because birth rates are relatively high whereas death rates decline. Improvements in health, sanitation, and nutrition produce a substantial decline in infant mortality rates. Overpopulation is likely to occur because more people are alive than the society has the ability to support. Stage 3 Advanced industrialization and urbanization—very little population growth occurs because both birth rates and death rates are low. The birth rate declines as couples control their fertility through contraceptives and become less likely to adhere to religious directives against their use. Children are not viewed as an economic asset; they consume income rather than produce it. Societies in this stage attain zero population growth, but the actual number of births per year may still rise due to an increased number of women of childbearing age. Stage 4 Post industrialization—birth rates continue to decline as more women gain full-time employment and the cost of raising children continues to increase. The population grows very slowly; if at all, because the decrease in birth rates is coupled with a stable death rate. 10. Explain the difference between negative and sympathetic media framing and how it applies to immigrants. Is this a recent problem? Answer: Negative framing describes immigrants as nothing more than cheap labor that benefits employers in this country who do not believe in paying a living wage. On the other hand, sympathetic framing refers to news writing that focuses on the human interest side of a story and shows that the individuals involved are caring people who are representative of a larger population. No, the use of negative framing has been around for years. “Immigrant, foreign labor” has been described as a threat to the jobs and livelihood of other workers and as a threat to public safety. 11. Trace the historical development/emergence and evolution of the city to the preindustrial cities. Answer: Urban sociology is a subfield of sociology that examines social relationships and political and economic structures in the city. According to urban sociologists, a city is a relatively dense and permanent settlement of people who secure their livelihood primarily through non-agricultural activities. Cities are a relatively recent innovation when compared with the length of human existence. The earliest humans are believed to have emerged anywhere from 40,000 to 1,000,000 years age, and permanent human settlements are believed to have begun first about 8000 B.C.E. According to sociologist Gideon Sjoberg, three preconditions must be present in order for a city to develop: 1. a favourable physical environment—including climate a soil favourable to the development of plant and animal life and an adequate water supply to sustain both. 2. an advanced technology—(for that era) that could produce a social surplus in both agricultural and non-agricultural goods. 3. a well-developed social organization, including a power structure, in order to provide social stability to the economic system. Sjoberg places the first cities in the Middle Eastern region of Mesopotamia or in areas immediately adjacent to it at about 3500 B.C.E. The earliest cities were not large by today’s standards. The population of the larger Mesopotamian centres was between five and ten thousand. Preindustrial cities—the largest preindustrial city was Rome; by 100 C.E., it may have had a population of 650,000. With the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E., the nature of European cities changed. Seeking protection and survival, those persons who lived in urban settings typically did so in walled cities containing no more than 25,000 people. For the next 600 years, the urban population continued to live in walled enclaves, as competing warlords battled for power and territory during the “dark ages.” Slowly, as trade increased, cities began to tear down their walls. Preindustrial cities were limited in size by a number of factors. For one thing, crowded housing conditions and a lack of adequate sewage facilities increased the hazards from plagues and fires, and death rates were high. For another, food supplies were limited. Finally, migration to the city was difficult. In spite of these problems, many preindustrial cities had a sense of community—a set of social relationships operating within given spatial boundaries or locations that provides people with a sense of identity and a feeling of belonging. The cities were full of people from all walks of life, both rich and poor, and they felt a high degree of social integration. 12. Based on urbanization and the growth of cities, discuss the functionalist perspective as it relates to the ecological models. Answer: Functionalists in studying the growth of cities, emphasize the life cycle of urban growth. Sociologist Robert Park based his analysis of the city on human ecology – the study of the relationship between people and their physical environment. Economic competition produces certain regularities in land-use patterns and population distributions. Sociologist Ernest Burgess developed the concentric zone model—a description of the process of urban growth that views the city as a series of circular areas or zones, each characterized by a different type of land use that developed from a central core. Two important ecological processes are involved: (1) invasion—is the process by which a new category of people or type of land use arrives in an area previously occupied by another group or type of land use. (2) succession—is the process by which a new category of people or type of land use gradually predominates in an area formerly dominated by another group or activity. Gentrification—is the process by which members of the middle and upper-middle classes, especially whites, move into the central-city area and renovate existing properties. The concentric zone model demonstrates how economic and political forces play an important part in the location of groups and activities, and it shows how a large urban area can have internal differentiation. Urban ecologist Homer Hoyt’s sector model emphasizes the significance of terrain and the importance of transportation routes in the layout of cities. According to Hoyt, residence of a particular type and value tend to grow outward from the centre of the city in wedge-shaped sectors, with the more-expensive residential neighbourhoods located along the higher ground near lakes and rivers or along certain streets that stretch in one direction or another from the downtown area. According to the multiple nuclei model developed by urban ecologists Chauncey Harris and Edward Ullman, cities do not have one centre from which all growth radiates, but rather have numerous centres of development based on specific urban needs or activities. As cities began to grow rapidly, they annexed formerly outlying and independent townships that had been communities in their own right. According to urban ecologist Amos Hawley, urban areas are complex and expanding social systems in which growth patterns are based on advances in transportation and communication. Social area analysis examines urban populations in terms of economic status, family status, and ethnic classification. 13. Based on urbanization and the growth of cities, describe the conflict perspective as it relates to the political economy models. Answer: Conflict theorists argue that cities do not grow or decline by chance. Rather, they are the product of specific decisions made by members of the capitalist class and political elites. According to sociologists Joe Feagin and Robert Parker, three major themes prevail in political economy models of urban growth. First, both economic and political factors affect patterns of urban growth and decline. Second, urban space has both an exchange value and a use value. Third, both structure and agency are important in understanding how urban development takes place. According to political economy models, urban growth is influenced by capital investment decisions, power and resource inequality, class and class conflict, and government subsidy programs. Members of the capitalist class choose corporate locations, decide on sites for shopping centres and factories, and spread the population that can afford to purchase homes into sprawling suburbs located exactly where the capitalists think they should be located. One of the major results of these urban development practices is uneven development—the tendency of some neighbourhoods, cities, or regions to grow and prosper whereas others stagnate and decline. The growth of gated communities—subdivisions or neighbourhoods surrounded by barriers such as walls, fences, gates, or earth banks, along with a secured entrance—is an example to many people of how developers, builders, and municipalities have encouraged an increasing division between public and private property in capitalistic societies. Feminist perspectives have only recently been incorporated in urban studies. From this perspective, urbanization reflects the workings not only of the political economy but also of patriarchy. According to sociologist Lynn Appleton, different kinds of cities have different gender regimes—prevailing ideologies of how women and men should think, feel, and act; how access to social positions and control of resources should be managed; and how relationships between men and women should be conducted. As a result private patriarchy develops and it is based on a strongly gendered division of labor in the home, gender-segregated paid employment, and women’s dependence on men’s income. Also, cities may foster public patriarchy in the form of women’s increasing dependence on paid work and the state for income and their decreasing emotional interdependence with men. 14. Based on urbanization and the growth of cities, elaborate on the symbolic interactionist perspective as it relates to the experience of city life. Answer: Symbolic interactionists examine the experience of urban life. How does city life affect the people who live in a city? According to sociologist Georg Simmel, urban life is highly stimulating, and it shapes people’s thoughts and actions. Urban residents are influenced by the quick pace of the city and the pervasiveness of economic relations in everyday life. He suggests that attributes such as punctuality and exactness are rewarded but that friendliness and warmth in interpersonal relations are viewed as personal weaknesses. Sociologist Louis Wirth suggested that urbanism is a “way of life.” Urbanism refers to the distinctive social and psychological patterns of life typically found in the city. According to Wirth, the size, density, and heterogeneity of urban populations typically result in an elaborate division of labor and in spatial segregation of people by race/ethnicity, social class, religion, and/or lifestyle. From Wirth’s perspective, people who live in urban areas are alienated, powerless, and lonely. A sense of community is obliterated and replaced by the “mass society”—a large-scale, highly institutionalized society in which individuality is supplanted by mass messages, faceless bureaucracies, and corporate interests. Sociologist Herbert Gans suggested that not everyone experiences the city in the same way. According to Gans there are five major categories of adaptation among urban dwellers: cosmopolites, unmarried people and childless couples, ethnic villagers, the deprived, and the trapped. According to scholar Elizabeth Wilson, some men view the city as sexual space in which women, based on their sexual desirability and accessibility, are categorized. Cities offer a paradox for women: on the one hand, cities offer more freedom than is found in comparatively isolated rural, suburban, and domestic settings; on the other hand, women may be in greater physical danger in the city. 15. Discuss Herbert Gans’s five major types of adaptation among urban dwellers. Answer: Gans suggested that not everyone experiences city life in the same way. Specifically, he says there are five major categories. One, is the Cosmopolite. These are students, artists writers, musicians, entertainers and professionals who choose to live in the city because they want to be close to cultural activities. A second category, unmarried and childless couples, want to be close to work and entertainment. Ethnic villagers live in ethnically segregated neighborhoods. Some of these are recent immigrants who feel comfortable among similar others. The deprived are poor individuals with bleak future prospects. They have limited education and resources. Finally, there are the trapped. These people can find no escape from the city. These are often downwardly mobile people who have lost their former position in society. ESSAY SECTION 1. Summarize demography: the study of population. Answer: Demography is the scientific study of human populations, focusing on: • Population Size: Counting the number of people in a defined area. • Population Structure: Analyzing characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status. • Population Distribution: Mapping where people live and how they are spatially distributed. • Population Dynamics: Studying birth rates, death rates, migration patterns, and factors influencing population change. 2. Describe population growth in global context. Answer: Population Growth globally is characterized by: • Trends: Historically, exponential growth followed by a recent slowdown in growth rates due to declining fertility rates in many regions. • Factors: Influenced by birth rates, death rates, and migration patterns. • Implications: Impact on resources, environment, economic development, and social services, varying by region and development level. 3. Compare international migration theories. Answer: International Migration Theories include: • Neoclassical Theory: Focuses on economic factors driving migration, such as wage differentials between countries and job opportunities. • Dual Labor Market Theory: Emphasizes structural factors in sending and receiving countries, including demand for low-wage labor and labor market segmentation. • World Systems Theory: Views migration as a response to global economic inequalities and dependency relationships between core and peripheral countries. 4. Describe urbanization in global perspective. Answer: Urbanization refers to the process of population concentration in urban areas, characterized by: • Trends: Rapid growth of cities and metropolitan areas due to rural-urban migration and natural population increase. • Impacts: Social, economic, environmental changes including infrastructure development, job opportunities, cultural diversity, and environmental challenges. • Challenges: Urban poverty, housing shortages, transportation congestion, and environmental degradation. 5. Discuss the functionalist perspective on urbanization and the growth of cities: ecological models. Answer: Functionalist Perspective on Urbanization views cities as: • Functional Entities: Cities provide specialized functions (e.g., economic, cultural, educational) that support societal stability and progress. • Ecological Models: Analyze urban structure and organization based on concentric zones (e.g., Burgess Model) or sectoral patterns (e.g., Hoyt Model). • Social Integration: Cities promote social integration through diverse opportunities, social institutions, and shared norms and values. 6. Discuss the conflict perspective on urbanization and the growth of cities: political economy models. Answer: Conflict Perspective views urbanization through the lens of power, inequality, and political economy: • Political Economy Models: Analyze urban growth as driven by capitalist interests, land development, and government policies favoring elites. • Urban Segregation: Focus on spatial inequalities, gentrification, and displacement of marginalized communities due to economic restructuring. • Class Conflict: Emphasize tensions between social classes over resources, urban development projects, and access to services. 7. Discuss the symbolic interactionist perspective on urbanization and the growth of cities: the experience of city life. Answer: The Experience of City Life Symbolic Interactionist Perspective explores city life through interactions, symbols, and meanings: • Urban Identity: Examines how individuals construct identities and communities within urban settings. • Urban Culture: Studies cultural diversity, social networks, and subcultures shaping city life experiences. • Place Attachment: Focuses on emotional and symbolic attachments to neighbourhoods, landmarks, and urban environments. 8. Discuss Herbert Gans and twenty-first century urban villagers. Answer: Herbert Gans coined the term "urban villagers" to describe residents who maintain local social ties and community networks in modern cities: • Concept: Urban villagers prioritize neighbourhood connections, civic engagement, and local solidarity. • Community Benefits: Enhances social cohesion, mutual support, and collective action in addressing local issues. • Challenges: Faces pressures from urbanization, gentrification, and economic changes threatening community bonds and traditional neighbourhood cultures. 9. Describe problems in global cities. Answer: Problems in Global Cities include: • Urban Poverty: Concentration of poverty in informal settlements, slums, and marginalized urban areas lacking basic services. • Housing Affordability: Rising housing costs, homelessness, and inadequate housing options for low-income residents. • Environmental Challenges: Pollution, congestion, and resource depletion impacting urban sustainability. • Social Inequality: Unequal access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities exacerbating social divisions. • Governance Issues: Inefficient infrastructure, corruption, and challenges in urban planning and management. 10. Summarize urban problems in the United States. Answer: Urban Problems in the United States encompass: • Racial Segregation: Historic and ongoing segregation patterns influencing residential neighbourhoods, schools, and socioeconomic opportunities. • Crime and Violence: High crime rates in some urban areas, affecting community safety and quality of life. • Infrastructure Deficits: Aging infrastructure, inadequate public transportation, and urban sprawl contributing to congestion and environmental impacts. • Health Disparities: Unequal access to healthcare services, leading to disparities in health outcomes among urban residents. • Economic Disparities: Income inequality, job insecurity, and disparities in economic opportunities within and between urban neighbourhoods. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154