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Chapter 13 Choice
1. In a two-choice situation for pigeons, the left key has a VI schedule that delivers 60
reinforcers per hour, and the right key has a VI schedule that delivers 20 reinforcers per hour.
The matching law predicts that a pigeon will make _______ of its responses on the left key.
a. 25%
b. 50%
c. 75%
d. 100%
Answer: c
Rationale:
According to the matching law, organisms distribute their responses to match the distribution
of reinforcement available in the environment. In this scenario, the left key offers three times
more reinforcers per hour than the right key. Therefore, the pigeon is expected to allocate
approximately 75% of its responses to the left key.
2. A pigeon responds on a concurrent VI 60-second VI 60-second schedule. If this animal's
behavior roughly follows the matching law, it will probably receive
a. about 60 reinforcers per hour
b. about 120 reinforcers per hour
c. slightly less than 60 reinforcers per hour
d. slightly less than 120 reinforcers per hour
Answer: d
Rationale:
The matching law predicts that organisms distribute their responses to maximize overall
reinforcement. In a concurrent VI schedule, the subject is expected to distribute its responses
proportionally to the rate of reinforcement. Since both VI schedules offer the same rate of
reinforcement, the pigeon is expected to receive approximately half of the total reinforcement
from each schedule, resulting in slightly less than 120 reinforcers per hour.
3. In phase 1 of a choice experiment involving concurrent VI schedules, a human subject
receives 25% of his reinforcers by making a left response. In phase 2, he receives 75% of his
reinforcers by making a left response. The subject's percentage of left responses is 15% in
phase 1, and 81% in phase 2. This performance is an example of
a. matching
b. undermatching
c. overmatching
d. bias
Answer: c
Rationale:
Overmatching occurs when the subject's response distribution is more extreme than predicted
by the matching law. In this scenario, the subject's response percentages are much higher than
the percentages of reinforcers earned on the left key in both phases, indicating an
overmatching effect.
4. In phase 1 of a choice experiment involving concurrent VI schedules, a human subject
receives 25% of his reinforcers by making a left response. In phase 2, he receives 75% of his
reinforcers by making a left response. The subject's percentage of left responses is 35% in
phase 1, and 95% in phase 2. This performance is an example of
a. matching
b. undermatching
c. overmatching
d. bias
Answer: d
Rationale:
Bias refers to a consistent preference for one option over another, regardless of the
reinforcement contingencies. In this case, the subject consistently chooses the left response
option in both phases, even when the reinforcement distribution changes, indicating bias
rather than matching.
5. In phase 1 of a choice experiment involving concurrent VI schedules, a human subject
receives 25% of his reinforcers by making a left response. In phase 2, he receives 75% of his
reinforcers by making a left response. The subject's percentage of left responses is 40% in
phase 1, and 60% in phase 2. This performance is an example of
a. matching
b. undermatching
c. overmatching
d. bias
Answer: b
Rationale:
Undermatching occurs when the subject's response distribution is less extreme than predicted
by the matching law. In this scenario, despite the change in reinforcement contingencies
favoring the left key, the subject's response percentages do not align as closely with the
reinforcement percentages, indicating undermatching.
6. The matching law has been applied to choice situations where the two options differ in
a. rate of reinforcement
b. amount of reinforcement
c. quality of reinforcement
d. all of the above
Answer: d
Rationale:
The matching law can be applied to choice situations where the options differ in various
aspects of reinforcement, including rate, amount, and quality. It predicts how organisms
distribute their responses in such situations to maximize overall reinforcement.
7. To apply the matching law to cases where the researcher presents only one reinforcement
schedule, such as a VI schedule with food reinforcement, Herrnstein assumed that
a. the subject will devote all its time to this schedule
b. the subject chooses between this schedule and extraneous reinforcers in the environment
c. the subject’s responding will not change if the rate of reinforcement is varied
d. none of the above
Answer: b
Rationale:
Herrnstein proposed that in situations with only one reinforcement schedule, subjects choose
between that schedule and other available reinforcers in the environment. This assumption
allows the matching law to be applied even in single-schedule scenarios.
8. Herrnstein has applied the matching law to situations where a subject responds on VI
schedules of different sizes, but only one schedule is presented at a time. He assumed that if
the reinforcement for extraneous behaviors is increased
a. the subject's maximum possible response rate does not change
b. response rate on the VI schedule should decrease
c. both a and b
d. neither a nor b
Answer: c
Rationale:
Herrnstein suggested that if the reinforcement for extraneous behaviors is increased in singleschedule scenarios, the subject's overall response rate may remain unchanged, but the
response rate on the VI schedule being studied should decrease. This assumption aligns with
the principles of the matching law.
9. According to the matching law, if presented with concurrent VR 20 and VR 60 schedules,
what percentage of a subject's responses will be made on the VR 20 schedule?
a. 100%
b. 75%
c. 0%
d. either a or c
Answer: d
Rationale:
The matching law predicts that organisms distribute their responses to match the distribution
of reinforcement available. In this scenario, since the VR 20 schedule offers more frequent
reinforcement, the subject is expected to allocate all or most of its responses to that schedule,
hence either a or c is correct.
10. According to optimization theory, if presented with concurrent VR 20 and VR 60
schedules, what percentage of a subject's responses will be made on the VR 20 schedule?
a. 100%
b. 75%
c. 0%
d. either a or c
Answer: a
Rationale:
Optimization theory suggests that organisms will allocate their responses to maximize overall
reinforcement. In this scenario, since the VR 20 schedule offers more frequent reinforcement,
the subject is expected to allocate all or most of its responses to that schedule, hence 100%.
11. According to melioration theory, if presented with concurrent VR 20 and VR 60
schedules, what percentage of a subject's responses will be made on the VR 20 schedule?
a. 100%
b. 75%
c. 0%
d. either a or c
Answer: a
Rationale:
According to melioration theory, organisms tend to allocate their behavior in a manner that
maximizes reinforcement. In this scenario, because the VR 20 schedule provides more
frequent reinforcement compared to the VR 60 schedule, subjects are expected to allocate
100% of their responses to the VR 20 schedule in order to maximize their overall
reinforcement.
12. Experiments have shown that in situations where optimization theory predicts one
behavior and the matching law predicts another,
a. animals usually behave as the matching law predicts.
b. animals usually behave as optimization theory predicts.
c. animals shift back and forth, sometimes following the matching law and sometimes
optimization theory.
d. people follow the matching law but animals do not.
Answer: a
Rationale:
Experimental evidence has consistently demonstrated that animals tend to behave in
accordance with the matching law rather than optimization theory in situations where the
predictions of the two theories diverge. The matching law suggests that organisms distribute
their behavior in proportion to the relative rates of reinforcement available from different
sources.
13. According to momentary maximization theory, in a concurrent VI VI situation, a subject
will
a. show exclusive preference for the better VI schedule
b. respond randomly on a moment to moment basis
c. switch quickly from the poorer VI to the better VI, but switch slowly form the better VI to
the poorer VI
d. none of the above
Answer: c
Rationale:
Momentary maximization theory posits that subjects will tend to maximize reinforcement on
a moment-to-moment basis. In a concurrent VI VI situation, subjects are expected to quickly
switch from the poorer VI schedule to the better VI schedule to maximize reinforcement.
However, they are expected to switch more slowly from the better VI to the poorer VI as the
better VI provides higher reinforcement rates.
14. In a concurrent VI VI situation, a subject has just switched from the poorer VI to the
better VI. Momentary maximizing theory predicts that as time passes, the likelihood of a
switch back to the other VI
a. will increase
b. will decrease
c. will remain constant
d. will first increase then decrease
Answer: a
Rationale:
According to momentary maximizing theory, after switching from the poorer VI to the better
VI, the likelihood of switching back to the other VI increases over time. This is because
subjects are expected to continually assess and adapt their behavior to maximize
reinforcement, leading to a higher probability of switching back to the alternative schedule as
time progresses.
15. A self-control choice is a choice between a _______ reinforcer and a _______ reinforcer.
a. small and immediate; large and delayed
b. small and delayed; large and immediate
c. small and risky; large and guaranteed
d. immediate and guaranteed; delayed and risky
Answer: a
Rationale:
A self-control choice involves selecting between a smaller, more immediate reinforcer and a
larger, but delayed reinforcer. This reflects the trade-off between immediate gratification and
delayed but greater rewards, which is central to self-control decision-making.
16. Cases in which people choose a small immediate reinforcer instead of a larger delay
reinforcer can be viewed as evidence
a. against optimization theory
b. against momentary maximizing theory
c. against the Ainslie-Rachlin theory
d. supporting optimization theory
Answer: a
Rationale:
Instances where individuals choose smaller immediate reinforcers over larger, delayed
reinforcers contradict the predictions of optimization theory, which posits that individuals
always seek to maximize the value of their outcomes. Such cases suggest that other factors,
such as impulsivity or present bias, influence decision-making beyond simple optimization.
17. An individual must make a choice between a small reinforcer and a larger but more
delayed reinforcer. If the individual is forced to make a commitment well in advance of when
the options will be delivered, the individual will be
a. more unpredictable
b. more likely to choose the small reinforcer
c. more likely to choose the large reinforcer
d. none of the above
Answer: c
Rationale:
When individuals are required to make a commitment well in advance of receiving the
reinforcers, they are more likely to choose the larger, more delayed reinforcer. This is
because committing in advance may help overcome the impulsivity associated with selecting
the smaller, immediate reinforcer, leading to a greater likelihood of choosing the delayed but
larger option.
18. Studies with animals have shown that in a self-control situation, the use of a
precommitment procedure is more effective in increasing the number of large reinforcer
choices if
a. there is no delay between the precommitment period and the delivery of either reinforcer
b. there is a long delay between the precommitment period and the delivery of either
reinforcer
c. the small immediate reinforcer is visible during the precommitment period
d. the animal is distracted during the precommitment period
Answer: b
Rationale:
Precommitment procedures are more effective in increasing the selection of larger reinforcers
when there is a long delay between the precommitment period and the delivery of either
reinforcer. This is because precommitment helps individuals overcome impulsivity and select
the larger reinforcer, but this effect is more pronounced when the delay to the larger
reinforcer is significant, as it provides time for the commitment to influence decision-making.
19. Pigeons are more likely to choose a more desirable but delayed reinforcer instead of an
immediate but less desirable reinforcer if
a. both reinforcers are visible during the delay period
b. stimuli associated with the reinforcers are present during the delay period
c. some other, irrelevant behavior can be performed during the delay period
d. all of the above
Answer: c
Rationale:
Pigeons, like humans, are more likely to choose delayed, more desirable reinforcers when
they have the opportunity to engage in alternative, irrelevant behaviors during the delay
period. This suggests that distractions or alternative activities during the delay can help
mitigate impulsivity, leading to a higher likelihood of choosing the delayed but more
desirable reinforcer.
20. Children are more likely to choose a more desirable but delayed reinforcer over an
immediate but less desirable reinforcer if
a. both reinforcers are visible during the delay period
b. stimuli associated with the reinforcers are present during the delay period
c. some other, irrelevant behavior can be performed during the delay period
d. all of the above
Answer: c
Rationale:
Similar to pigeons and adults, children are more likely to choose delayed, more desirable
reinforcers when they have the opportunity to engage in alternative, irrelevant behaviors
during the delay period. This indicates that distractions or alternative activities during the
delay can help children overcome impulsivity and make choices that are more aligned with
their long-term interests.
21. A strategy not advisable for a person who wants to lose weight is:
a. purchase only foods that are low in calories
b. purchase only foods that can be prepared quickly
c. reinforce yourself with some non-food item or activity for passing up dessert
d. put pictures or other stimuli around the kitchen to remind you of your long-term goal
Answer: b
Rationale:
Purchasing only foods that can be prepared quickly does not inherently address the issue of
calorie intake, which is crucial for weight loss. Quick preparation does not necessarily equate
to healthy or low-calorie options. In fact, many foods that can be prepared quickly are often
high in calories, unhealthy fats, and sugars, which can hinder weight loss efforts.
22. A strategy not advisable for a person who wants to stop spending money impulsively is:
a. destroy your credit cards
b. do not bring a lot of money when you go shopping
c. carry a picture of some expensive item for which you are saving in your wallet
d. never make a shopping list
Answer: d
Rationale:
Not making a shopping list can exacerbate impulsive spending tendencies. Shopping without
a list increases the likelihood of purchasing unnecessary items and being influenced by
marketing tactics within the store. Making a shopping list helps individuals prioritize their
purchases and stick to their intended budget, thus reducing impulsive spending.
23. According to Caraco's theory about risk-taking, animals are:
a. more risk-prone when food is scarce
b. more risk-prone when food is plentiful
c. more risk-averse when they are hungry
d. none of the above
Answer: a
Rationale:
Caraco's theory suggests that animals are more inclined to take risks when food is scarce
because the potential payoff of finding food outweighs the potential risks associated with
seeking it. When food is scarce, animals may be more willing to take chances to secure
sustenance, even if it involves higher risks such as venturing into unfamiliar territory or
exposing themselves to predators.
24. The tragedy of the commons arises in situations where:
a. individuals place no value on the resources of the community
b. individuals seek to maximize their personal gains
c. the behavior of a single individual has no effect on the community's resources
d. all of the above
Answer: b
Rationale:
The tragedy of the commons occurs when individuals prioritize their personal gains over the
well-being of the community or shared resources. This behavior leads to overexploitation and
depletion of common resources, as each individual seeks to maximize their own benefits
without considering the negative impact on others or the sustainability of the resources.
25. The tragedy of the commons can be averted by:
a. setting legal limits on how much the community's resources can be used
b. charging fees for the use of the community's resources
c. encouraging individuals to consider the long-term consequences of their actions for the
community as a whole
d. all of the above
Answer: d
Rationale:
Each of the provided strategies contributes to averting the tragedy of the commons by
addressing different aspects of resource management. Setting legal limits ensures that
resources are not overexploited beyond sustainable levels. Charging fees incentivizes
responsible resource usage and provides funds for resource conservation efforts. Encouraging
individuals to consider the long-term consequences fosters a sense of collective responsibility
and promotes sustainable behaviors, ultimately preserving common resources for future
generations.
Test Bank for Learning and Behavior
James E. Mazur
9780205864812, 9780205246441
