CHAPTER 12 – EDUCATION AND RELIGION MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. Ultimately, issues relating to the separation of church and state, including religious instruction in public schools, are constitutional issues that are decided by __________, in the absence of a constitutional amendment. A. the President of the United States B. state governors C. the nation’s law schools D. the U.S. Supreme Court Answer: D 2. __________ is the social institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally organized structure. A. Religion B. Political science C. Education D. Sociology Answer: C 3. __________ theorists believe that education contributes to the maintenance of society and provides people with an opportunity for self-enhancement and upward social mobility. They view education as one of the most important components of society. A. Symbolic interactionist B. Conflict C. Postmodernist D. Functionalist Answer: D 4. According to sociologist __________, education is crucial for promoting solidarity and stability in society. Education is the “influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet ready for social life.” In other words, we can learn from what others have already experienced. A. Emile Durkheim B. Robert Merton C. Max Weber D. Karl Marx Answer: A 5. Contemporary __________ suggest that education is responsible for teaching U.S. values. According to sociologist Amitai Etzioni, “shared” values (such as the dignity of all persons ought to be respected) should be transmitted by schools from kindergarten through college. A. conflict theorists B. symbolic interactionists C. functionalists D. postmodernists Answer: C 6. Some functions of education are ___________, which are open, stated and, intended goals or consequences of activities within an organization or institution. A. latent functions B. intrinsic functions C. extrinsic functions D. manifest functions Answer: D 7. A(n) __________ function in education includes teaching specific subjects, such as science, mathematics, reading, history, and English. A. extrinsic B. manifest C. intrinsic D. latent Answer: B 8. Education serves five major manifest functions in society. Which of the following was not identified as a manifest of function of education? A. socialization B. transmission of culture C. restricting some activities D. social control Answer: C 9. From kindergarten through college, schools teach students the student role and specific academic subjects. This illustrates the manifest function of education referred to as __________. A. socialization B. transmission of culture C. social placement D. change and innovation Answer: A 10. In primary and secondary schools, students are taught specific subject matter appropriate to their age, skill level, and previous educational experience. At the college level, students focus on more detailed knowledge of subjects that they have previously studied while also being exposed to new areas of study and research. These examples depict the manifest function of education known as __________. A. change and innovation B. social control C. social placement D. socialization Answer: D 11. Schools play an active part in the process of assimilation, whereby recent immigrants learn dominant values, attitudes, and behavior so that they can be productive members of society. This exemplifies the manifest function of education referred to as __________. A. social placement B. transmission of culture C. social control D. change and innovation Answer: B 12. Attempts to remove textbooks from the schools have occurred at what level? A. elementary B. middle C. high D. attempts have occurred at all levels Answer: D 13. Home schooling in the U.S. has increased primarily because of A. religious reasons. B. secular reasons. C. gender or racial bias. D. Both a and b are correct Answer: D 14. Which statement concerning education in the U.S. is false? A. No mention of religion was made in the original Constitution. B. Jewish parochial schools have grown rapidly in the past decade. C. The U.S. Congress has the ultimate authority as to whether or not religion can be included in the curriculum of public schools. D. There has been a high increase in the percentage of the U.S. population that describe themselves as having no religion. Answer: C 15. Schools are responsible for teaching values such as discipline, respect, obedience, punctuality, and perseverance. Schools teach conformity by encouraging young people to be good students, conscientious future workers, and law-abiding citizens. This represents the manifest function of education known as __________. A. socialization B. transmission of culture C. social control D. social placement Answer: C 16. Schools are responsible for identifying the most qualified people to fill available positions in society. As a result, students are channeled into programs based on individual ability and academic achievement. This illustrates the manifest function of education referred to as __________. A. change and innovation B. transmission of culture C. social control D. social placement Answer: D 17. As student populations diversify over time, new educational programs are introduced to meet societal needs. For example, sex education, drug education, and multicultural studies have been implemented in some schools to help students learn about pressing social issues. This exemplifies the manifest function of education called __________. A. socialization B. transmission of culture C. change and innovation D. social placement Answer: C 18. All social institutions, including education, have some __________, which are hidden, unstated, and sometimes unintended consequences of activities within an organization or institution. A. intrinsic functions B. latent functions C. extrinsic functions D. manifest functions Answer: B 19. Education serves at least three latent functions. Which of the following was not identified as a latent function of education? A. restricting some activities. B. creation of a generation gap. C. matchmaking and production of social networks. D. change and innovation. Answer: D 20. Early in the twentieth century, all states passed __________ laws that require children to attend school until they reach a specified age (usually age 16) or complete a minimum level of formal education (generally the eighth grade). A. compulsory education B. mandatory education C. required education D. minimum education Answer: B 21. Education keeps students off the street and out of the full-time job market for a number of years, thus helping keep unemployment within reasonable bounds. This illustrates the latent function of education referred to as __________. A. restricting some activities B. matchmaking and production of social networks C. creation of a generation gap D. social placement Answer: A 22. Because schools bring together people of similar ages, social class, and race/ethnicity, young people often meet future marriage partners. This latent function of education results in __________. A. the creation of a generation gap B. the transmission of culture C. matchmaking and the production of social networks D. restricting some activities Answer: C 23. Students may learn information in school that contradicts beliefs held by their parents or their religion. Debates over the content of textbooks and library books typically center on information that parents deem unacceptable for their children. This illustrates the latent function of education known as __________. A. social placement B. matchmaking and production of social networks C. restricting some activities D. creation of a generation gap Answer: D 24. Some __________ theorists argue that U.S. education is not promoting the high-level skills in reading, writing, science, and mathematics that are needed in the workplace and the global economy. A. postmodernist B. functionalist C. symbolic interactionist D. conflict Answer: B 25. Which of the following statement relating to bullying is false? A. It is an act of aggression. B. It is rarely repeated. C. The victim has a difficult time defending him or herself. D. It is common not only in the U.S. but around the world. Answer: B 26. As much as _____ of adults students that they bully others with some frequency during the school year. A. 5% B. 10% C. 25% D. 35% Answer: C 27. While character education has been suggested for reducing bullying, one alternative is to focus on what? A. affirmative action programs B. cultural diversity C. the social environment of the school D. stronger penalties Answer: C 28. Wesley Perkins has developed what kind of approach to preventing bullying? A. social norms B. communication skills C. personality defective D. conflict resolution Answer: A 29. Studies reveal that anywhere from _____ to _____ of U.S. students are bullied during the school year. A. 3% to 5% B. 10% to 15% C. 15% to 25% D. 30% to 40% Answer: C 30. Clearly, test scores are subject to a variety of interpretations; however, for most __________ analysts, lagging test scores are a sign that problems exist in the nation’s educational systems. Accordingly, improvements will occur only when more stringent academic requirements are implemented for students. A. conflict B. postmodern C. functionalist D. symbolic interactionist Answer: C 31. __________ theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality in society; rather, they believe that schools often perpetuate class, racial/ethnic, and gender inequalities as some groups seek to maintain their privileged position at the expense of others. A. Functionalist B. Symbolic interactionist C. Conflict D. Postmodernist Answer: C 32. Although many factors, including intelligence, family income, motivation, and previous achievement are important in determining how much education a person will attain, __________ argue that access to quality education is closely related to social class. A. symbolic interactionists B. functionalists C. postmodernist D. conflict theorists Answer: B 33. According to French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, students from diverse class backgrounds come to school with different amounts of __________, which refers to social assets that include values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture. A. cultural capital B. proper social grace C. accumulated social wisdom D. cultural baggage Answer: A 34. __________ involves "proper" attitudes toward education, socially approved dress and manners, and knowledge about books, art, music, and other forms of high and popular culture. A. Cultural mystique B. Proper social grace C. Accumulated social wisdom D. Cultural capital Answer: D 35. Standardized tests that are used to group students by ability and to assign them to classes often measure students’ __________ rather than their “natural” intelligence or aptitude. A. cultural mystique B. ability segregation C. cultural capital D. cultural baggage Answer: C 36. __________ refers to the practice of assigning students to specific curriculum groups and courses on the basis of their test scores, previous grades, or other criteria. A. Age grading B. Intelligence grouping C. Tracking D. Ability segregation Answer: C 37. __________ theorists believe that tracking seriously affects many students’ educational performance and their overall academic accomplishments. In elementary schools, tracking is often referred to as “ability grouping” and is based on the assumption that it is easier to teach a group of students who have similar abilities. A. Functionalist B. Conflict C. Symbolic interactionist D. Postmodernist Answer: B 38. Some social scientists believe that __________ is one of the most obvious mechanisms through which students of color and those from low-income families receive a diluted academic program, making it much more likely that they will fall even further behind their white, middle-class counterparts. A. ability segregation B. intelligence grouping C. age grading D. tracking Answer: D 39. According to conflict theorists, the __________ is the transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools. A. tracking system B. hidden curriculum C. latent function of education D. educational indoctrination Answer: B 40. Through the __________, schools make working-class and poverty-level students aware that they will be expected to take orders from others, arrive at work punctually, follow bureaucratic rules, and experience high levels of boredom without complaining. A. latent function of education B. educational indoctrination C. tracking system D. hidden curriculum Answer: D 41. __________ is a process of social selection in which class advantage and social status are linked to the possession of academic qualifications. A. Credentialism B. Tracking C. The hidden curriculum D. Ability grouping Answer: A 42. __________ is a social system in which status is assumed to be acquired through individual ability and effort. A. Tracking B. Credentialism C. Meritocracy D. Educational bureaucracy Answer: C 43. According to __________ theorists, gender bias is embedded in both the formal and the hidden curricula of schools. For many years, reading materials, classroom activities, and treatment by teachers and peers contributed to a feeling among many girls and young women that they were less important than male students. A. symbolic interactionist B. functionalist C. postmodernist D. conflict Answer: D 44. __________ theorists examine educational practices that undermine female students' self-esteem and discouraged them from taking certain courses, such as math and science, which were usually dominated by male teachers and students. A. Conflict B. Postmodernist C. Symbolic interactionist D. Functionalist Answer: A 45. The __________ focus on the classroom communication patterns and educational practices, such as labeling that affect students’ self-concept and aspirations. A. conflict theorists B. functionalists C. symbolic interactionists D. postmodernists Answer: C 46. __________ is the process whereby a person is identified by others as possessing a specific characteristic or exhibiting a certain pattern of behavior (such as being deviant). A. Marking B. Tagging C. Categorizing D. Labeling Answer: D 47. According to __________, the process of labeling is directly related to the power and status of those persons who do the labeling and those who are being labelled. A. conflict theorists B. symbolic interactionists C. functionalists D. postmodernists Answer: B 48. In schools, teachers and administrators are empowered to label children in various ways, including grades, written comments on deportment (classroom behavior), and placement in classes. This example would be associated with __________ theorists. A. symbolic interactionist B. postmodernist C. functionalist D. conflict Answer: A 49. A __________ is an unsubstantiated belief or prediction resulting in behavior that makes the originally false belief come true. A. self-fulfilling prophecy B. learning disability C. defeating perception D. fallacy of reasoning Answer: A 50. A classic form of labeling and the self-fulfilling prophecy occurs through the use of __________ tests, which claim to measure a person’s inherent intelligence, apart from any family or school influences on the individual. A. personality B. emotional C. developmental D. intelligence Answer: D 51. A teacher who believes (as a result of stereotypes based on the relationship between IQ and race) that some students of colour are less capable of learning and treats them accordingly may contribute to __________. A. the iron law of oligarchy B. the labeling process C. tracking D. the hidden curriculum Answer: B 52. In their controversial book “The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life,” Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray argue that intelligence is __________. A. strictly an environmental phenomenon B. genetically inherited C. not related to a person's racial-ethnic group "intelligence genes" D. not something that can be measured accurately Answer: B 53. According to Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, certain racial/ethnic groups differ in average IQ and are likely to differ in “intelligence genes” as well. For example, they point out that, on average, people living in Asia score higher on IQ tests than white Americans and that African Americans score __________ on average than white Americans. A. 10 points higher B. 10 points lower C. 15 points lower D. 15 points higher Answer: C 54. According to the text's discussion of unequal funding as a source of inequality in education, __________. A. of the small proportion of school funding that comes from the federal government, most funds are earmarked for special programs that specifically target disadvantaged students or students with disabilities B. most educational funds are derived from state and federal income taxes C. the property tax base for central city schools has continued to grow in most regions D. recent redistribution of funds has made many schools' resources more equitable than in the past Answer: A 55. Recently, __________ programs, which would allow students and their families to spend a specific sum of government money to purchase education at the school of their choice, have gained many supporters, who believe that this system might be an answer to some of the problems that plague public education today. A. school tracking B. school voucher C. school ability grouping D. school labeling Answer: B 56. Although there has been a decrease in the overall school dropout rate over the past two decades, about __________ percent of people between the ages of 14 and 24 have left school before earning a high school diploma. A. 5 B. 10 C. 15 D. 20 Answer: B 57. Ethnic and class differences are significant in dropout rates. For example, __________ have the highest dropout rate (24.0 percent) in U.S. schools. A. Latinos/as (Hispanics) B. African-Americans C. Native Americans D. non-Hispanic Whites Answer: A 58. In many areas of the United States, schools remain racially segregated or have become resegregated after earlier attempts at integration failed. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in __________ that “separate but equal” segregated schools are unconstitutional because they are inherently unequal. A. Frager v. the Board of Education of Houston, Texas B. Jordan v. the Board of Education of Montgomery, Alabama C. Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas D. Bollinger v. the Board of Education of Lansing, Michigan Answer: C 59. Efforts to bring about __________, which is the abolition of legally sanctioned racial/ethnic segregation, have failed in many districts throughout the country. A. assimilation B. integration C. accommodation D. desegregation Answer: D 60. Efforts to bring about __________, which is the implementation of specific action to change the racial/ethnic and/or class composition of the student body, have failed in many districts throughout the country. A. integration B. assimilation C. desegregation D. accommodation Answer: A 61. __________ offer pre-baccalaureate programs for students planning to transfer to a four-year university, occupational education leading directly to employment, adult education and literacy programs, work-force and workplace development services, and support services to help students succeed. A. Technical colleges B. Administrative colleges C. Community colleges D. Preparatory colleges Answer: C 62. __________ is a philosophy of education that aims to empower individuals, free the mind from ignorance, and cultivate social responsibility. For this reason, four-year schools typically offer a general education curriculum that gives students exposure to multiple disciplines and ways of knowing, along with more in-depth study (known as a “major”) in at least one area of concentration. A. Traditional education B. Liberal education C. Conservative education D. Contemporary education Answer: B 63. Some analysts believe that the high cost of education reinforces the existing social class system. Which sociological perspective would be most likely to argue this? A. functional B. conflict C. symbolic interaction D. postmodern Answer: B 64. Census data reflect that the highest levels of educational attainment are held by __________. A. Hispanic Americans B. Asian Americans C. African Americans D. Native Americans Answer: B 65. Which statement concerning Native Americans college enrollment is true? A. Enrollment in all colleges has increased significantly in the past decade. B. Two year colleges have experienced an increase in enrollments. C. Tribal colleges receive much of their funding from state and local grants. D. There are now over 100 colleges solely operated by Native American ? Answer: B 66. __________ is a system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals, based on some sacred or supernatural realm that guides human behavior, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community. A. Secularization B. Spirituality C. Religion D. Liberation theology Answer: C 67. According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, __________ refers to those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural – in other words, those things that are set apart as “holy.” A. profane B. sacred C. spiritual D. magical Answer: B 68. Across cultures and in different eras, many things have been considered __________, including invisible gods, spirits, specific animals or trees, altars, crosses, holy books, and special words or songs that only the initiated could speak or sing. A. magical B. profane C. spiritual D. sacred Answer: D 69. The __________ refers to the everyday, secular, or "worldly" aspects of life. Secular beliefs have their foundation in scientific knowledge or everyday explanations. A. profane B. anti-spiritual C. sacred D. mundane Answer: A 70. In the debate over creationism and evolutionism, advocates of creationism view their belief as founded in __________ (Biblical) teachings. A. spiritual B. profane C. ritual D. sacred Answer: D 71. In the debate over creationism and evolutionism, advocates of evolutionism argue that their beliefs are based on __________ (provable scientific) facts. A. ritual B. sacred C. spiritual D. profane Answer: D 72. People often act out their religious beliefs in the form of __________, which are symbolic actions that represent religious meanings. A. sacred ceremonies B. supernatural rites C. rituals D. magical rites Answer: C 73. When Muslims bow toward Mecca, the holy city of Islam, five times a day at fixed times to pray to God, and Christians participate in the celebration of communion to commemorate the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, they are engaging in __________. A. sacred ceremonies B. magical rites C. supernatural rites D. rituals Answer: D 74. Anthropologists have concluded that all known groups over the past 100,000 years have had some form of religion. Which of the following was not as a form of religion? A. simple supernaturalism B. transubstantiation C. theism D. animism Answer: B 75. In very simple preindustrial societies, religions often take the form of __________, which is the belief that supernatural forces affect people's lives either positively or negatively. A. simple supernaturalism B. animism C. theism D. transcendent idealism Answer: A 76. __________ does not acknowledge specific gods or supernatural spirits but focuses instead on impersonal forces that may exist in people or natural objects. A. Theism B. Transcendent idealism C. Animism D. Simple supernaturalism Answer: D 77. __________ is the belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces having an impact on events in society. A. Theism B. Animism C. Simple supernaturalism D. Transcendent idealism Answer: B 78. __________ is associated with early hunting and gathering societies and with many Native American societies, in which everyday life was not separated from the elements of the natural world. A. Transcendent idealism B. Theism C. Animism D. Simple supernaturalism Answer: C 79. A category of religion, __________ refers to a belief in a god or gods. A. animism B. simple supernaturalism C. transcendent idealism D. theism Answer: D 80. Horticultural societies were among the first to practice __________, which is a belief in a single, supreme being or god who is responsible for significant events such as the creation of the world. A. nontheistic B. monotheism C. polytheism D. unitheism Answer: B 81. __________ refers to a belief in more than one god. A. Multitheism B. Masstheism C. Polytheism D. Unitesim Answer: C 82. __________ is a nontheistic religion, which is a religion based on a belief in divine spiritual forces such as sacred principles of thought and conduct, rather than a god or gods. A. Theism B. Animism C. Simple supernaturalism D. Transcendent idealism Answer: D 83. __________ focuses on principles such as truth, justice, affirmation of life, and tolerance for others, and its adherents seek an elevated state of consciousness in which they can fulfil their true potential. A. Transcendent idealism B. Simple supernaturalism C. Animism D. Theism Answer: A 84. __________ is the process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in sectors of society and culture. A. Anti-religiosity B. Secularization C. Detheification D. Religious reductionism Answer: B 85. __________ involves a decline in religion in everyday life and a corresponding increase in organizations that are highly bureaucratized, fragmented, and impersonal. A. Detheification B. Religious reductionism C. Secularization D. Anti-religiosity Answer: C 86. The beliefs of __________ include the following: Jesus is the Son of God. Through good moral and religious behavior (and/or God’s grace), people achieve eternal life with God. A. Christianity B. Islam C. Buddhism D. Judaism Answer: A 87. __________ includes the following beliefs: Muhammad received the Qur’ an (scriptures) from God. On Judgment Day, believers who have submitted to God’s will, as revealed in the Qur’ an, will go to an eternal Garden of Eden. A. Christianity B. Islam C. Buddhism D. Judaism Answer: B 88. The beliefs of __________ include the following: Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), and Shiva (destroyer) are divine. Union with ultimate reality and escape from eternal reincarnation are achieved through yoga, adherence to scripture, and devotion. A. Christianity B. Islam C. Hinduism D. Judaism Answer: C 89. __________ includes the following beliefs: Through meditation and adherence to the Eight-fold Path (correct thought and behavior), people can free themselves from desire and suffering; escape the cycle of eternal rebirth; and achieve nirvana (enlightenment). A. Islam B. Hinduism C. Judaism D. Buddhism Answer: D 90. The beliefs of __________ include the following: God’s nature and will are revealed in the Torah (Hebrew scripture) and in His intervention in history. God has established a covenant with the people of Israel, who are called to a life of holiness, justice, mercy, and fidelity to God’s law. A. Islam B. Judaism C. Hinduism D. Buddhism Answer: B 91. __________ includes the following beliefs: The sayings of Confucius (collected in the Analects) stress the role of virtue and order in the relationships among individuals, their families, and society. A. Hinduism B. Buddhism C. Judaism D. Confucianism Answer: D 92. __________ was one of the first sociologists to emphasize that religion is essential to the maintenance of society. He suggested that religion is a cultural universal found in all societies because it meets basic human needs and serves important societal functions. A. Emile Durkheim B. Max Weber C. Talcott Parsons D. Robert Merton Answer: A 93. Religious beliefs and rituals are __________ representations, group-held meanings that express something important about the group itself. A. core B. universal C. collective D. standard Answer: C 94. Because of the intertwining of group consciousness and society, functionalist suggest that religion has three important functions in any society. Which of the following was not identified as a function of religion? A. Religion provides meaning and purpose to life. B. Religion promotes social cohesion and a sense of belonging. C. Religion provides social control and support for the government. D. Religion prevents anarchy. Answer: D 95. The Christian ritual of communion not only commemorates a historical event but also allows followers to participate in the unity of themselves with other believers. From a functionalist perspective, this ritual serves the function of __________. A. preventing anarchy B. providing meaning and purpose to life C. promoting social cohesion and a sense of belonging D. providing social control and support for the government Answer: C 96. According to the text's discussion of religion's functions, __________. A. all religions have some form of shared experiences that rekindle the group's consciousness of its own unity B. religion has not played an important part in helping members of subordinate groups to develop social cohesion C. religion has not been a decisive force among those who have recently migrated to the United States D. religion does not contribute to social control in contemporary societies Answer: A 97. Political leaders often use religion to justify their decisions, stating that they have prayed for guidance in deciding what to do. This informal relationship between religion and the state has been referred to as __________. A. the spiritualization of politics B. civil religion C. political religion D. affirmational politics Answer: B 98. __________ is the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that make sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. A. Civil religion B. Affirmational principles C. Spiritualization D. National spirit Answer: A 99. According to the text's discussion of civil religion, __________. A. civil religion is tied to the most popular religious group in a society B. because of secularization, all civil ceremonies in the United States lack any religious quality C. the United States flag is the primary sacred object of the nation's civil religion D. few attempts have been made to eliminate civil religion from public life because of widespread consensus on this issue Answer: C 100. Some critics have attempted to eliminate all aspects of civil religion from public life. However, sociologist Robert Bellah, who has studied civil religion extensively, argues that __________. A. civil religion is the same thing as Christianity B. civil religion is limited to statements, objects, or beliefs that members of any denomination can accept C. pure religion is trivialized by civil religion D. those who do not believe the existence of God can still believe in civil religion Answer: B TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. Conflict theorists believe that education contributes to the maintenance of society and provides people with an opportunity for self-enhancement and upward social mobility. From this perspective, students must be taught to put the group’s needs ahead of their individual desires and aspirations. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is actually the functionalist perspective on education. Conflict theorists argue that education perpetuates social inequality and benefits the dominant class at the expense of all others. 2. A manifest function of education, is that schools transmit cultural norms and values to each new generation and play an active part in the process of assimilation, whereby recent immigrants learn dominant cultural values, attitudes, and behavior so that they can be productive members of society. Answer: True 3. There has been a decline in the number of parents who are teaching their own children through home schooling. Answer: False Rejoinder: There has actually been an increase. 4. Because schools bring together people of similar ages, social class, and race/ethnicity, young people often meet future marriage partners and develop social networks that may last for many years. This is an example of the manifest function of socialization in education. Answer: False Rejoinder: This example is actually a latent function of education referred to as matchmaking and production of social networks. Manifest functions are open, stated, and intended goals or consequences of activities within an organization or institution. By contrast, latent functions are hidden, unstated, and sometimes unintended consequences of activities within an organization of institution. 5. Studies show that between 15% and 25% of U.S. students are bullied with some frequency. Answer: True 6. Two approaches for reducing bullying in schools are character education and changing the social environment and norms of the school. Answer: True 7. Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality in society; rather, they believe that schools often perpetuate class, racial/ethnic, and gender inequalities as some groups seek to maintain their privileged position at the expense of others. Answer: True 8. Working-class and poverty-level income parents endow their children with more cultural capital than do middle- and upper-income parents. Because cultural capital is essential for acquiring an education, children with more cultural capital have fewer opportunities to succeed in school. Answer: False Rejoinder: Cultural capital is the social assets that include values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture. It involves “proper” attitudes toward education, socially approved dress and manners, and knowledge about books, art, music, and other forms of high and popular culture. As far as social classes, just the opposite is true: middle- and upper-income parents endow their children with more cultural capital than do working-class and poverty-level parents. 9. Tracking refers to the practice of assigning students to specific curriculum groups and courses on the basis of their test scores, previous grades, or other criteria. Conflict theorists believe that tracking seriously affects many students’ educational performance and their overall academic accomplishments. Answer: True 10. According to symbolic interactionists, the undercover curriculum is the transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is hidden curriculum and it is a conflict theorist perspective. Symbolic interactionists focus on classroom dynamics and the effect of self-concept on grades and aspirations. 11. Educational credentials are extremely important in societies that emphasize credentialism, which is a process of social selection in which class advantage and social status are linked to the possession of academic qualifications. Answer: True 12. According to functionalists, the process of labeling is directly related to the power and status of those persons who do the labeling and those who are being labelled. For some students, labeling amounts to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct perspective described is symbolic interactionist—which focuses on classroom communication patterns and education practices, such as labeling, that affects students’ self-concept and aspirations. 13. In regards to unequal funding of public schools, most educational funds come from the federal government and a small percentage from state legislative appropriations and local property taxes. Answer: False Rejoinder: Most educational funds come from state legislative appropriations (47%) and local property taxes (47%); and the federal government pays the remaining (6%), largely for special programs for students who are disadvantaged (such as Head Start programs) or have disabilities. 14. Per-capita spending on public and secondary education varies widely from state to state. In part, this is because the local property tax base has been eroding in central cities as major industries have relocated or gone out of business. Answer: True 15. Ethnic and class differences are significant factors for dropout rates. For example, African Americans have the highest dropout rate (34.4%), followed by Native Americans (17.1%). Answer: False Rejoinder: Actually, Latinos/as (Hispanics) have the highest dropout rate (24.0 %), followed by African Americans (12.2%), non-Hispanic whites (7.9%), and Asian Americans (1.0%). 16. In 2000, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Gratz v. Bollinger that “separate but equal” segregated schools are unconstitutional because they are inherently unequal. Answer: False Rejoinder: In many areas of the United States, schools remain racially segregated or have become resegregated after earlier attempts at integration failed. In 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (in Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas) that “separate but equal” segregated schools are unconstitutional because they are inherently unequal. 17. One of the fastest growing area of U.S. higher education is with small, independent church-related schools. Answer: False Rejoinder: Community colleges have been the fastest growing area of higher education. 18. Most religions attempt to answer fundamental questions such as those regarding the meaning of life and how the world was created. Most religions also provide comfort to persons facing emotional traumas such as illness, suffering, grief, and death. Answer: True 19. According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, sacred refers to those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural, (those things that are set apart as “holy.” People feel a sense of awe, reverence, deep respect, or fear for that which is considered sacred. Answer: True 20. In preindustrial societies, religion often takes the form of animism which is the belief that supernatural forces affect people’s lives either positively or negatively. Answer: False Rejoinder: In very simple preindustrial societies, religion often takes the form of simple supernaturalism which is the belief that supernatural forces affect people’s lives either positively or negatively. Animism which is the belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces that have an impact on events in society. Animism is associated with early hunting and gathering societies. 21. Horticultural societies were among the first to practice monotheism—a belief in a single, supreme being or god who is responsible for significant events such as the creation of the world. Three of the major world religions, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are monotheistic. Answer: True 22. Polarization is the process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in sectors of society and culture. It involves a decline of religion in everyday life and a corresponding increase in organizations that are highly bureaucratized, fragmented, and impersonal. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term described is secularization which according to many scholars resulted with the increase of scientific knowledge during the Industrial Revolution. 23. From a functionalist perspective, religion has three important functions in any society: providing meaning and purpose to life, promoting social cohesion and a sense of belonging, and providing social control and support for the government. Answer: True 24. In the United States, the separation of church and state improves religious legitimation of political power. This formal relationship between religion and the state has been referred to as universal religion—the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. Answer: False Rejoinder: In the United States, the separation of church and state reduces religious legitimation of political power. Political leaders often use religion to justify their decisions, stating that they have prayed for guidance in deciding what to do. This formal relationship between religion and the state has been referred to as civil religion. Many civil ceremonies in the United States have a marked religious quality. 25. Civil religion is not tied to any one denomination or religious group; it has an identity all its own. The U.S. flag is the primary sacred object of our civil religion. Answer: True SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Provide a brief overview of education, define education, and describe cultural transmission. Answer: Education is a powerful and influential force in contemporary societies. Education imparts values, beliefs, and knowledge considered essential to the social reproduction of individual personalities and entire cultures. Education grapples with issues of social stability and social change, reflecting society even as it attempts to shape it. Education is a socializing institution. Whereas early socialization is primarily informal and takes place within our families and friendship networks, as we grow older, socialization passes to the more formalized organizations created for the specific purpose of education. An area of sociological inquiry that specifically focuses on these organizations is the sociology of education, which primarily examines formal education or schooling in industrialized societies. Education is the social institution responsible for the systematic transmission of knowledge, skills, and cultural values within a formally organized structure. In all societies, people must acquire certain knowledge and skills in order to survive. In less-developed societies, these skills might include hunting, gathering, fishing, farming, and self-preservation. In contemporary, developed societies, knowledge and skills are often related to the requirements of a highly competitive job market. 2. Two approaches to stopping bullying were suggested in reading. Briefly explain these two. Answer: Bullying is defined as a form of aggressive behavior that is intentional and that involved an imbalance of power or strength. Two major approaches for stopping bullying have been suggested. One approach is rooted in character education, which focuses on the reinforcement of acceptable character traits, such as respect and responsibility. Students learn problem-solving skills, conflict resolution and communication skills to help them interact with one another in a positive manner. The second approach is to focus on the social environment of the school. According to sociologist H. Wesley Perkins this is the best way to reduce bullying. With this technique the climate of the school is changed along with the social norms surrounding bullying. He argues that a person’s behavior may be strongly influenced by the incorrect perceptions the individual holds about how other members of his or her social group think and act. So, the first step here, is to correct misperceptions about how prevalent this type of behavior actually is. If this is corrected, bullying, Perkins believes, will decrease. 3. Describe the functionalist perspective on education and note the societal importance of manifest and latent functions fulfilled by this social institution. Answer: Functionalists view education as one of the most important components of society. According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, education is crucial for promoting social solidarity and stability in society. Durkheim also asserted that moral education is very important because it conveys moral values—the foundation of a cohesive social order. From this perspective, students must be taught to put the group’s needs ahead of their individual desires and aspirations. Contemporary functionalist suggest that education is responsible for teaching U.S. values. According to sociologist Amitai Etzioni, “shared” values should be transmitted by schools from kindergarten through college. Sociologists using a functionalist framework distinguish between manifest functions and latent functions. Manifest functions—are open, stated, and intended goals or consequences of activities within an institution. Education serves five major manifest functions in society: (1) socialization—schools teach students the student role, specific academic subjects, and political socialization. (2) transmission of culture—schools transmit cultural norms and values to each new generation and play an active part in the process of assimilation of recent immigrants. (3) social control—schools are responsible for teaching values such as discipline, respect, obedience, punctuality, and perseverance. (4) social placement—schools are responsible for identifying the most qualified people to fill the positions available in society; students are channelled into programs based on individual ability and academic achievement. (5) change and innovation—schools introduce new programs to meet societal needs as student population change over time. All social institutions have latent functions—which are hidden, unstated, and sometime unintended consequences of activities within an institution. Education serves at least three latent functions: (1) restricting some activities—early in the 20th century, all states passed mandatory education laws that require children to attend school until they reach a specified age (usually age sixteen) or complete a minimum level of formal education (generally the eighth grade). Out of these laws grew one latent function of education—which is to keep students off the streets and out of the full-time job market for a number of years. (2) matchmaking and production of social networks—schools bring together people of similar ages, social class, and race/ethnicity, young people often meet future marriage partners and develop social networks that may last for many years. (3) creation of generation gap—students may learn information in school that contradicts beliefs held by their parents or their religion. 4. Discuss the conflict perspective on education and explain cultural capital and class reproduction. Answer: Conflict theorists argue that access to quality education is closely related to social class. From this approach, education is a vehicle for reproducing existing class relationships. According to French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, the school legitimates and reinforces the social elites by engaging in specific practices that uphold the patterns of behavior and the attitudes of the dominant class. Students from diverse class backgrounds come to school with different amounts of cultural capital—social assets that include values, beliefs, attitudes, and competencies in language and culture. Cultural capital involves “proper” attitudes toward education, socially approved dress and manners, and knowledge about books, art, music, and other forms of high and popular culture. Middle- and upper-income parents endow their children with more cultural capital than do working-class and poverty-level parents. Because cultural capital is essential for acquiring an education, children with less cultural capital have fewer opportunities to succeed in school. For example, standardized tests that are used to group students by ability and to assign them to classes often measure students’ cultural capital rather than their “natural” intelligence or aptitude. Thus, a circular effect occurs: students with dominant cultural values are more highly rewarded by the educational system. In turn, the educational system teaches and reinforces those values that sustain the elite’s position in society. 5. Discuss the conflict perspective on education and explain how tracking produces social inequality. Answer: Tracking refers to the practice of assigning students to specific curriculum groups and courses on the basis of their test scores, previous grades, or other criteria. Conflict theorists believe that tracking seriously affects many students’ educational performance and their overall academic accomplishments. In elementary schools, tracking is often referred to as “ability grouping” and is based on the assumption that it is easier to teach a group of students who have similar abilities. However, class-based factors also affect which children are most likely to be placed in ”high,” “middle,” or “low” groups. Tracking does make it possible for students to work together based on their perceived abilities and at their own pace; however, it also extracts a serious toll for students who are labelled as “underachievers” or “slow learners.” Race, class, language, gender, and many other social categories may determine the placement of children in elementary tracking systems as much or more than their actual academic abilities and interests. The practice of tracking continues in middle school/junior high and high school. Numerous studies over the past three decades have found that ability grouping and tracking affect students’ academic achievement and career choices. Moreover, some social scientists believe that tracking is one of the most obvious mechanisms through which students of colour and those from low-income families receive a diluted academic program, making it much more likely that they will fall even further behind their white, middle-class counterparts. For example, a recent study of Latinas concluded that school practices such as tracking impose low expectations that create self-fulfilling prophecies for many of these young women. Instead of enhancing school performance, tracking systems may result in students dropping out of school or ending up in “dead-end” situations because they have not taken the courses required to go to college. 6. Discuss the conflict perspective on education and distinguish how the hidden curriculum is influenced by social class and results in gender bias. Answer: According to conflict theorists, the hidden curriculum is the transmission of cultural values and attitudes, such as conformity and obedience to authority, through implied demands found in the rules, routines, and regulations of schools. For students from dominant groups in society, the way they are treated and what they learn in school tend to enhance their self-esteem and expectations that they will attain success. By contrast, students of colour, student from lower-income families or families that have recently migrated to this country, along with many young women, may be treated in such a manner that they acquire inferior self-images and hold less optimistic views of their education options and future prospects. Although students from all social classes are subjected to the hidden curriculum, working-class and poverty-level students may be affected the most adversely. For example, one study of five elementary schools in different communities found significant differences in how knowledge was transmitted to students even though the general curriculum of the school was organized similarly. Through the hidden curriculum, schools make working-class and poverty-level students aware that they will be expected to take orders from others, arrive at work punctually, follow bureaucratic rules, and experience high levels of boredom without complaining. Educational credentials are extremely important in societies that emphasize credentialism—a process of social selection in which class advantage and social status are linked to the possession of academic qualifications. Credentialism is closely related to meritocracy—a social system in which status is assumed to be acquired through individual ability and effort. According to conflict theorists, gender bias is embedded in both the formal and hidden curricula of schools. Most girls and young women in the United States have a greater opportunity for education than those living in developing nations; their educational opportunities are not equal to those of boys and young men in their social class. Over time, this kind of differential treatment undermined females’ self-esteem and discouraged them from taking certain courses in school, such as math and science which were usually dominated by male teachers and students. 7. Describe symbolic interactionist perspectives on education and explain the significance of labeling and the self-fulfilling prophecy on educational achievement. Answer: Symbolic interactionists focus on classroom communication patterns and educational practices, such as labeling that affect students’ self-concept and aspirations. According to symbolic interactionists, the process of labeling is directly related to the power and status of those persons who do the labeling and those who are being labelled. In schools, teachers and administrators are empowered to label children in various ways, including grades, written comments on deportment (classroom behavior), and placement in classes. For example, based on standardized test scores or classroom performance, educators label some children as “special ed” or low achievers, whereas others are labelled as average or “gifted and talented.” For some students, labeling amounts to a self-fulfilling prophecy—an unsubstantiated belief or prediction resulting in behavior that makes the originally false belief come true. A classic form of labeling and the self-fulfilling prophecy occurs through the use of IQ (intelligence quotient) tests, which claim to measure a person’s inherent intelligence, apart from any family or school influences on the individual. In many school systems, IQ tests are used as one criterion in determining student placement in classes and ability groups. In the 1960s, two social scientists (Rosenthal and Jacobson) conducted an experiment in an elementary school during which they intentionally misinformed teachers about the intelligent test scores of students in their classes. Despite the fact that the students were randomly selected for the study and had no measurable differences in intelligence, the researchers informed the teachers that some of the students had extremely high IQ test scores, whereas others had average to below-average scores. As the researchers observed, the teachers began to teach, “exceptional” students in a different manner from other students. In turn, the “exceptional” students began to outperform their “average” peers and to excel in their classwork. This study called attention to the labeling effect of IQ scores. 8. Discuss the issues of funding and racial segregation facing the United States education system. Answer: Today, there are almost 15,000 U.S. school districts in what is probably the most decentralized system of public education in any high-income, developed nation of the world. Unequal funding of public schools—one of the biggest problems in public education today results from unequal funding. Most educational funds come from state legislative appropriations and local property taxes. Per-capita spending on public and secondary education varies widely from state to state. In part, this is because the local property tax base has been eroding in central cities. Many middle- and upper-income families have moved to suburban areas with their own property tax base so their children can attend relatively new schools equipped with the latest textbooks and state-of-the-art computers, advantages that schools in central cities and poverty-ridden rural areas lack. Racial segregation and resegregation—in many areas of the United States, schools remain racially segregated or have become resegregated after earlier attempts at integration failed. In 1954 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (in Brown v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas) that “separate but equal” segregated schools are unconstitutional because they are inherently unequal. Efforts to bring about desegregation—the abolition of legally sanctioned racial-ethnic segregation, or integration—the implementation of specific actions to change the racial-ethnic and/or class composition of the student body, have failed in many school districts throughout the country. Some school districts have bused students across town to achieve racial integration. Others have changed school attendance boundaries or introduced magnet schools with specialized programs such as science or the fine arts to change racial-ethnic composition of schools. According to recent studies, predominantly minority schools have lower student-retention rates, have higher teacher-student ratios, and employ less qualified teachers who typically have lower expectations for their students. According to researchers, schools tend to reinforce, rather than eliminate, the disadvantages of race and class during the years of a child’s educational experience 9. Discuss the relationship between religion and questions about the meaning of life. Answer: Religion seeks to answer important questions such as why we exist, why people suffer and die, and what happens when we die. Sociologist Peter Berger referred to religion as a “sacred canopy”—a sheltering fabric hanging over people that gives them security and provides answers for the questions of life. This sacred canopy requires that people have faith—unquestioning belief that does not require proof or scientific evidence. According to sociologist Emile Durkheim, sacred refers to those aspects of life that are extraordinary or supernatural—in other words, those things that are set apart as “holy.” People feel a sense of awe, reverence, deep respect, or fear for that which is considered sacred. Across cultures and in different eras, many things have been considered sacred, including invisible gods, spirits, specific animals or trees, alters, crosses, holy books, and special words or songs that only the initiated could speak or sing. Those things that people do not set apart as sacred are referred to as profane—the everyday, secular (worldly) aspects of life. Sacred beliefs are rooted in the holy or supernatural, whereas secular beliefs have their foundation in scientific knowledge or everyday explanations. Religion also comprises symbols and rituals. According to anthropologist Clifford Geertz, religion is a set of cultural symbols that establishes powerful and pervasive moods and motivations to help people interpret the meaning of life and establish a direction for their behavior. People often act out their religious beliefs in the form of rituals—regularly repeated and carefully prescribed forms of behavior that symbolize a cherished value or belief. Rituals range from songs and prayers to offerings and sacrifices that worship or praise a supernatural being, an ideal, or a set of supernatural principles. 10. Define and discuss the four main categories of religion, and link them to the types of societies in which they tend to occur. Answer: Religions have been classified into four main categories based on their dominant belief. (1) in very simple preindustrial societies, religion often takes the form of simple supernaturalism—the belief that supernatural forces affect people’s lives either positively or negatively. This type of religion does not acknowledge specific gods or supernatural spirits but focuses instead on impersonal forces that may exist in people or natural objects. (2) by contrast, animism is the belief that plants, animals, or other elements of the natural world are endowed with spirits or life forces that have an impact on events in society. Animism is associated with early hunting and gathering societies and with any Native American societies, in which everyday life is not separated from the elements of the natural world. (3) theism—is a belief in a god or gods. Horticultural societies were among the first to practice monotheism—a belief in a single supreme being or god who is responsible for significant events such as the creation of the world. Three of the major world religions—Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are monotheistic. By contrast, Hinduism, Shinto, and a number of the indigenous religions of Africa are forms of polytheism—a belief in more than one god. (4) transcendent idealism is a nontheistic religion—a religion based on a belief in divine spiritual forces such as sacred principles of thought and conduct, rather than a god or gods. Transcendent idealism focuses on principles such as truth, justice, affirmation of life, and tolerance for others, and its adherents seek an elevated state of consciousness in which they can fulfil their true potential. During the Industrial Revolution, scientific explanations began to compete with religious views of life. Many scholars believed that increases in scientific knowledge would result in secularization—the process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in sectors of society and culture. Secularization involves a decline of religion in everyday life and a corresponding increase in organizations that are highly bureaucratized, fragmented, and impersonal. 11. Describe the functionalist perspective on religion and discuss its major functions in societies. Answer: Sociologist Emile Durkheim was one of the first to emphasize that religion is essential to the maintenance of society. He suggested that religion is a cultural universal found in all societies because it meets basic human needs and serves important societal functions. According to Durkheim, all religions share three elements: (1) beliefs held by adherents, (2) practices (rituals) engaged in collectively by believers, and (3) a moral community based on the group’s shared beliefs and practices pertaining to the sacred. For Durkheim, the central feature of all religions is the presence of sacred beliefs and rituals that bind people together in a collectively. Religious beliefs and rituals are collective representations—group held meanings that express something important about the group itself. From a functionalist perspective religion has three important functions in any society. (1) meaning and purpose—religion offers meaning for the human experience. Some events create a profound sense of loss on both an individual basis (such as the death of a loved one) and a group basis (such as famine). Inequality may cause people to wonder why their own situation is no better than it is. Most religions offer explanations for these concerns. (2) social cohesion and a sense of belonging—by emphasizing shared symbolism, religious teachings and practices help promote social cohesion. An example is the Christian ritual of communion, which not only commemorates a historical event but also allows followers to participate in the unity of themselves with other believers. Religion has played an important part in helping members of subordinate groups develop a sense of social cohesion and belonging even when they are the objects of prejudice and discrimination by dominant group members Religion has also been important to those who voluntarily migrated to the United States. (3) social control and support for the government—all societies attempt to maintain social control through systems of rewards and punishments. Sacred symbols and beliefs establish powerful, pervasive, long-lasting motivations based on the concept of a general order of existence. Religion also helps maintain social control in society by conferring supernatural legitimacy on the norms and laws of a society. In the United States, the separation of church and state reduces religious legitimation of political power. Political leaders often use religion to justify their decisions. This informal relationship between religion and the state has been referred to as civil religion—the set of beliefs, rituals, and symbols that makes sacred the values of the society and places the nation in the context of the ultimate system of meaning. The U.S. flag is the primary sacred object of our civil religion, and the Pledge of Allegiance includes the phrase “one nation under God.” 12. Describe conflict perspectives on religion and distinguish between the approaches of sociologists Karl Marx and Max Weber. Answer: For sociologist Karl Marx, ideologies—systematic views of the way the world ought to be are embodied in religious doctrines and political values. The ideologies serve to justify the status quo and retard social change. Marx wrote that religion is the “opiate of the masses.” People become complacent because they have been taught to believe in an afterlife in which they will be rewarded for their suffering and misery in life. Although these religious teachings soothe the masses’ distress, any relief is illusory. Religion unites people in a “false consciousness” that they share common interests with members of the dominant class. For sociologist Max Weber, religion could be a catalyst to produce social change. In the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber asserted that the religious teachings of John Calvin are directly related to the rise of capitalism. Calvin emphasized the doctrine of predestination—the belief that even before they are born, all people are divided into two groups, the saved and the damned and only God knows who will go to hell. Because people cannot know whether they will be saved, they tend to look for earthly signs that they are among the elect. According to the Protestant ethic, those who have faith, perform good works, and achieve economic success are more likely to be among the chosen of God. As a result, people work hard, save their money, and do not spend it on worldly frivolity; instead, they reinvest it in their land, equipment, and labor. Weber was acutely aware that religion could reinforce existing social arrangements, especially the stratification system. The wealthy can use religion to justify their power and privilege. From a conflict perspective, religion tends to promote strife between groups and societies. For example, the new religious right in the United States has incorporated both the priestly and prophetic functions into its agenda. While calling for moral reform, it also calls the nations back to a covenant with God. According to conflict theorists, conflict may be between religious groups (for example, anti-Semitism), within a religious group (for example, when a splinter group leaves an existing denomination), or between a religious group and the larger society (for example, the conflict over religion in the classroom). Conflict theorists assert that in attempting to provide meaning and purpose in life while at the same time promoting the status quo, religion is used by the dominant classes to impose their own control over society and its resources. 13. Describe symbolic interactionist perspectives on religion and explain how women and men may view religion differently. Answer: Symbolic interactionists focus their attention on a microlevel analysis that examines the meanings people give to religion in their everyday life. For many people, religion serves as a reference group to help them define themselves. For example, religious symbols have meaning for large bodies of people. The Star of David holds special significance for Jews, just as the crescent moon and star do for Muslims, and the cross does for Christians. For individuals as well, a symbol may have a certain meaning beyond that shared by the group. For instance, a symbolic gift given to a child may have special meaning when he or she grows up and faces war or other crises. It may not only remind the adult of a religious belief but also create a feeling of closeness with a relative who is now deceased. Not all people interpret religion in the same way. In virtually all religions, women have much less influence in establishing social definitions of appropriate gender roles both within the religious community and in the larger community. Therefore, women and men may belong to the same religious group, but their individual religion will not necessarily be a carbon copy of the group’s entire system of beliefs. Women’s versions of a certain religion probably differ markedly from men’s versions. Religious symbolism and language typically create a social definition of the roles of men and women. Many women resist the subordination that they have experienced in organized religion. They have worked to change the existing rules that have excluded them or placed them in a clearly subordinate position. 14. Distinguish between the different types of religious organizations. Answer: Religious groups vary in their organizational structure. Sociologists have developed typologies or ideal types of religious organizations to enable them to study a wide variety of religious groups. The most common categorization sets forth four types: ecclesia, church, sect, and cult. (1) some countries have an official or state religion known as the ecclesia—a religious organization that is so integrated into the dominant culture that is claims as its membership all members of a society. Membership in the ecclesia occurs as a result of being born into the society, rather than by any conscious decision on the part of the individual members. To help explain the different types of religious organizations found in societies, Ernst Troeltsch and his teacher Max Weber developed a typology that distinguishes between the characteristics of churches and sects. A church is a large, bureaucratically organized religious organization that tends to seek accommodation with the larger society in order to maintain some degree of control over it. Church membership is largely based on birth; typically, children of church members are baptized as infants and become lifelong members of the church. Churches have a bureaucratic structure, and leadership is hierarchically arranged. Usually, the clergy have many years of formal education. Churches have very restrained services that appeal to the intellect rather than the emotions. Midway between the church and the sect is the denomination—a large organized religion characterized by accommodation to society but frequently lacking in ability or intention to dominate society. Denominations have a trained ministry, and although involvement by lay members is encouraged more than in the church, their participation is usually limited to particular activities, such as readings or prayers. Denominations tend to be more tolerant and are less likely than churches to expel or excommunicate members. This form of organization is most likely to thrive in societies characterized by religious pluralism—a situation in which many religious groups exist because they have a special appeal to specific segments of the population. Perhaps because of its diversity, the United States has more denominations than any other nation. A sect is a relatively small religious group that has broken away from another religious organization to renew what it views as the original version of the faith. Unlike churches, sects offer members a more personal religion, and an intimate relationship with a supreme being, depicted as taking an active interest in the individual’s everyday life. A cult is a loosely organized religious group with practices and teachings outside the dominant culture and religious traditions of a society. Cult leadership is based on charismatic characteristics of the individual leader, including an unusual ability to communicate and to form attachments with other members. 15. Summarize trends in religion in the United States in relation to fundamentalism. Answer: Religion in the United States is very diverse. Pluralism and religious freedom are among the cultural values most widely espoused, and no state church or single denomination predominates. Protestants constitute the largest religious body in the United States, followed by Roman Catholics, Jews, Eastern Churches, and others. The rise of a new fundamentalism has occurred at the same time that a number of mainline denominations have been losing membership. Whereas “old” fundamentalism usually appealed to people from lower-income, rural, southern backgrounds, the “new” fundamentalism appears to have a much wider following among persons from all socioeconomic levels, geographical areas, and occupations. Some members of the political elite in Washington have vowed to bring religion “back” into schools and public life. “New-right” fundamentalists have been especially critical of secular humanism—a belief in the perfectibility of human beings through their own efforts rather than through a belief in God and a religious conversion. According to fundamentalists, “creeping” secular humanism has been most visible in the public schools, which, instead of offering children a fair and balanced picture, are teaching things that seem to prove that their parents’ lifestyle and religion are inferior and perhaps irrational. The new-right fundamentalists claim that banning the teaching of Christian beliefs in the classroom while teaching things that are contrary to their faith is an infringement on their freedom of religion. Worst yet, they argue, it is the equivalent of establishing an unconstitutional state religion—a secular religion that does not recognize God. ESSAY SECTION 1. Discuss the issue of bullying. Answer: Bullying is a pervasive issue in educational settings that involves repeated aggressive behavior intended to harm or intimidate others, often characterized by a power imbalance between the bully and the victim. Key aspects include: • Types: Bullying can manifest as verbal (name-calling, teasing), physical (hitting, pushing), relational (exclusion, spreading rumours), and cyberbullying (using digital platforms to harass). • Impact: Victims of bullying may experience emotional distress, social withdrawal, academic difficulties, and long-term psychological effects such as anxiety and depression. • Prevention and Intervention: Effective strategies include promoting positive school climates, implementing anti-bullying policies, educating students and staff, fostering empathy, and providing support for both victims and perpetrators. 2. Analyse education from the functionalist perspective. Answer: Functionalist Perspective on Education: • Functions: Emphasizes education's role in maintaining social order and stability by transmitting knowledge, skills, and cultural values from one generation to the next. • Manifest Functions: Explicit functions include preparing students for future roles, fostering social integration, and promoting meritocracy based on achievement. • Latent Functions: Hidden functions include providing childcare services, facilitating social networking among peers and adults, and supporting economic growth through a skilled workforce. • Critique: Overlooks educational inequalities, reproduction of social inequalities, and changing societal needs that may challenge traditional educational structures. 3. Analyse education from the conflict perspective. Answer: Conflict Perspective on Education: • Power Dynamics: Highlights how education perpetuates social inequalities by reproducing and legitimizing existing power structures, class divisions, and economic disparities. • Role of Schools: Schools may reinforce dominant ideologies, cultural norms, and values that benefit ruling elites while marginalizing and disempowering marginalized groups. • Critique: May overlook educational functions that promote social mobility, individual achievement, and cultural diversity within educational settings. 4. Analyse education from the symbolic interactionist perspective. Answer: Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Education: • Micro-Level Analysis: Focuses on how educational experiences, interactions, and meanings are socially constructed through everyday interactions among students, teachers, and peers. • Role of Symbols and Labels: Examines how labels (e.g., gifted, troublemaker) and expectations (e.g., teacher expectations) influence student performance, self-concept, and educational outcomes. • Critique: May overlook broader structural factors (such as policy and funding) that shape educational opportunities and inequalities across different social groups. 5. Compare and contrast the three sociological perspective as they relate to education. Answer: Functionalist vs. Conflict vs. Symbolic Interactionist: • Focus: • Functionalist: Emphasizes education's role in maintaining social cohesion and transmitting cultural values. • Conflict: Highlights education as a site of struggle and reproduction of social inequalities. • Symbolic Interactionist: Focuses on how educational meanings and identities are constructed through social interactions. • View on Inequality: • Functionalist: Views educational inequalities as reflecting differences in effort, abilities, and merit. • Conflict: Views educational inequalities as perpetuating and legitimizing existing social inequalities. • Symbolic Interactionist: Focuses on how labels and interactions within schools contribute to educational inequalities. • Role of Institutions: • Functionalist: Views schools as institutions that prepare individuals for societal roles and contribute to social stability. • Conflict: Views schools as institutions that reinforce and reproduce class divisions and power hierarchies. • Symbolic Interactionist: Views schools as sites where meanings, identities, and labels are negotiated and constructed through everyday interactions. • Critique: • Functionalist: Criticized for overlooking educational inequalities and societal changes impacting education. • Conflict: Criticized for focusing excessively on conflict and power dynamics, potentially overlooking educational functions. • Symbolic Interactionist: Criticized for neglecting broader structural factors that influence educational outcomes and opportunities. Conclusion Examining education through functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist perspectives offers diverse insights into its roles, functions, inequalities, and social dynamics within educational institutions. Understanding these perspectives enhances awareness of educational challenges and opportunities for promoting equitable and effective educational practices. 6. Describe problems within elementary and secondary schools. Answer: Elementary and secondary schools face various challenges: • Funding: Disparities in funding lead to resource inequalities among schools, affecting educational quality and opportunities for students. • Equity: Achievement gaps based on race, socio-economic status, and geographic location persist, impacting academic outcomes and future opportunities. • Curriculum: Issues with curriculum relevance, standardized testing pressures, and balancing academic and non-academic priorities pose challenges for educators and administrators. • Social Issues: Bullying, violence, mental health issues, and social inequalities within schools require proactive interventions and support systems. • Technology: Access to and integration of technology in education vary, affecting digital literacy and preparedness for future careers. 7. Outline opportunities and challenges in colleges and universities. Answer: Colleges and universities provide opportunities and face challenges in higher education: • Opportunities: • Academic Excellence: Institutions foster critical thinking, research, and knowledge creation across disciplines. • Career Preparation: Higher education prepares students for professional careers through specialized training and skills development. • Diversity and Inclusion: Colleges promote diversity, equity, and inclusion through campus initiatives and student support services. • Global Engagement: Opportunities for international collaboration, study abroad programs, and cultural exchange enhance global perspectives. • Challenges: • Access and Affordability: Rising tuition costs, student debt, and financial aid disparities limit access to higher education for underrepresented groups. • Quality Assurance: Ensuring academic rigor, faculty-student ratios, and maintaining institutional reputation amidst funding constraints. • Mental Health: Increasing demands for mental health services and support due to academic pressures, social expectations, and transition challenges. • Technological Integration: Adapting to digital learning platforms, online education trends, and cybersecurity concerns in educational settings. 8. Describe the sociological study of religion from a historical perspective. Answer: The sociological study of religion has evolved over time: • Early Sociologists: Scholars like Emile Durkheim and Max Weber laid foundations by examining religion's role in social cohesion, morality, and cultural norms. • Functionalism: Views religion as serving functional roles in society, such as promoting social solidarity, regulating behavior, and providing meaning and purpose. • Conflict Theory: Critiques religion as reinforcing social inequalities, maintaining power structures, and legitimizing dominant ideologies. • Symbolic Interactionism: Focuses on how religious symbols, rituals, and beliefs are socially constructed and negotiated through interactions. 9. Discuss the functionalist perspectives on religion. Answer: Functionalist Perspective on Religion: • Social Cohesion: Religion promotes social cohesion and integration by fostering shared values, beliefs, and rituals within communities. • Normative Guidance: Provides moral guidance, ethical principles, and norms that regulate individual behavior and societal conduct. • Cultural Identity: Preserves cultural heritage, traditions, and identities through religious practices and ceremonies. • Critique: Overlooks religion's potential for conflict, division, and perpetuation of social inequalities, particularly when religious doctrines justify discrimination or exclusion. 10. Discuss the three sociological perspectives as they relate to religion. Answer: Functionalist Perspective: • Views religion as contributing to social stability, cohesion, and integration through shared beliefs and values. Conflict Perspective: • Critiques religion for perpetuating social inequalities, reinforcing power dynamics, and justifying dominant ideologies. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: • Examines how religious symbols, rituals, and interactions shape individual identities, meanings, and social relationships. Comparison: • Focus: Functionalist emphasizes integration and stability, conflict emphasizes inequality and power, while symbolic interactionism focuses on meaning and interaction. • View on Religion: Functionalist sees religion as functional; conflict sees it as divisive, and symbolic interactionism sees it as socially constructed. • Critique: Each perspective may overlook aspects of religion that contradict its main focus, such as conflict theory overlooking positive functions of religion. Conclusion Understanding schools, universities, and religion through sociological perspectives highlights their complexities, challenges, and roles in shaping individuals and societies. Examining these topics from multiple perspectives enriches our understanding of their functions, inequalities, and societal impacts. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154
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