CHAPTER 10 - SEX AND GENDER MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. __________ is the process of treating people as if they were things, not human beings. Typically, this occurs when we judge people on the basis of their physical appearance rather than on the basis of their individual qualities or actions. A. Objectification B. Reification C. Mechanization D. Technological stereotyping Answer: A 2. Women are seen as “all alike” and are easily ignored. This represents A. trivialization. B. objectification. C. deification. D. mechanization. Answer: B 3. Regarding women's and men's body images, which of the following statements is not true? A. Both men and women may have negative perceptions about their body size, weight, and appearance. B. Women and men receive different cultural messages about body image. C. The image of female beauty as childlike and thin is flaunted by the advertising industry. D. Women of all racial ethnic groups, classes, and sexual orientations do not think of their weight as a crucial index of their acceptability to others. Answer: D 4. __________ refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males. A. Sex B. Primary distinctions C. Gender D. Secondary distinctions Answer: A 5. At the core of the differences between gender and sex is the chromosomal information transmitted at the moment a child is conceived. An “XY” chromosome pairing would indicate what? A. a heterosexual embryo B. a male embryo C. a hermaphrodite embryo D. a female embryo Answer: B 6. At the core of the differences between gender and sex is the chromosomal information transmitted at the moment a child is conceived. An “XX” chromosome pairing would indicate what? A. a hermaphrodite embryo B. a male embryo C. a heterosexual embryo D. a female embryo Answer: D 7. At birth, male and female infants are distinguished by __________, the genitalia used in the reproductive process. A. tertiary sex characteristics B. primary sex characteristics C. cultural tendencies D. secondary sex characteristics Answer: B 8. At puberty, an increased production of hormones results in the development of __________, the physical traits (other than reproductive organs) that identify an individual's sex. A. primary sex characteristics B. hormonal correlates C. secondary sex characteristics D. tertiary sex characteristics Answer: C 9. Which of the following would not be an example of secondary sex characteristics in women? A. enlarged breasts B. wider hips C. menstruation D. vagina Answer: D 10. Which of the following would not be an example of secondary sex characteristics in men? A. penis B. more muscular build C. deeper voice D. more body and facial hair Answer: A 11. In relation to general aspects of objectification of women, which of the following was not identified as an element? A. Women are responded to primarily as "females," while their personal qualities and accomplishments are of secondary importance. B. Women are seen as being "all alike." C. Women are seen as independent. D. Women are seen as easily ignored, dismissed, or trivialized. Answer: C 12. Sex is not always clear-cut. Occasionally, a hormone imbalance before birth produces a __________—a person in whom sexual differentiation is ambiguous or incomplete. A. transsexual B. hermaphrodite C. transvestite D. homosexual Answer: B 13. A chromosomally normal (XY) male was born with a penis just one centimetre long and a urinary opening similar to that of a female. This individual would be referred to as a A. transsexual. B. bisexual. C. hermaphrodite. D. transvestite. Answer: C 14. Some people may be genetically of one sex but have a gender identity of the other. This is true for a __________, a person in whom the sex-related structure of the brain that defines gender identity is opposite from the physical sex organs of the person’s body. A. hermaphrodite B. transsexual C. transvestite D. homosexual Answer: B 15. A male who lives as a woman, or a female who lives as a man but does not alter the genitalia is referred to as a __________. A. hermaphrodite B. transsexual C. transvestite D. homosexual Answer: C 16. __________ refer(s) to an individual’s preference for emotional-sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both (bisexuality). A. Sexual feelings B. Sexual differentiations C. Sexual identification D. Sexual orientation Answer: D 17. In a definitive study of sexuality in the mid-1990s, researchers at the University of Chicago established three criteria for identifying people as homosexual or bisexual. Which of the following is not one of the criteria identified? A. sexual attraction to persons of one’s own gender B. having engaged in a homosexual encounter at a young age C. sexual involvement with one or more persons of one’s own gender D. self-identification as a gay, lesbian, or bisexual Answer: B 18. What is the term for extreme prejudice directed at gays? A. homophobia B. homofear C. ethnophobia D. transgenderism Answer: A 19. Recently, the term __________ was created to describe individuals whose appearance, behavior, or self-identification does not conform to common social rules of gender expression. A. multigender B. polygender C. unigender D. transgender Answer: D 20. Various organizations of gays, lesbians, and transgendered persons have been unified in their desire to reduce hate crimes and other forms of __________—the extreme prejudice directed at gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and others who are perceived as not being heterosexual. A. cynophobia B. homophobia C. heterophobia D. androgyny Answer: B 21. __________ refer(s) to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males found in the meanings, beliefs and practices associated with "femininity" and "masculinity." A. Gender B. Primary sexual identifiers C. Sex D. Secondary sexual identifiers Answer: A 22. Virtually everything social in our lives is __________. People continually distinguish between males and females and evaluate them differentially. It is an integral part of the daily experiences of both women and men. A. sexually linked B. gendered C. hormonally associated D. biologically identified Answer: B 23. __________ refers to the attitudes, behavior, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization process. A. Sexual role B. Gender identity C. Gender role D. Sexual identity Answer: C 24. In the United States, males are traditionally expected to demonstrate aggressiveness and toughness, whereas females have been expected to be passive and nurturing. This illustrates the concept of __________. A. sexual identity B. gender role C. sexual role D. gender identity Answer: B 25. __________ is a person's perception of the self as female or male. Typically established between eighteen months and three years of age, it is a powerful aspect of our self-concept. A. Gender identity B. Sexual identity C. Gender role D. Body consciousness Answer: A 26. __________ is how a person perceives and feels about his or her body; it also includes an awareness of social conditions in society that contribute to this self-knowledge. A. Sexual identity B. Gender identity C. Body consciousness D. Gender role Answer: C 27. The text points out that a macrolevel analysis of gender examines structural features, external to the individual, that perpetuate gender inequality. These structures have been referred to as __________, meaning that gender is one of the major ways by which social life is organized in all sectors of society. A. gendered institutions B. gendered structures C. gendered correlates D. gendered determinants Answer: A 28. __________ is embedded in the images, ideas, and language of a society and is used as a means to divide up work, allocate resources, and distribute power. A. Sex B. Body consciousness C. Gender D. Sexuality Answer: C 29. Every society uses __________ to assign certain tasks, ranging from child rearing to warfare, and differentially rewards those who perform these duties. A. body consciousness B. sex C. sexuality D. gender Answer: D 30. A __________ system includes all the ideas regarding masculine and feminine attributes that are held to be valid in a society. A. sexual image B. gender belief C. biological correlate D. body consciousness Answer: B 31. The social significance of gender stereotypes is illustrated by eating disorders. With __________, a person has lost at least 25 percent of body weight due to a compulsive fear of becoming fat. A. gestation B. bulimia C. obesity D. anorexia Answer: D 32. The social significance of gender stereotypes is illustrated by eating disorders. With __________, a person binges by consuming large quantities of food and then purges the food by induced vomiting, excessive exercise, laxatives, or fasting. A. anorexia B. obesity C. bulimia D. gestation Answer: C 33. The social significance of gender stereotypes is illustrated by eating disorders. With __________, individuals are 20 percent or more above their desired weight as established by the medical profession. A. bulimia B. gestation C. anorexia D. obesity Answer: D 34. Sociologist Becky Thompson argues that, based on stereotypes, the primary victims of eating disorders are presumed to be __________. A. lower class lesbians of color B. middle class Latinas C. white, middle class, heterosexual women D. African American, heterosexual women Answer: C 35. Which statement about body image and gender is false? A. The vast majority (95%) of men believe they need to improve some aspect of their bodies. B. The “ideal” body image for U.S. women has changed over time. C. Anorexia and bulimia are problems solely associated with women; virtually no men have these problems. D. Many people do not have an accurate perception of their bodies. Answer: C 36. __________ is the subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex. A. Sexism B. Patriarchal control C. Genderism D. Matriarchal control Answer: A 37. __________ directed at women has three components: negative attitudes toward women; stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement, or justify the prejudice; and discrimination, acts that exclude, distance, or keep women separate. A. Genderism B. Patriarchal control C. Sexism D. Matriarchal control Answer: C 38. Even today, some women who enter nontraditional occupations encounter hurdles that men do not face. An example of __________ directed against men is the mistaken idea that it is more harmful for female soldiers to be killed in combat than male soldiers. A. matriarchal control B. genderism C. patriarchy control D. sexism Answer: D 39. Sexism is interwoven with __________, which is a hierarchical system of social organization where cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men. A. patriarchy B. polyarchy C. matriarchy D. monoarchy Answer: A 40. Sexism is interwoven with __________, which is a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by women. A. monoarchy B. patriarchy C. polyarchy D. matriarchy Answer: D 41. In some societies men are the “natural” head of the household while women play a subordinate role. This is called A. matriarchy. B. patriarchy. C. polyarchy. D. monarchy. Answer: B 42. Morgan Stanley, the Wall Street Bank, allegedly hired females less than males and often passed females over in Favor of males. These practices represent A. institutional discrimination. B. institutional prejudice. C. industrial discrimination D. industrial prejudice Answer: A 43. Sociologist Virginia Cyrus explains, “Under __________, men are seen as “natural” heads of the households, Presidential candidates, corporate executives, college presidents, etc. Women, on the other hand, are men’s subordinates, playing such supportive roles as housewife, mother, nurse, and secretary.” A. matriarchy B. patriarchy C. polyarchy D. monoarchy Answer: B 44. According to the text, three factors are important in determining the gendered division of labor in a society. Which of the following is not one of the factors identified? A. the type of subsistence base B. the proportion of females within the power structure C. the supply of and demand for labor D. the extent to which women's childrearing activities are compatible with certain types of work Answer: B 45. __________ refers to the means by which a society gains the basic necessities of life, including food, shelter, and clothing. A. Technoeconomic base B. Division of labor C. Subsistence D. Pastoralism Answer: C 46. A society’s __________ refers to the level of technology and the organization of the economy in a given society. A. subsistence B. division of labor C. technoeconomic base D. pastoralism Answer: C 47. Women have relative equality in which type of society? A. hunting and gathering B. horticultural C. agrarian D. industrial Answer: A 48. The earliest known division of labor between women and men is in __________ societies. A. pastoral B. horticultural C. agrarian D. hunting and gathering Answer: D 49. In most hunting and gathering societies, which of the following statements is not true? A. A relatively equitable relationship exists because neither sex has the ability to provide all of the food necessary for survival. B. Women are full economic partners with men. C. Relationships between women and men tend to be cooperative and relatively egalitarian. D. Women do not contribute to food production in these societies. Answer: D 50. In __________ societies, a steady source of food becomes available. People are able to grow their own food because of hand tools, such as the digging stick and the hoe. A. horticultural B. agrarian C. industrial D. pastoral Answer: A 51. __________ refers to the domestication of large animals to provide food. A. Agrarianism B. Horticulture C. Pastoralism D. Industrialization Answer: C 52. There are several characteristics of agrarian societies that may contribute to gender inequality. Which of the following was not identified as a characteristic? A. private ownership of property B. male control over distribution of the surplus and the kinship system C. the cult of domesticity D. emphasis on producing "legitimate" heirs to inherit the surplus Answer: C 53. A new form of feminist thinking is rising among Muslim women. This is called A. Islamic feminism. B. Islamic liberation. C. Muslim liberation. D. Muslim fundamentalism. Answer: A 54. The Islamic holy book is known as the A. Koran B. Book of David C. Islamic Bible D. Book of Mormon Answer: A 55. According to journalist Nicholas Kristof, which two religions have been on the rise in recent years? A. Islam and Buddhism B. Christianity and Hinduism C. Evangelical Christianity and Islam D. Hinduism and Buddhism Answer: C 56. Islamic feminists believe that the rise of Islam A. will lead to further discrimination against females. B. will lead to more negative attitudes toward females. C. might lead to greater equality for females. D. will have no impact in how females are seen or treated. Answer: C 57. What is not true concerning Islamic feminism? A. It believes that Muslim women should keep their allegiance to Islam. B. It should work towards changing male control over the basic Islamic worldview. C. It is different from what people think of as Western feminism. D. It advocates changing laws first and if that fails, leaving the Islamic faith. Answer: D 58. A(n) __________ is one in which factory or mechanized production has replaced agriculture as the major form of economic activity. A. commerce society B. industrial society C. urban society D. suburban society Answer: B 59. __________ in the United States created a gap between the nonpaid work performed by women at home and the paid work that was increasingly performed by men and unmarried girls. A. Industrialization B. Urbanization C. Suburbanization D. Commercialization Answer: A 60. __________ refer to societies in which technology supports a service-based and information-based economy. A. Preindustrial societies B. Postmodern societies C. Post-industrial societies D. Industrial societies Answer: C 61. In __________, the division of labor in paid employment is increasingly based on whether people provide or apply information or are employed in service jobs such as fast-food restaurant counter help or health care workers. A. industrial societies B. post-industrial societies C. postmodern societies D. preindustrial societies Answer: B 62. For a variety of reasons, more post-industrial society households are headed by women with no adult male present. Almost __________ of all U. S. children live with their mother only. A. one-tenth (10 percent) B. one-fourth (23 percent) C. half (50 percent) D. two-thirds (67 percent) Answer: B 63. For a variety of reasons, more post-industrial society households are headed by women with no adult male present. Among African American children, __________ live with their mother only. A. 25 percent B. 33 percent C. 48 percent D. 75 percent Answer: C 64. In post-industrial societies such as the United States, approximately __________ of adult women are in the labor force, meaning that finding time to care for children, help aging parents, and the demands of the workplace will continue to place a heavy burden on women, despite living in an information and service-oriented economy. A. 25 percent B. 33 percent C. 50 percent D. 60 percent Answer: D 65. The text points out that gender-appropriate behavior is __________. A. acquired at birth B. fixed and inalterable by age 5 C. learned through the socialization process D. difficult for some people to learn Answer: C 66. Regarding gender socialization by parents, which of the following statements is not true? A. Children’s toys reflect their parent’s gender expectation. B. When girl babies cry, parents respond to them more quickly. C. Parents are more prone to talk and sing to male infants. D. Girl babies receive more gentle treatment. Answer: C 67. In relation to the assignment of chores to children by parents, which of the following statements is not true? A. Maintenance chores are assigned to boys. B. Domestic chores are assigned to girls. C. Chores are not linked to future occupational choices of males and females. D. Girls often are responsible for caring for younger brothers and sisters. Answer: C 68. In discussing peers and gender socialization, the text points out that __________. A. male peer groups place more pressure on boys to do "masculine" things than female peer groups place on girls to do "feminine" things B. female peer groups place more pressure on girls to do "feminine" things than male peer groups place on boys to do "masculine" things C. peer groups of both sexes are increasingly egalitarian in the 1990s D. peer groups actually have little influence on adolescent development Answer: A 69. According to the text's discussion of peers and gender socialization __________. A. during adolescence, peers are usually fewer effective agents of gender socialization than are adults B. male bonding does not occur until after adolescence is completed C. peer acceptance does not appear to be as important to males and females today as it has been in the past D. peer groups on college campuses are organized largely around gender relations Answer: D 70. In their investigation of college women, anthropologists Dorothy Holland and Margaret Eisenhart determined that __________. A. the peer system propelled women into a world of romance in which their attractiveness to men counted most B. the women's peers influenced everything from their choices of majors and careers to their final courses of action in making plans for the future C. peer pressure did not involve appearance norms D. peer pressure has diminished on college campuses in recent years Answer: A 71. __________ consists of showing favouritism toward one gender over the other. A. Gender preferences B. Sexual harassment C. Gender bias D. Sexual discrimination Answer: C 72. The text cites a comprehensive study of gender bias in schools, suggesting that girls' self-esteem is undermined in school through a number of experiences. Which of the following experiences was not cited? A. a relative lack of attention from teachers B. direct rejection by instructors C. the stereotyping and invisibility of females in textbooks, especially in science and math texts D. test bias based on assumptions about the relative importance of visual-spatial ability, as compared with verbal ability Answer: B 73. In discussing sports and gender socialization, the text points out that __________. A. both boys and girls are socialized to participate in highly competitive, rule-oriented games with a large number of participants B. boys have been socialized to play exclusively with others of their own age C. children spend more than half of their non-school time in play and games, and the types of games played does not differ with the child's sex D. many women athletes believe that they have to manage the contradictory statuses of being both “women” and “athletes” Answer: D 74. In discussing women's participation in athletics, the text observes that __________. A. women athletes no longer encounter any status conflicts between being "women" and "athletes" B. few girls and women participate in sports that are regarded as exclusively "male" activities C. women college basketball players may deal with status conflict by dividing their lives into segments, as "women" and "athletes" D. men encourage women in participation in athletics Answer: C 75. Regarding gender issues and television, which of the following statements is false? A. Television programs are sex-typed and white-male oriented. B. In television today, an equal number of male and female roles are depicted. C. Most of the characters in educational programs have male names and masculine voices. D. The media are a powerful source of gender stereotyping. Answer: B 76. Regarding adult gender socialization, which of the following statements is true? A. Employers and coworkers teach men and women "appropriate" conduct for persons of their sex in the workplace. B. In contemporary societies, women's child care responsibilities are not related to their participation in careers and professions. C. Middle aged women and men receive equal respect in the workplace because they can be evaluated on their experience, not on their ascribed statuses. D. Men's socialization usually includes a measure of whether their work can be successfully combined with having a family. Answer: A 77. __________ refers to the concentration of women and men in different occupations, jobs, and places of work. A. The gender ghetto B. The sexist division C. Gender-segregated work D. Gender slanting Answer: C 78. __________ is most visible in occupations that remain more than 90 percent female (for example, secretary and registered nurse) or more than 90 percent male (for example, carpenter and mechanic). A. The sexist division B. Gender-segregated work C. Gender slanting D. The gender ghetto Answer: B 79. The U.S. Census Bureau points out that in 2006, __________ percent of all secretaries in the United States were women, and __________ percent of all engineers in the United States were men. A. 80; 72 B. 87; 80 C. 92; 88 D. 97; 95 Answer: D 80. Women are severely underrepresented at the top of U.S. corporations. Only about __________ of the executive jobs at Fortune 500 companies are held by women, and only eight women are the CEO of such a company. A. 5 percent B. 10 percent C. 15 percent D. 20 percent Answer: B 81. __________ is the division of jobs into categories with distinct working conditions, which results in women having separate and unequal jobs. A. Genderization B. Sexual differentiation C. Labor market segmentation D. Gender fragmentation Answer: C 82. Occupational segregation contributes to the __________, which is the disparity between women's and men's earnings. A. pay gap B. sexual wage differentiation C. comparable worth distinction D. cult of domesticity Answer: A 83. According to U.S. Census Bureau data, what occupation has the highest percentage of women employees? A. private household workers B. professional specialty C. health service assistants, aides, nurses, and attendants D. operators, fabricators, and laborers Answer: A 84. According to U.S. Census Bureau data, what occupation has the lowest percentage of women employees? A. executives, administrative, and managerial B. health service assistants, aides, nurses and other attendants C. operators, fabricators, and laborers D. sales occupations Answer: C 85. According to U.S. Census Bureau data, what occupation has the highest percentage of African American employees? A. managerial and professional B. private household workers C. sales occupations D. health service assistants, aides, nurses, and attendants Answer: D 86. According to U.S. Census Bureau data, what occupation has the lowest percentage of African American employees? A. sales occupations B. executive, administrative, and managerial C. technicians and related support D. operators, fabricators, and laborers Answer: B 87. The U.S. Census Bureau compiles data that show what percentage of the total work force is made up of women only, African Americans (both men and women), and Hispanics (both men and women). What occupation has the lowest percentage of Hispanic employees? A. executive, administrative, and managerial B. sales occupations C. technicians and related support D. operators, fabricators, and laborers Answer: A 88. The pay gap is greatest for women of color. Although white women in 2003 earned 79 percent as much as white men, African American women earned only __________ percent of what white male workers earned. A. 25 B. 33 C. 50 D. 68 Answer: B 89. __________ is the belief that wages ought to reflect the worth of a job, not the gender or race of the worker. A. Income equity B. Pay leveling C. Income leveling D. Pay equity Answer: D 90. Rebecca has an assembly line job in a local factory and it comes to her attention that some men on the line, who are doing the same work as she does, are paid a higher hourly rate. This reflects the concept of __________. A. income equity B. pay leveling C. pay equity D. income leveling Answer: C 91. The text observes that while most married women now share responsibility for the breadwinner role, many men do not accept their share of domestic responsibilities. Consequently, many women have a(n) __________. A. “double-whammy” B. “two-tiered job” C. “double day or second shift” D. “unbearable burden” Answer: C 92. Many working women care not only for themselves, their husbands, and their children, but also for elderly parents. Some analysts refer to these women as __________, caught between the needs of their young children and of their elderly relatives. A. the cookie generation B. the sandwich generation C. the pancake generation D. the pie and ice cream generation Answer: B 93. Regarding functionalist perspectives on gender stratification, which of the following statements is not true? A. Women and men have distinct roles that are important for the survival of the family and society. B. In industrialized societies, wives perform instrumental tasks while husbands perform the expressive tasks. C. The most basic division of labor is biological and involves such attributes as physical strength and the ability to bear and nurse children. D. Relationships between men and women are damaged when changes in gender roles occur. Answer: B 94. Consider the following argument: "Women's roles as nurturers and caregivers are even more pronounced in contemporary industrialized societies. This division of family labor ensures that important societal tasks will be fulfilled. It also provides for family members." This reflects the __________. A. functionalist perspective B. postmodern perspective C. conflict perspective D. symbolic interactionist perspective Answer: A 95. According to sociologist Talcott Parsons, the husband performs the __________ tasks of providing economic support and making decisions. This division ensures that important societal tasks will be fulfilled and it also provides stability for family members. A. operational B. expressive C. instrumental D. situational Answer: C 96. According to sociologist Talcott Parsons, the wife assumes the __________ tasks of providing affection and emotional support for the family. This division ensures that important societal tasks will be fulfilled and it also provides stability for family members. A. situational B. instrumental C. operational D. expressive Answer: D 97. According to __________, the human capital model is acquired by education and job training. It is the source of a person’s productivity and can be measured in terms of the return on the investment (wages) compared to the cost (schooling or training). A. conflict theorists B. functionalists C. symbolic interactionists D. postmodern theorists Answer: B 98. According to the human capital model, women as a category earn less money than men because __________. A. women diminish their earning capacity when they leave the labor market to engage in childbearing and child care activities B. men have control of and dominance over women and resources C. capitalists reap higher profits by paying women lower wages D. women choose lower paying occupations and careers than men Answer: A 99. According to the conflict perspective on gender stratification, A. in hunting and gathering and horticultural societies, male dominance over women accumulates steadily due to survival demands. B. the gendered division of labor within families and in the workplace results from male control of and dominance over women and resources. C. in agrarian societies, male sexual dominance is almost non-existent. D. gender stratification can be explained using the human capital model. Answer: B 100. __________ is the belief that women and men are equal and that they should be valued equally and have equal rights. A. Sexual freedom B. Feminism C. Feminist liberation D. Women's rights Answer: B TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. At birth, male and female infants are distinguished by secondary sex characteristics: the genitalia used in the reproductive process. Answer: False Rejoinder: At birth, male and female infants are distinguished by primary sex characteristics: the genitalia used in the reproductive process; at puberty, an increased production of hormones results in the development of secondary sex characteristics: the physical traits (other than reproductive organs) that identify an individual’s sex. 2. Transvestites are not treated as a third sex. They often “pass” for members of the opposite sex because their appearance and mannerisms fall within the range of what is expected from members of that sex. Answer: True 3. Sexual orientation refers to an individual’s preference for emotional-sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both (bisexuality). Answer: True 4. Sex refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males found in the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with “femininity” and “masculinity.” Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is gender. Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males. 5. Virtually everything social in our lives is gendered; people continually distinguish between males and females and evaluate them differently. Gender is an integral part of the daily experience of both women and men. Answer: True 6. A macrolevel analysis of gender focuses on gender identity, which refers to the attitudes, behavior, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization process. Answer: False Rejoinder: A microlevel analysis of gender focuses on how individuals learn gender roles and acquire a gender identity which is a person’s perception of the self as female or male. 7. Homophobia can be defined as extreme prejudice directed at gays, lesbians, and others who are seen as not being heterosexual. Answer: True 8. Gendered belief systems may change over time as gender roles change. For example, many fathers take care of young children today, and there is a much greater acceptance of this change in roles. Answer: True 9. The social significance of gender stereotypes is illustrated by eating disorders. With bulimia, a person has lost at least 25 percent of body weight due to a compulsive fear of becoming fat. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is anorexia. With bulimia, a person binges by consuming large quantities of food and then purges the food by induced vomiting, excessive exercise, laxatives, or fasting. 10. Sexism is interwoven with patriarchy—a hierarchal system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men. Answer: True 11. Islamic feminism holds that their religion discriminates against women and, therefore, women should abandon Islam. Answer: False Rejoinder: Islamic feminists believe that the rise of Islam might contribute to greater, rather than less, equality for women and that women should keep their allegiance to Islam. 12. According to the journalist Nicholas Kristof, Islam and evangelical Christianity have been on the rise in recent years. Answer: True 13. A form of feminist thinking is rising among Muslim women. This ideology is called Muslim Female Liberation. Answer: False Rejoinder: It is known as Islamic Feminism. 14. Muslims use the Book of Muhammed, which is their sacred holy book. Answer: False Rejoinder: Their holy book is called the Koran. 15. In most horticultural and pastoral societies, women are full economic partners with men; relations between them tend to be cooperative and relatively egalitarian. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is true for hunting and gathering societies. Little social stratification of any kind is found because people do not acquire a food surplus. Social practices contribute to gender inequality in horticultural and pastoral societies. 16. In agrarian societies, people no longer have to move continually in search of food and they can acquire a surplus. Men gain control over the disposition of the surplus and the kinship system, and this control serves men’s interests. Answer: True 17. Across cultures, girls are preferred to boys, especially when the number of children that parents can have been limited by law or economic conditions. Answer: False Rejoinder: Actually boys are preferred to girls. For example in China, which strictly regulates the allowable number of children to one family, a disproportionate number of female fetuses are aborted. Also, in India, the practice of aborting female fetuses is widespread, and female infanticide occurs frequently. 18. When children are old enough to help with household chores, they are often assigned different tasks. Maintenance chores are assigned to boys whereas domestic chores are assigned to girls. Chores may also become linked with future occupational choices and personal characteristics. Answer: True 19. During adolescence, adults are often stronger and more effective agents of socialization than peers. Adults are thought to be especially important in boys’ development of gender identity. Answer: False Rejoinder: Just the opposite, actually peers are often stronger and more effective agents of socialization than peers (especially in boys’ development of gender identity). 20. Research shows that unintentional gender bias occurs in virtually all educational settings. Researchers consistently find that teachers devote more time, effort, and attention to boys than to girls. Answer: True 21. For females, competitive sport becomes a means of constructing a masculine identity, a legitimated outlet for violence and aggression, and an avenue for upward mobility. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is true for males not females. For females, being an athlete and a woman may constitute contradictory statuses. 22. From children’s cartoons to adult shows, television programs offer more male than female characters. Male characters are typically aggressive, constructive, and direct, while some female characters defer to others or manipulate them by acting helpless, seductive, or deceitful. Answer: True 23. Sociologist Elizabeth Higginbotham points out that African American professional women find themselves limited to employment in certain sectors of the labor market. Most are concentrated in the private sector, for example—in large corporations, major law firms, etc. Answer: False Rejoinder: Most are concentrated in the public sector employment, as public schoolteachers, welfare workers, librarians, public defenders, and faculty members at public colleges. 24. Although men’s average wages vary depending upon age, women’s average wages are always lower than those of men in the same age group, and the older that women get, the greater the gap. Answer: True 25. According to conflict analysts, women’s roles as nurturers and caregivers are even more pronounced in contemporary industrialized societies. While the husband performs the expressive tasks, the wife assumes the instrumental tasks. This division of labor ensures that important societal tasks will be fulfilled. Answer: False Rejoinder: According to functional analysts (such as Talcott Parsons), the husband performs the instrumental tasks of providing economic support and making decisions, the wife assumes the expressive tasks of providing affection and emotional support for the family. SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Define sex and differentiate between primary sex characteristics and secondary sex characteristics for both males and females. Answer: Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males. At the core of these differences is the chromosomal information transmitted at the moment a child is conceived. The mother contributes an X chromosome and the father contributes either an X chromosome (which produces a female embryo) or a Y chromosome (which produces a male embryo). At birth, male and female infants are distinguished by primary sex characteristics: the genitalia used in the reproductive process. At puberty, an increased production of hormones results in the development of secondary sex characteristics: the physical traits (other than reproductive organs) that identify an individual’s sex. For women, these include larger breasts, wider hips, and narrower shoulders; a layer of fatty tissue throughout the body, and menstruation. For men, they include development of enlarged genitals, a deeper voice, greater height, a more muscular build, and more body and facial hair. 2. Explain why sex is not always clear-cut; discuss hermaphrodites, transsexuals, and transvestites. Answer: Occasionally, a hormone imbalance before birth produces a hermaphrodite—a person in whom sexual differentiation is ambiguous or incomplete. Hermaphrodites tend to have some combination of male and female genitalia. Some people may be genetically of one sex but have a gender identity of the other. That is true for a transsexual—a person in whom the sex-related structures of the brain that define gender identity are opposite from the physical sex organs of the person’s body. Consequently, transsexuals often feel that they are the opposite sex from that of their sex organs. Transsexuals may become aware of this conflict between gender identity and physical sex as early as the preschool years. Some transsexuals take hormone treatments or have a sex change operation to alter their genitalia in order to achieve a body congruent with their sense of sexual identity. Transvestites—a male who lives as a woman or a female who lives as a man but does not alter the genitalia. Although transvestites are not treated as a third sex, they often “pass” for members of that sex because their appearance and mannerisms fall within the range of what is expected from members of the other sex. Some researchers believe that both transsexuality and homosexuality have a common prenatal cause such as a critically timed hormonal release due to stress in the mother or the presence of certain hormone-mimicking chemicals during critical stages of fetal development. 3. In relation to sexual orientation, differentiate between heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality, and discuss what criteria social scientists use to classify individuals. Answer: Sexual orientation refers to an individual’s preference for emotional-sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both (bisexuality). Some scholars believe that sexual orientation is rooted in biological factors that are present at birth; others believe that sexuality has both biological and social components and is not preordained at birth. The terms homosexual and gay are most often used in association with males who prefer same-sex relationships; the term lesbian is used in association with females who prefer same-sex relationships. Heterosexual individuals, who prefer opposite-sex relationships, are sometime referred to as “straight.” Researchers at the University of Chicago established three criteria for identifying people as homosexual or bisexual: (1) sexual attraction to persons of one’s own gender, (2) sexual involvement with one or more persons of one’s own gender, and (3) self-identification as a gay, lesbian, or bisexual. According to these criteria, then, having engaged in a homosexual act does not necessarily classify a person as homosexual. Recent studies have examined how sexual orientation is linked to identity. Sociologist Kristin Esterberg interviewed lesbian and bisexual women to determine how they “perform” lesbian or bisexual identity through daily activities such as a choice of clothing and hairstyles, as well as how they use body language and talk. Another study looked at gay and bisexual men. Human development scholar Ritch Savin-Williams found that gay/bisexual youths often believe from an early age that they are different from other boys. Recently, the term transgender was created to describe individuals whose appearance, behavior, or self-identification does not conform to common social rules of gender expression. Transgenderism is sometimes used to refer to those who cross-dress, to transsexuals, and to others outside mainstream categories. Various organizations of gays, lesbians, and transgendered persons have been unified in their desire to reduce hate crimes and other forms of homophobia—extreme prejudice directed at gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and others who are perceived as not being heterosexual. 4. Describe the microlevel relationship between gender, gender role, gender identity, and body consciousness and contrast this with a macrolevel analysis of gender (including gendered institutions and a gender belief system). Answer: Gender refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males found in the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with “femininity” and “masculinity.” According to sociologists, social and cultural processes, not biological “givens,” are the most important factors in defining what females and males are, what they should do, and what sorts of relations do or should exist between them. Virtually everything social in our lives is gendered. A microlevel analysis of gender focuses on how individuals learn gender roles and acquire a gender identity. Gender role refers to the attitudes, behavior, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization process. Gender identity is a person’s perception of the self as female or male. Typically established between eighteen months and three years of age, gender identity is a powerful aspect of our self-concept. Although this identity is an individual perception, it is developed through interaction with others. As a result, most people form a gender identity that matches their biological sex. Body consciousness is how a person perceives and feels about his or her body; it also includes an awareness of social conditions in society that contribute to this self-knowledge. A macrolevel analysis of gender examines structural features, external to the individual, that perpetuate gender inequality. These structures have been referred to as gendered institutions, meaning that gender is one of the major ways by which social life is organized in all sectors of society. Gender is embedded in the images, ideas, and language of a society and is used as a means to divide up work, allocate resources, and distribute power. These institutions are reinforced by a gender belief system, which includes all the ideas regarding masculine and feminine attributes that are held to be valid in a society. This belief system is legitimated by religion, science, law, and other societal values. 5. Summarize the social significance of gender in reference to eating disorders and bodybuilding. Answer: Gender is a social construction with important consequences in everyday life. Gender stereotypes hold that men and women are inherently different in attributes, behavior, and aspirations. Stereotypes define men as strong, rational, dominant, independent, and less concerned with their appearance. Women are stereotyped as weak, emotional, nurturing, dependent, and anxious about their appearance. The social significance of gender stereotypes is illustrated by eating disorders. The three most common eating disorders are anorexia, bulimia, and obesity. With anorexia, a person has lost at least 25 percent of body weight due to a compulsive fear of becoming fat. With bulimia, a person binges by consuming large quantities of food and then purges the food by induced vomiting, excessive exercise, laxatives, or fasting. With obesity, individuals are 20 percent or more above their desirable weight as established by the medical profession. According to sociologist Becky Thompson, explanations regarding the relationship between gender and eating disorders must take into account a complex array of social factors, including gender socialization and women’s responses to problems such as racism and emotional, physical, and sexual abuse. Bodybuilding is another gendered experience. Bodybuilding is the process of deliberately cultivating an increase in the mass and strength of the skeletal muscles by means of lifting and pushing weights. In the past, bodybuilding was predominantly a male activity. Today, an increasing number of women engage in this activity. 6. Define sexism and explain how it is related to discrimination and patriarchy. Answer: Sexism is the subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex. Sexism directed at women has three components: (1) negative attitudes toward women; (2) stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement, or justify the prejudice; and (3) discrimination—acts that exclude, distance, or keeps women separate. Although women are more often the target of sexist remarks and practices, men can be victims of sexist assumptions. Sexism is used to justify discriminatory treatment. When women participate in what is considered gender-inappropriate endeavors in the workplace, at home, or in leisure activities, they often find that they are the targets of prejudice and discrimination. Obvious manifestations of sexism are found in the undervaluing of women’s work and in hiring and promotion practices that effectively exclude women from an organization or confine them to the bottom of the organizational hierarchy. Sexism is interwoven with patriarchy—a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men. By contrast, matriarchy—is a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by women. Patriarchy is reflected in the way men may think of their position as men as a given whereas women may deliberate on what their position in society should be. Gender inequality and a division of labor based on male dominance are nearly universal. 7. Briefly explain institutional discrimination and how it was relevant to the recent Morgan Stanley case. Answer: Institutional discrimination is defined as the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups. As applied to the Morgan Stanley case, female workers were passed over for clients, paid less than male employees, and often passed over for promotion. Morgan Stanley denied the charges. However, the company agreed to pay approximately $46 million to settle this class-action suit which had been file by eight current and former female brokers. According to the lawsuit, a “locker-room culture” existed in which accounts were often given to golf buddies based on a “power ranking” system that stated how the accounts of retiring and departing brokers were to be assigned. This was a case of institutional discrimination because Morgan Stanley allegedly did this on a daily basis and it had a harmful impact on the females who worked there. 8. Briefly explain what Islamic Feminism is, its goals and principles. Answer: Islamic feminism is based on the belief that greater gender equality may be possible in the Muslim world if the teachings of Islam are followed more closely. These beliefs are set forth in the Islamic holy book—the Koran. Islamic feminism is based on the principle that Muslim women should maintain their allegiance to Islam as an essential part of their self-determination and identity, but that they should also work to change the patriarchal society. Islamic feminists hold that the rise of Islam might contribute to greater equality for women. By using stories about characters like Iman, it might help girls and young women realize that they can keep their religious convictions and their head scarf while, at the same time, working for greater equality for women and greater opportunities for themselves. 9. Trace gender stratification from a historical and contemporary perspective. Answer: Three factors are important in determining the gendered division of labor in a society: (1) the type of subsistence base, (2) the supply of and demand for labor, and (3) the extent to which women’s child-rearing activities are compatible with certain types of work. Subsistence refers to the means by which a society gains the basic necessities of life, including food, shelter, and clothing. The earliest known division of labor between women and men is in Hunting and Gathering societies. While the men hunt for wild game, women gather roots and berries. A relatively equitable relationship exists because neither sex has the ability to provide all the food necessary for survival. In most of these societies, women are full economic partners with men; relations between them tend to be cooperative and relatively egalitarian. Little social stratification of any kind is found because people do not acquire a food surplus. In Horticultural societies, a steady source of food becomes available. People are able to grow their own food because of hand tools, such as the digging stick and the hoe. A fairly high degree of gender equality exists because neither sex controls the food supply. In Pastoral societies, the domestication of large animals to provide food develops. Herding is done primarily by men, and women contribute relatively little to subsistence production. In agrarian societies, gender inequality and male dominance become institutionalized. Because agrarian tasks require more labor and greater physical strength that no other societies, men become more involved in food production. As societies Industrialize, the status of women tends to decline further. Industrialization in the United States created a gap between the nonpaid work performed by women at home and the paid work that increasingly was performed by men and unmarried girls. Men were responsible for being “breadwinners”; women were seen as “homemakers.” In Post-industrial societies, the division of labor in paid employment is increasingly based on whether people provide or apply information or are employed in service jobs such as fast-food restaurant counter help or health care workers. Formal education is increasingly critical for economic and social success. 10. Describe the process of gender socialization. Answer: We learn gender-appropriate behavior through the socialization process. Our parents, teachers, friends, and the media all serve as gendered institutions that communicate to us our earliest, and often most lasting, beliefs about the social meanings of being male or female and about thinking and behaving in masculine or feminine ways. Many parents prefer boys to girls because of stereotypical ideas about the relative importance of males and females to the future of the family and society. Research suggests that social expectations also play a major role in this preference. We are socialized to believe that it is important to have a son, especially for a first or only child. For many years, it was assumed that a male child could support his parents in their later years and carry on the family name. Across cultures, boys are preferred to girls, especially when the number of children that parents can have been limited by law or economic conditions. In China, which strictly regulates the allowable number of children to one per family, a disproportionate number of female fetuses are aborted, resulting in a shortage of women. 11. Explain the process of gender socialization and identify specific ways in which parents contribute to the process. Answer: From birth, parents act toward children on the basis of the child’s sex. Baby boys are perceived to be less fragile than girls and tend to be treated more roughly by their parents. Baby girls are thought to be “cute, sweet, and cuddly” and receive more gentle treatment. Parents strongly influence the gender-role development of children by passing on both overtly and covertly their own beliefs about gender. When girl babies cry, parents respond to them more quickly, and parents are more prone to talk and sing to girl babies. Children’s toys reflect their parents’ gender expectations. Gender-appropriate toys for boys include computer games, trucks and other vehicles, sports equipment, and war toys such as guns and soldiers. Girls’ toys include Barbie dolls, play makeup, and house making items. When children are old enough to help with household chores, they are often assigned different tasks. Maintenance chores (such as mowing the lawn) are assigned to boys whereas domestic chores (such as shopping, cooking, and cleaning the table) are assigned to girls. Chores may also become linked with future occupational choices and personal characteristics. Many parents are aware of the effect that gender socialization has on their children and make a conscientious effort to provide non-sexist experiences for them. 12. Discuss the process of gender socialization and identify specific ways in which peers contribute to the process. Answer: Peers help children learn prevailing gender-role stereotypes, as well as gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior. During the preschool years, same-sex peers have a powerful effect on how children see their gender roles; children are more socially acceptable to their peers when they conform to implicit societal norms governing the “appropriate” ways that girls and boys should act in social situations and what prohibitions exist in such cases. Male peer groups place more pressure on boys to do “masculine” things than female peer groups place on girls to do “feminine” things. This distinction between the relative value of boys’ and girls’ behavior strengthen the cultural message that masculine activities and behavior are more important and more acceptable. During adolescence, peers are often stronger and more effective agents of socialization than adults. Peers are thought to be especially important in boys’ development of gender identity. Male bonding that occurs during adolescence is believed to reinforce masculine identity and to encourage gender-stereotypical attitudes and behavior. As young adults, men and women still receive many gender-related messages from peers. 13. Describe the process of gender socialization and identify specific ways in which teachers and schools contribute to the process. Answer: From kindergarten through college, schools operate as a gendered institution. Teachers provide important messages about gender through both the formal content of classroom assignments and informal interactions with students. During the early years of a child’s schooling, teachers’ influence is very powerful; many children spend more hours per day with their teachers than they do with their own parents. According to some researchers, the quantity and quality of teacher-student interactions often vary between the education of girls and that of boys. One of the messages that teachers may communicate to students is that boys are more important than girls. Research shows that unintentional gender bias occurs in virtually all educational settings. Gender bias consists of showing favouritism toward one gender over the other. Researchers consistently find that teachers devote more time, effort, and attention to boys than to girls. Males receive more praise for their contributions and are called on more frequently in class, even when they do not volunteer. Very often, boys receive attention because they call out in class, demand help, and sometimes engage in disruptive behavior. Teachers who do not negatively sanction such behavior may unintentionally encourage it. The content of teacher-student interactions is very important. Teacher-student interactions influence not only students’ learning but also their self-esteem. A comprehensive study of gender bias in schools suggest that girls’ self-esteem is undermined in school through such experiences as: (1) a relative lack of attention from teachers, (2) sexual harassment by male peers, (3) the stereotyping and invisibility of females in textbooks, especially in science and math texts, and (4) test bias based on assumptions about the relative importance of quantitative and visual-spatial ability, as compared with verbal ability, where girls typically excel. Teachers also influence how students treat one another during school hours. Many teachers use sex segregation as a way to organize students, resulting in unnecessary competition between females and males. The effect of gender bias is particularly problematic if teachers take a “boys will be boys” attitude when boys and young men make derogatory remarks or demonstrate aggressive behavior against girls and young women. 14. Summarize the process of gender socialization and identify specific ways in which sports contribute to the process. Answer: Children spend more than half of their non-school time in play and games, but the type of games played sometimes differ with the child’s sex. Studies indicate that boys are socialized to participate in highly competitive, rule-oriented games with a larger number of participants that games played by girls. Girls typically are socialized to play with other girls, in groups of two or three, in activities such as hopscotch and jump rope that involve a minimum of competitiveness. Research shows that boys express more favourable attitudes toward games and sports that involve physical exertion and competition than girls do. For males, competitive sport becomes a means of “constructing a masculine identity, a legitimated outlet for violence and aggression, and an avenue for upward mobility.” For females, being an athlete and a woman may constitute contradictory statuses. Most sports are rigidly divided into female and male events. Assumptions about male and female physiology and athletic capabilities influence the types of sports in which members of each sex are encouraged to participate. 15. Outline the process of gender socialization and identify specific ways in which the media contribute to the process. Answer: The media, including newspapers, magazines, television, and movies are powerful sources of gender stereotyping. Think of the impact that television might have on children if they spend one-third of their waking time watching it, as has been estimated. From children’s cartoons to adult shows, television programs offer more male than female characters. Furthermore, the male characters act in a strikingly different manner from female ones. Male characters in both children’s programs and adult programs are typically aggressive, constructive, and direct, while some female characters defer to others or manipulate them by acting helpless, seductive, or deceitful. Although attempts have been made by media “watchdogs” and some members of the media to eliminate sexism in children’s programming, adult daytime and prime-time programs have received less scrutiny. Soap operas are a classic example of gender stereotyping. Television and films influence our thinking about the appropriate behavior of women and men in the roles they play in everyday life. The competence of women to engage in certain kinds of activities, such as purchasing a vehicle, is often questioned and serves as the subject of laugh lines in popular situation comedies. Both married and single women are stereotyped in the media. Advertising—whether on television and billboards or in magazines and newspapers- further reinforces ideas about women and physical attractiveness. Television commercials may act as agents of socialization, showing children and others what women’s and men’s designated activities are. ESSAY SECTION 1. Discuss the Biological Dimension of Sex Answer: The biological dimension of sex refers to the physiological and anatomical characteristics that distinguish males and females. These biological differences are typically categorized into primary and secondary sex characteristics: 1. Primary Sex Characteristics: These are the reproductive organs that directly relate to reproduction. In males, primary sex characteristics include the testes and penis, while in females, they include the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina. 2. Secondary Sex Characteristics: These are physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction. In males, secondary sex characteristics include facial hair, deepening of the voice, and broader shoulders. In females, they include breast development, widening of the hips, and the onset of menstruation. Chromosomal Basis: • Typically, males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY), while females have two X chromosomes (XX). The presence of the Y chromosome triggers the development of male gonads (testes) during embryonic development. Hormonal Influence: • Hormones such as testosterone and estrogen play crucial roles in the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics. Testosterone is primarily associated with male characteristics, while estrogen is associated with female characteristics. Intersex Conditions: • Intersex individuals are born with variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female. These variations can involve chromosomes, gonads, or genitalia, highlighting the biological complexity of sex. Understanding the biological dimension of sex provides a foundation for exploring how biological factors interact with social and cultural factors to shape concepts of gender. 2. Discuss the Cultural Dimension of Gender Answer: The cultural dimension of gender refers to the social and cultural meanings, norms, roles, and expectations that societies attribute to individuals based on their perceived sex. While sex is a biological concept, gender is a social construct that varies across cultures and over time. 1. Gender Roles: Cultures prescribe certain roles and behaviors to individuals based on their perceived gender. These roles often dictate expectations for work, family life, relationships, and social interactions. For example, traditional gender roles may assign caregiving and domestic responsibilities to women and breadwinning and leadership roles to men. 2. Gender Norms: Cultural norms define what is considered appropriate or acceptable behavior for males and females. These norms can include modes of dress, speech patterns, hobbies, and career choices. Deviations from these norms may lead to social sanctions or stigma. 3. Gender Identity: Cultural beliefs and practices shape individuals' understanding and expression of their gender identity. Gender identity refers to one's internal sense of being male, female, or another gender identity. Cultural contexts influence how individuals perceive and express their gender identity, which may or may not align with their assigned sex at birth. 4. Gender Stereotypes: Cultures often perpetuate stereotypes about gender, portraying certain traits, abilities, or characteristics as inherently male or female. These stereotypes can limit individual potential and reinforce inequalities based on gender. Understanding the cultural dimension of gender is essential for recognizing how societal norms and expectations shape individual experiences and opportunities based on gender. 3. Explain Your Personal Perspective on Being Male or Female Answer: As a social construct, gender influences how individuals perceive themselves and are perceived by others. My personal perspective on being male or female is shaped by both biological factors and cultural influences: 1. Biological Influence: I acknowledge that biological factors, such as sex chromosomes and hormonal influences, play a role in shaping physical characteristics and aspects of health and development that are typically associated with being male or female. 2. Cultural and Social Influence: My understanding of gender goes beyond biological factors to include societal expectations, norms, and roles that are associated with being male or female. These cultural influences have shaped my experiences, opportunities, and interactions in various contexts, such as family, education, work, and social relationships. 3. Personal Identity: While recognizing the societal constructs of gender, my personal perspective also encompasses my own sense of identity and how I navigate and interpret gender in my life. This includes how I express my gender identity and how I perceive others' gender identities with respect and understanding. My perspective on being male or female is informed by a recognition of both biological realities and the broader cultural and social frameworks that shape gender identity and experiences. 4. Distinguish Between Individual and Institutional Discrimination. Discuss the Morgan Stanley Case. Which of the Two (i.e., Individual or Institutional) Does This Case Apply? Why? Answer: Individual Discrimination refers to discriminatory actions or practices carried out by individuals or small groups of people. These actions are often based on prejudices or biases against individuals or groups due to characteristics such as race, gender, or ethnicity. Individual discrimination can occur in various settings, from interpersonal interactions to hiring decisions or customer service. Institutional Discrimination, on the other hand, involves discriminatory policies, practices, or procedures that are embedded within the structures of organizations or institutions. These discriminatory practices may unintentionally disadvantage certain groups based on systemic biases or historical inequalities. Institutional discrimination can perpetuate inequalities over time and affect large numbers of people. Morgan Stanley Case Example: In 2007, Morgan Stanley settled a major class-action lawsuit alleging systemic gender discrimination. The case, led by Allison Schieffelin, accused Morgan Stanley of a culture that systematically discriminated against female financial advisors in pay, promotions, and client assignments. The plaintiffs argued that despite equal or better performance, women were consistently paid less and had fewer opportunities for advancement compared to their male counterparts. Application to Individual vs. Institutional Discrimination: The Morgan Stanley case primarily exemplifies institutional discrimination. The allegations centred on systemic practices within the organization that disadvantaged women as a group. This included policies related to compensation, promotion criteria, and client assignments that perpetuated gender disparities over time. The lawsuit highlighted how organizational structures and practices can contribute to gender inequality, affecting numerous employees rather than being isolated incidents of individual bias. Conclusion: While individual acts of discrimination may also occur within Morgan Stanley, the case primarily focused on systemic patterns of inequality and discrimination embedded within the institution itself. Therefore, the Morgan Stanley case is a clear example of institutional discrimination due to its systemic nature and impact on a broad group of employees. 5. Discuss the Issue of Gender Stratification Both in Historical and Contemporary Perspective Answer: Historical Perspective: Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges based on gender. Historically, societies have assigned different roles, rights, and status to men and women, leading to gender inequalities. Examples include: 1. Traditional Gender Roles: In many historical societies, women were confined to domestic roles as caregivers and homemakers, while men held roles in public life, politics, and economic activities. 2. Legal and Political Disenfranchisement: Women historically faced legal and political barriers, such as the denial of voting rights or property ownership, which limited their autonomy and opportunities for social and economic advancement. 3. Gender-Based Violence: Historical norms often condoned or overlooked violence against women, reinforcing patriarchal power structures and limiting women's ability to assert their rights and safety. Contemporary Perspective: Despite advancements in gender equality, gender stratification persists in contemporary societies: 1. Occupational Segregation: Women are overrepresented in lower-paying and caregiving occupations, while men dominate higher-paying fields such as STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) and corporate leadership. 2. Wage Gap: Disparities in wages persist between men and women performing similar work, reflecting ongoing inequalities in pay and career advancement opportunities. 3. Glass Ceiling: Women continue to face barriers to reaching top leadership positions in many industries and sectors, despite comparable qualifications and performance. 4. Intersectionality: Gender stratification intersects with other forms of inequality, such as race, ethnicity, class, and sexual orientation, exacerbating disparities and limiting opportunities for marginalized groups. Efforts to address gender stratification include legal protections against discrimination, affirmative action policies, advocacy for gender equality in education and employment, and cultural shifts towards challenging traditional gender norms and stereotypes. These perspectives on gender stratification illustrate both historical patterns of inequality and ongoing challenges in achieving gender equality in contemporary societies. 6. Discuss the issue of Islamic Feminism. Answer: Islamic feminism is a diverse movement within Islam that seeks to promote gender equality, justice, and women's rights within the framework of Islamic teachings and principles. It emerged in response to traditional interpretations of Islam that often marginalized or subordinated women. Key aspects of Islamic feminism include: 1. Reinterpretation of Religious Texts: Islamic feminists engage in reinterpretation of religious texts, such as the Qur'an and Hadiths, to challenge patriarchal interpretations that have been used to justify gender inequalities. They argue for a more egalitarian understanding of Islamic teachings that supports women's rights. 2. Advocacy for Legal Reforms: Islamic feminists advocate for legal reforms within Islamic legal systems (Sharia) to ensure gender-just interpretations and application of laws related to marriage, divorce, inheritance, and personal status. 3. Education and Empowerment: Islamic feminists emphasize education and empowerment of women within Muslim communities, encouraging women to pursue education, leadership roles, and active participation in social and political spheres. 4. Intersectionality: Islamic feminism acknowledges intersections of gender with other social categories, such as race, class, and nationality, recognizing that women's experiences and challenges are shaped by multiple factors. 5. Criticism of Patriarchal Practices: Islamic feminists critique patriarchal practices and cultural traditions that discriminate against women, even when these practices are mistakenly attributed to Islamic teachings. Islamic feminism highlights the diversity of interpretations within Islam and challenges stereotypes that portray Muslim women as universally oppressed or passive. It seeks to reconcile faith with feminist principles of equality and justice, contributing to ongoing debates about gender rights in Muslim-majority societies and globally. 7. Discuss the topic of gender and socialization. Answer: Gender socialization refers to the process by which individuals learn and internalize the cultural norms, expectations, roles, and behavior associated with their perceived gender. It begins from infancy and continues throughout life, shaping how individuals perceive themselves and interact with others based on gender. Key aspects include: 1. Family: Families play a central role in gender socialization by teaching children gender-specific behavior, attitudes, and responsibilities through reinforcement, modelling, and direct instruction. Children learn what is considered appropriate behavior for boys and girls within their family contexts. 2. Peer Groups: Peer groups reinforce gender norms and expectations through social interactions, play, and peer pressure. Children and adolescents may face social consequences for deviating from gender norms established within their peer groups. 3. Media and Culture: Mass media, including television, films, advertising, and social media, perpetuate gender stereotypes and ideals of masculinity and femininity. Media representations shape individuals' perceptions of gender roles and influence their self-image and aspirations. 4. Education and Institutions: Educational institutions reinforce gender norms through curriculum content, teacher expectations, and extracurricular activities. Gender biases may affect academic performance, career aspirations, and opportunities for leadership roles. 5. Impact on Identity: Gender socialization contributes to the formation of gender identity, which encompasses one's internal sense of being male, female, or another gender identity. It influences individuals' beliefs about their capabilities, interests, and roles in society. Understanding gender socialization is essential for analysing how societal expectations and norms shape individuals' experiences and opportunities based on gender. It also underscores the importance of promoting gender equality and challenging stereotypes from an early age. 8. Discuss the issue of gender inequality as it relates to work and pay. Answer: Gender inequality in work and pay refers to disparities in employment opportunities, earnings, and career advancement based on gender. Despite progress in many countries, significant gaps persist: 1. Occupational Segregation: Women and men are often concentrated in different occupations and industries, with women more likely to work in caregiving, service, and clerical roles that tend to pay less than male-dominated professions such as STEM fields and executive positions. 2. Wage Gap: Women, on average, earn less than men for comparable work. The gender wage gap is influenced by factors such as occupational segregation, discrimination, disparities in promotions and leadership opportunities, and unpaid caregiving responsibilities that disproportionately fall on women. 3. Glass Ceiling: Women face barriers to advancing to higher-level positions and leadership roles within organizations, despite possessing qualifications and experience comparable to their male counterparts. This phenomenon reflects systemic barriers to women's career advancement. 4. Discrimination: Discriminatory practices, including bias in hiring, promotion decisions, and salary negotiations, contribute to gender disparities in pay and career progression. Stereotypes and unconscious biases may influence employer perceptions of women's competence and commitment. 5. Policy and Advocacy: Efforts to address gender inequality in work and pay include legislation promoting equal pay for equal work, workplace policies supporting work-life balance and parental leave, initiatives to increase women's representation in leadership roles, and advocacy for cultural shifts in organizational practices. Addressing gender inequality requires comprehensive strategies that promote equal opportunities, challenge discriminatory practices, and create supportive environments for women's professional growth and economic empowerment. 9. Compare and contrast the functional, conflict, and feminist perspectives on gender stratification. Answer: Functional Perspective: • Focus: Emphasizes the role of gender roles in maintaining social order and stability. • View: Gender roles are seen as complementary, with men and women fulfilling distinct but equally valuable roles. • Criticism: Criticized for reinforcing traditional norms and overlooking inequalities and diversity of gender experiences. Conflict Perspective: • Focus: Highlights power differentials and inequalities between men and women. • View: Gender stratification results from power struggles and exploitation, with men holding economic and social advantages. • Criticism: May overlook areas of cooperation and shared interests between genders. Feminist Perspective: • Focus: Advocates for gender equality and critiques patriarchal systems and practices. • View: Gender inequality is rooted in social structures and cultural norms that subordinate women, advocating for systemic change. • Criticism: Criticized for focusing primarily on women's issues without fully integrating men's experiences and perspectives. Comparison: • Functional vs. Conflict: Both perspectives acknowledge gender as a structured social phenomenon but differ in their emphasis on cooperation (functional) versus conflict (conflict). • Conflict vs. Feminist: Both highlight power dynamics and inequalities but differ in their broader scope (conflict focuses on power struggles, while feminism addresses gender-specific inequalities). • Functional vs. Feminist: Differ significantly in their views on gender roles (complementary vs. challenging traditional norms) and goals (stability vs. equality). Conclusion: Each perspective offers unique insights into gender stratification, emphasizing different aspects of social structure, power dynamics, and cultural norms. Integrating these perspectives can provide a more comprehensive understanding of gender inequality and inform strategies for promoting gender equality in diverse social contexts. 10. Discuss the functional perspective on gender stratification. Answer: Functionalism is a sociological perspective that views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and maintain social order. When applied to gender stratification, functionalists analyse how gender roles and inequalities contribute to the overall functioning and stability of society. Key Points of the Functional Perspective on Gender Stratification: 1. Division of Labor: Functionalists argue that gender roles are functional for society because they help maintain social order and stability by dividing tasks and responsibilities between men and women. This division of labor is seen as efficient and necessary for the smooth functioning of households and institutions. 2. Complementary Roles: Functionalists emphasize the complementary nature of gender roles, where men and women are believed to have different strengths and abilities suited to different tasks. For example, women are often seen as nurturing caregivers suited to domestic roles, while men are viewed as providers and protectors in the public sphere. 3. Socialization: Functionalists highlight the role of socialization in reinforcing gender roles from a young age. Through socialization processes, children are taught appropriate behavior, interests, and aspirations based on their gender, which prepares them for their expected roles in adulthood. 4. Social Stability: Functionalists argue that gender stratification contributes to social stability by reducing conflict over roles and responsibilities. By clearly defining expectations for men and women, societies minimize uncertainty and promote cooperation and cohesion. 5. Institutional Support: Functionalists acknowledge that social institutions, such as marriage, family, education, and the economy, reinforce and support gender roles. These institutions provide structures and norms that guide individuals' behavior and choices in accordance with societal expectations. Critiques of the Functional Perspective: 1. Reinforcement of Inequality: Critics argue that functionalism justifies and perpetuates gender inequality by legitimizing traditional roles and norms that limit opportunities and choices for individuals based on their gender. 2. Ignoring Diversity: Functionalism tends to overlook the diversity of human experiences and aspirations, as it assumes that gender roles are universally applicable and beneficial for all individuals and societies. 3. Changing Social Context: The functionalist perspective may struggle to explain the challenges and changes in gender roles and inequalities in contemporary societies, where traditional divisions of labor and roles are being questioned and redefined. Conclusion: The functional perspective on gender stratification provides insights into how gender roles and inequalities are structured to contribute to social stability and order. However, it also faces criticism for potentially reinforcing traditional norms and overlooking the complexities and diversity of gender experiences in modern societies. Understanding the functionalist view helps to illuminate the societal mechanisms that shape and perpetuate gender stratification, offering a basis for further analysis and critique from alternative perspectives, such as conflict theory and feminist theory. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154
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