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CHAPTER 10 RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY CHAPTER OUTLINE MINORITY, RACIAL, AND ETHNIC GROUPS Minority Groups Race Ethnicity PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION Prejudice Color-Blind Racism Discriminatory Behavior The Privileges of the Dominant Institutional Discrimination SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON RACE AND ETHNICITY Functionalist Perspective Conflict Perspective Labeling Perspective Interactionist Perspective SPECTRUM OF INTERGROUP RELATIONS Segregation Amalgamation Assimilation Pluralism RACE AND ETHNICITY IN THE UNITED STATES African Americans Native Americans Asian Americans Arab Americans Latinos Central and South Americans Jewish Americans White Ethnics SOCIAL POLICY AND RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY: GLOBAL IMMIGRATION Boxes Taking Sociology to Work: Prudence Hannis, Associate Director, First Nations Post-Secondary Institution, Odanak, Québec Research Today: Institutional Discrimination in the Voting Booth Sociology in the Global Community: The Aboriginal People of Australia Research Today: Asian Americans: A Model Minority? LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 10 1. Differentiate racial, ethnic, and minority groups. 2. Summarize the social construction of race. 3. Explain the impact of prejudice and discrimination on social relations. 4. Identify ways in which color-blind racism amounts to covert racism. 5. Analyze racial and ethnic inequality using the functionalist, conflict, labeling, and interactionist perspectives. 6. Describe the various patterns of intergroup relations. 7. Describe the various racial and ethnic populations in the United States. 8. Analyze the functions and dysfunctions of current United States policy regarding immigration. • Chapter-opening excerpt from “Iyeska: Notes from Mixed-Blood Country” by Charles Trimble • Updated figure, “U.S. Median Income by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender” • Research Today box, “Institutional Discrimination in the Voting Booth,” with map, “Voter ID Requirements” • Expanded coverage of residential segregation in the United States, with table, “Segregated Metropolitan America” • Mapping Life Nationwide map, “Minority Population by County” CHAPTER SUMMARY Sociologists distinguish among racial, ethnic, and minority groups. The term racial group is used to describe a group that is set apart from others because of obvious physical differences. A minority group is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than members of a dominant group or majority group. The social construction of race refers to the process by which people come to define a group as a race based in part on physical characteristics, but also on historical, cultural, and economic factors. Racial formation refers to the sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, changed, and destroyed. As exemplified by Tiger Woods, Mariah Carey, and President Barack Obama, in the U.S. there is a trend toward societal recognition and acceptance of multiple identities. Ethnic groups are set apart from others primarily because of their national origin or distinctive cultural patterns; the distinction with racial groups is not always clear-cut. Prejudice is a negative attitude toward an entire category of people. Sometimes prejudice results from ethnocentrism—the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others. Racism is one important and widespread form of prejudice that fosters a belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior. Prejudice is also rooted in racial and ethnic stereotypes—unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that do not recognize individual differences within the group. Color-blind racism is the use of the principle of race neutrality to defend a racially unequal status quo. Discrimination is the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups based on some type of arbitrary bias. The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of qualified people in a work environment based on gender, race, or ethnicity. Dominant groups enjoy privileges at the expense of others. Sociologists are becoming increasingly interested in what it means to be “White,” for White privilege is the other side of the coin of racial discrimination. Institutional discrimination is the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups, which results from the normal operations of society. Affirmative action refers to positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities and is overall an attempt to combat institutional discrimination. Functionalists observe that racial prejudice and discrimination serve positive functions for dominant groups, whereas conflict theorists see the economic structure as a central factor in the exploitation of minorities. The labeling perspective (as well as conflict perspective) draws attention to racial profiling—any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a person’s behavior. The interactionist view stresses the manner in which everyday contact between people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds contributes to tolerance or leads to hostility. According to the contact hypothesis, in cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status will cause them to become less prejudiced and to abandon old stereotypes. There are four identifiable patterns that are used to describe typical intergroup relations: Segregation refers to the physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and social functions. Amalgamation describes the end result of intermarriage over several generations when a majority and a minority group combine to form a new group. Assimilation is the process by which a person forsakes his or her own cultural tradition to become part of a different culture, as is practiced by minorities when conforming to the standards of the dominant group. Pluralism is based on mutual respect among various cultural groups within a society. The African American minority has experienced contemporary institutional discrimination and individual prejudice rooted in the history of slavery in the United States. Despite the civil rights movement, African Americans still struggle; more than one out of every four Blacks in the United States is poor, compared to one out of every 11 White non-Hispanics. Native Americans represent a diverse array of cultures. There are approximately 2.2 million Native Americans in the United States. Asian Americans have ironically been considered an unqualified success because they have succeeded economically, socially, and educationally without resorting to confrontations with Whites, though this characterization does not necessarily reflect actual experience. By some estimates, there are nearly 4 million Arab Americans in the United States. Most are not Muslim. Latinos represent the largest minority in the United States and hail from an extremely diverse set of countries and cultures. Jewish Americans constitute 2 percent of the population of the United States. Like some Asian Americans, many came to this country and became white-collar professionals in spite of prejudice and discrimination. There are many White ethnics in the U.S. that exhibit only a “symbolic ethnicity” instead of deeper ties with their cultures. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from “Iyeska: Notes from Mixed-Blood Country” by Charles Trimble I. Minority, Racial, and Ethnic Groups • A racial group is a group that is set apart from others because of physical differences that have taken on social significance. Examples: Whites, African Americans, and Asian Americans • Ethnic groups are set apart primarily because of national origin or distinctive cultural patterns. Examples: Jewish Americans, Polish Americans A. Minority Groups • A numerical minority is a group that makes up less than half of some larger population. • A minority group in the sociological sense is a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than members of the dominant or majority group have over theirs. • Sociologists have identified five basic properties of minorities groups: (1) members of a minority group experience unequal treatment; (2) minority group members share physical or cultural characteristics different from the dominant group; (3) minority group membership is ascribed (not voluntary); (4) minority members have a strong sense of group solidarity; and (5) minority members generally marry from within the same group. B. Race • Race is a social differentiation based on physical traits. Example: Black, White, Asian 1. Social Construction of Race • The social construction of race typically benefits those who have more power and privilege than others. • The largest racial minorities in the United States are African Americans (or Blacks), Native Americans (or American Indians), and Asian Americans (Japanese Americans, Chinese Americans, and other Asian peoples). • Racial formation refers to the sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, changed, and destroyed. 2. Recognition of Multiple Identities • Race continues to be a major issue in the U.S., but the “color line” has blurred significantly since 1900. • There appears to be a trend in the U.S. toward recognition of multiple identities. Examples: Tiger Woods, Mariah Carey, President Barack Obama • About 2.9 percent of people in the United States report they are of two or more races. Half of those classified as multiracial are under 18 years. • Many multiracial individuals, especially young adults, struggle against social pressure to choose a single identity. C. Ethnicity • Ethnic groups are set apart from others based on national origin or distinctive cultural patterns. The distinction between racial and ethnic minorities is not always clear-cut. • Stratification along racial lines is more resistant to change than stratification along ethnic lines. II. Prejudice and Discrimination A. Prejudice • Prejudice is a negative attitude toward an entire category of people. • Prejudice tends to perpetuate false definitions of individuals and groups. • Ethnocentrism is the tendency to assume one’s own culture and way of life are superior to all others. • Racism is a form of widespread prejudice that fosters a belief that one race is supreme over all others. Example: hate crimes • Stereotypes are unreliable generalizations about all members of a group that do not recognize individual differences within the group. • William I. Thomas suggested that personality could be molded by the “definition of a situation.” B. Color-Blind Racism • Color-blind racism is the use of the principle of race neutrality to defend a racially unequal status quo. • Proponents of race neutrality oppose affirmative action but not policies such as “legacy” status in college admissions. The net result is continued inequality. • Researchers studying White attitudes toward African Americans have shown that people’s attitudes do change, but that less racial progress was made in the late 20th and early 21st centuries than in the 1950s and 1960s. C. Discriminatory Behavior • Discrimination is the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons. Example: hiring practices based on race • Prejudiced attitudes should not be equated with discriminatory behavior; either condition can be present without the other. • The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual because of gender, race, or ethnicity. D. The Privileges of the Dominant • The benefits of being in a dominant group are often overlooked. White privilege refers to rights or immunities granted to people as a particular benefit or favor simply because they are White. • The advantages of being White include not having to feel different from everyone else; being considered financially reliable; having a race that isn’t a negative factor in obtaining a job or buying a home; being able to be seated without difficulty in a restaurant; and being able to express an opinion without others assuming it is the opinion of all Whites. E. Institutional Discrimination • Institutional discrimination refers to the denial of opportunities and equal rights for individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of society. • It affects certain racial and ethnic groups more than others. • It includes rules requiring that only English be spoken at a place of work; admission practices commonly used by law and medical schools; and restrictive employment-leave policies. • Passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (prohibiting discrimination in public accommodations and publicly owned facilities on the basis of race, color, creed, national origin, and gender) was an attempt to eradicate institutional discrimination. • Affirmative action programs are aimed at recruiting minority members for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities. Some argue that advancing one’s group over another merely shifts the discrimination to another group. Discriminatory practices continue to pervade nearly all areas of life in the United States today. III. Sociological Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity A. Functionalist Perspective • Manning Nash identified three functions of racially prejudiced beliefs: (1) provides a moral justification for maintaining inequality; (2) discourages subordinate minorities from questioning their lowly status; and (3) an end to discrimination would bring greater poverty to minorities and would lower the majority’s standard of living. • Racial prejudice may also be seen as dysfunctional for a society. Example: Arnold Rose’s four dysfunctions B. Conflict Perspective • Exploitation theory suggests racial subordination keeps minorities in low-paying jobs, thereby supplying the capitalist ruling class with a pool of cheap labor. By forcing minorities to accept low wages, capitalists can restrict wages of all members of the proletariat. Example: clash over keeping Chinese immigrant labor out of the United States during the latter half of the nineteenth century C. Labeling Perspective • Racial profiling is any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a person’s behavior. It fits both the conflict perspective and labeling theory. • Authorities continue to rely on racial profiling, even though research has proved it ineffective. There are growing demands to end the practice. D. Interactionist Perspective • The contact hypothesis states that in cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status will cause them to become less prejudiced and to abandon previous stereotypes. The trend in U.S. society is toward increasing contact between those from dominant and subordinate groups. • Another possible way to eliminate or reduce stereotyping and prejudice is the establishment of interracial coalitions that would be built on equal roles for all members. IV. Spectrum of Intergroup Relations • Genocide is the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation. • Expulsion is the driving of people from their homes for the purpose of ethnic cleansing. Example: France expelling over 10,000 ethnic Roma who had immigrated from their home countries of Bulgaria and Romania • Secession, a variant of expulsion, happens when the failure to resolve an ethnic or racial conflict results in the drawing of formal boundaries between the groups. A. Segregation • Segregation is the physical separation of two or more groups in terms of residence, workplace, and social events. Example: apartheid, in which the Republic of South Africa severely restricted the movement of Blacks and other non-Whites by means of a wide-ranging system of segregation • Residential segregation is still the norm in the United States. Over the last 40 years, Black–White segregation has declined only modestly. The rates of Hispanic–White and Asian–White segregation, although they are lower, have also not changed significantly in the last 30 years. B. Amalgamation • With amalgamation, majority and minority groups combine to form a new group. Example: A+B+C=D • The term melting pot is not an adequate description of the United States. C. Assimilation • Assimilation is the process by which a person forsakes his or her own cultural tradition to become part of a different culture. Examples: A+B+C=A; and name-changing to hide a religious or ethnic heritage D. Pluralism • Pluralism is based on mutual respect among various groups. Example: A+B+C=A+B+C. • Pluralism is more of an ideal than a reality in the U.S. • Switzerland exemplifies the modern pluralistic state. V. Race and Ethnicity in the United States A. African Americans • Institutional discrimination and individual prejudice against Blacks is rooted in the history of slavery. • Enslaved Blacks could not own property or pass on the benefits of their labor to children. • The end of the Civil War did not bring real freedom and equality. Southern states passed “Jim Crow” laws to enforce official segregation; and these were upheld by the Supreme Court as constitutional in 1896. • Informal control forced segregation through vigilante terror. Example: Ku Klux Klan • The landmark Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) outlawed segregation of public school students: “Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.” • During the 1960s, a vast civil rights movement emerged. Examples: Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), founded by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) • The Black power movement rejected the goal of assimilation into White middle-class society and defended the beauty of Black and African cultures. • Blacks represent 7 percent or less of all physicians, engineers, scientists, lawyers, judges, and marketing managers. B. Native Americans • Today, 2.2 million Native Americans represent a diverse array of cultures, distinguishable by language, family organization, religion, and livelihood. • Life remains difficult for the 554 tribal groups in the United States. • Since 1960, the count of Native Americans has tripled, suggesting Native Americans are no longer concealing their identity. • The introduction of gambling on Indian reservations has transformed the lives of many Native Americans, but it provokes controversy because the gains are so unevenly distributed. C. Asian Americans • Asian Americans, a diverse group, are one of the fastest growing segments of the U.S. population (up 43 percent between 2000 and 2010). • Asian Americans are often held up as a model or ideal minority group, though this does not necessarily reflect their experience. • Southeast Asians living in the U.S. have the highest rate of welfare dependency of any racial or ethnic group. • Asian Americans work in the same occupations as Whites but still experience the “glass ceiling.” 1. Chinese Americans • Chinese were encouraged to immigrate to the U.S. from about 1850 to 1880. Thousands were lured by job opportunities created by the discovery of gold; but as competition for jobs grew, they became targets of bitter efforts to limit their numbers and restrict their rights. Example: Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) • Currently, over 3 million live in the U.S. Some have entered lucrative occupations, yet many immigrants struggle to survive under living and working conditions that belie the model-minority stereotype. 2. Asian Indians • The second largest Asian-American group, numbering over 2.8 million, is Asian Indians. • Religious orthodoxy is often stronger among first-generation immigrants to the United States than it is in India, perhaps due to a sense of being threatened. • Maintaining family traditions is a major challenge. 3. Filipino Americans • Filipino Americans are the third-largest Asian American group in the United States, with nearly 2.6 million people. • Immigration began with U.S. possession of the Philippine Islands in 1899. • A significant percentage of Filipino immigrants are well-educated health care professionals, which causes a professional drain on their homeland. Filipino Americans send a significant amount of money, called remittances, back to their extended families. • They have not coalesced into a single formal social organization but are strongly loyal to Catholic church. 4. Vietnamese Americans • Vietnamese came to U.S. largely after the Vietnam War and U.S. withdrawal in 1975. • Many have gravitated toward larger urban areas. 5. Korean Americans • Over 1.4 million live in the U.S., exceeding Japanese Americans. • The initial wave of immigration occurred between 1903 and 1910 with laborers going to Hawaii. The second wave occurred following the Korean War. Most were wives of U.S. servicemen and war orphans. The third wave reflects the 1965 Immigration Act and is ongoing, with immigrants bringing high levels of education and professional skills. 6. Japanese Americans • About 763,000 Japanese Americans live in the U.S. The first generation Issei were largely males seeking employment opportunities. • The attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 had severe repercussions. Detention of Japanese Americans in “evacuation” camps caused them severe financial and emotional hardship. • In 1988, the Civil Liberties Act required reparations and apologies from the federal government for interned Japanese Americans. D. Arab Americans • Arab Americans include immigrants and their descendents from 22 countries in North Africa and the Middle East. The Arabic language is the most unifying force among this population. • There is an estimated population of nearly 4 million Arab Americans. • The Arab American population is concentrated in certain areas of the U.S., particularly a few major metropolitan areas. • For years, especially after 9/11, Arab Americans have been subject to profiling and surveillance by law enforcement. • Most Arab Americans are not Muslims. E. Latinos • Latinos represent the largest minority in the U.S., with a population of more than 50 million. • The rise in the Latino population is due to high birthrates and immigration levels. • Language barriers contribute to educational problems and the low economic status of Hispanics. 1. Mexican Americans • Mexican Americans are the largest of Latino populations in the U.S.—approx. 30 million. • They are often viewed as primarily an immigrant group, but the number of Mexican Americans who were born in the United States has far exceeded those who immigrated here. 2. Puerto Ricans • Puerto Ricans are the second-largest segment of Latinos in the U.S. They have held American citizen status since 1917. • Those living in the continental U.S. earn barely half the family income of Whites. Reverse migration began in the 1970s, when more Puerto Ricans left for the island than were coming to the mainland. • Statehood discussions have resulted in continuing commonwealth status. 3. Cuban Americans • Immigration began to flourish after Castro’s assumption of power in 1959. The first wave included many professionals; immigrants of more recent waves have been less likely to be skilled professionals. • Florida has been the largest center of Cuban immigrant populations. 4. Central and South Americans • This is a diverse population that has not been closely studied. Not all speak Spanish. • Many of the source nations follow a complex classification system that recognizes a multitude of color gradients. • They are often differentiated by social class distinctions, religious differences, urban or rural upbringings, and dialects. F. Jewish Americans • About 2 percent of U.S. population is Jewish—the world’s largest concentration of Jews. Many are white-collar professionals. • Anti-Semitism refers to a prejudice directed toward Jews. • Today, American Jews are almost as likely to marry a Gentile as a Jew. G. White Ethnics • 49 million claim at least partial German ancestry, 36 million of Irish ancestry, 17 million of Italian ancestry, and 10 million of Polish ancestry. • Many identify only sporadically with their heritage; symbolic ethnicity refers to an emphasis on concerns such as ethnic food or political issues rather than on deeper ties to one’s ethnic heritage. • In times of high unemployment or inflation, white ethnics often experience competition that can easily generate intense intergroup conflict and conflict with other ethnic groups. VI. (Box) Social Policy and Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Global Immigration A. Looking at the Issue • Worldwide immigration is at an all-time high, raising questions for the countries to which people immigrate. • People migrate into countries where there is perceived economic opportunity. • Seven countries, including Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, shelter one-third of the world’s migrant population. Many of these people are transnationals—immigrants who sustain multiple social relationships that link their societies of origin with the society of settlement. • Entrance policies in the U.S. favor family members and skilled workers. For the past 50 years, immigrants have come primarily from Latin America and Asia. B. Applying Sociology • Immigration is functional. Immigrants adapt to U.S. society and become assets to the economy, alleviate labor shortages, and produce remittances that help the country of origin. • Dysfunctions include short-term stress on social services in communities with high concentrations of immigrants; and the loss of family members and a skilled workforce in the sending country. • Conflict theorists note that racial and ethnic hostilities can be hidden in economic arguments. • Feminists note that immigrant women face economic hardship as well as the stress of negotiating the new system on behalf of their children. C. Initiating Policy • An increased public perception that the U.S. has lost control of its borders has led to increased pressure for immigration control. • The legal consequences of hiring illegal aliens have increased, leading to protests by illegal immigrants, legal immigrants, and other citizens on both sides of the issue. • A 2010 Arizona law empowered police to detain without authorization people whom they reasonably suspect of being illegal immigrants and to verify their immigration status. Opponents charged that the new law would lead to racial profiling, but the Supreme Court has upheld it. • The European Union is struggling with immigration policy. • The terrorist attacks of 2001 caused increased government scrutiny of immigrants as they attempt to travel to many nations. KEY TERMS Affirmative action Positive efforts to recruit minority group members or women for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities. Amalgamation The process through which a majority group and a minority group combine to form a new group. Anti-Semitism Anti-Jewish prejudice. Apartheid A former policy of the South African government, designed to maintain the separation of Blacks and other non-Whites from the dominant Whites. Assimilation The process through which a person forsakes his or her cultural tradition to become part of a different culture. Black power A political philosophy, promoted by many younger Blacks in the 1960s, that supported the creation of Black-controlled political and economic institutions. Color-blind racism The use of the principle of race neutrality to defend a racially unequal status quo. Contact hypothesis An interactionist perspective stating that in cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status will reduce prejudice. Discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons. Ethnic group A group that is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns. Ethnocentrism The tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others. Exploitation theory A Marxist theory that views racial subordination in the United States as a manifestation of the class system inherent in capitalism. Genocide The deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation. Glass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual’s gender, race, or ethnicity. Institutional discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society. Minority group A subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than the members of a dominant or majority group have over theirs. Model, or ideal, minority A subordinate group whose members supposedly have succeeded economically, socially, and educationally despite past prejudice and discrimination, and without resorting to political and violent confrontations with Whites. Pluralism Mutual respect for one another’s cultures among the various groups in a society, which allows minorities to express their cultures without experiencing prejudice. Prejudice A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority. Racial formation A sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, inhabited, transformed, and destroyed. Racial group A group that is set apart from others because of physical differences that have taken on social significance. Racial profiling Any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a person’s behavior. Racism The belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior. Remittances The monies that immigrants return to their families of origin. Also called migradollars. Segregation The physical separation of two groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and social events; often imposed on a minority group by a dominant group. CHAPTER 11 STRATIFICATION BY GENDER CHAPTER OUTLINE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER Gender Roles in the United States Cross-Cultural Perspective SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER Functionalist Perspective Conflict Perspective Feminist Perspective Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors Interactionist Perspective WOMEN: THE OPPRESSED MAJORITY Sexism and Sex Discrimination The Status of Women Worldwide WOMEN IN THE WORKFORCE OF THE UNITED STATES Labor Force Participation Compensation Social Consequences of Women's Employment EMERGENCE OF A COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS SOCIAL POLICY AND GENDER STRATIFICATION: THE BATTLE OVER ABORTION FROM A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE Boxes Sociology in the Global Community: Women in Combat Worldwide Sociology in the Global Community: The Head Scarf and the Veil: Complex Symbols Research Today: Give Me a Male Boss, Please LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 11 1. Explain the meaning of the phrase the social construction of gender. 2. Describe women’s and men’s gender roles and the process of gender-role socialization in the United States. 3. Analyze the functionalist, conflict, feminist, and interactionist explanations of gender stratification. 4. Describe the effects of sex discrimination. 5. Summarize the status of women in the U.S. and worldwide. 6. Compare and contrast the labor force participation and compensation of U.S. men and women in various occupations. 7. Explain second shift in terms of women’s employment. 8. Summarize the concept of collective consciousness within the context of the development of feminism in the U.S. 9. Analyze the battle over abortion through a sociological lens. • Chapter-opening excerpt from Azadeh Moaveni, Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran • Sociology in the Global Community box, “Women in Combat Worldwide” • Discussion of the glass escalator, with key term treatment • Updated discussion of feminism • Updated Social Policy section, “The Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective,” with discussion of recent changes in state and local policies regarding abortion clinics and Mapping Life Nationwide double map, “State Abortion-Related Policies, 2000–2011” CHAPTER SUMMARY Gender roles are defined as the expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. Social behavior is socially constructed so that male-female differences are created and then reinforced by social institutions. Gender-role socialization in the United States has followed a traditional pattern in that boys are taught to be active, aggressive, tough, daring and dominant, whereas girls are taught to be soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive. Gender-role socialization occurs through the influences of parents, older siblings, the mass media, religious and educational institutions, and other adults. Sociologists have turned to the major sociological perspectives to understand stratification by gender. Functionalists maintain that gender differentiation has contributed to social stability. Some argue that in order to function most efficiently, the family requires adults who specialize in particular roles, and that the division of tasks between spouses is functional for the family unit. Conflict theorists see gender differences as a reflection of the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men). Like the conflict perspective, the feminist perspective argues that the very discussion of women and society has been distorted by the exclusion of women from academic thought. Contemporary feminists have also drawn attention to the intersections of gender with race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, which can further limit women’s status; Patricia Hill Collins refers to this as the matrix of domination. Interactionists examine gender stratification with a micro-level analysis. They suggest that cross-sex conversations and male-dominated behaviors are one more battleground in the struggle for sexual equality. Women are viewed as the oppressed majority when looking at the political structure of the United States, in that women are noticeably underrepresented. Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. Men control all the major institutions in our society. Institutional discrimination is defined as the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society. This general pattern of male dominance is found everywhere, with women in developing nations facing the most severe challenges. A majority of women in the U.S. are now members of the paid labor force. The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment. Women from all groups (and men from minority groups) sometimes encounter attitudinal or organizational bias that prevents them from reaching their full potential. This is especially the case in White male-dominated occupations. There is a substantial gender gap in the median earnings of full-time workers. The phrase second shift refers to the double burden—work outside the home, followed by childcare and housework—that many women face. The burden of additional (unpaid) work at home is felt especially by mothers of young children. Feminism is the belief in social, economic, and political equality for women. The first wave of feminists worked for voting and other rights for women, and they won many victories, including the passage and ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s with the realization that suffrage had not led to social or economic equality. Women today do not necessarily call themselves feminists, but there is a growing acceptance of women in nontraditional roles. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from Lipstick Jihad: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran by Azadeh Moaveni I. Social Construction of Gender • Gender roles are expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. • Gender roles are socially constructed so that male–female differences are either created or exaggerated. Example: In a heterosexual couple, the man should be taller than the woman. A. Gender Roles in the United States 1. Gender-Role Socialization • Boys must be masculine and girls must be feminine. • Homophobia contributes significantly to rigid gender-role socialization. Example: Deviation from traditional expectations leads to the presumption of being gay. • Parents play a critical role in guiding children into gender roles. • There are often clear boundaries to conventional gender behavior. See Table 11-1. 2. Women’s Gender Roles • Girls identify in part with families, neighbors, and the media for their development of a feminine self-image. • Women are often portrayed in television and books as helpless, passive, and incompetent. • Females tend to be portrayed mostly in traditional roles, such as mother, grandmother, or volunteer. • Traditional gender roles have restricted females more severely than males. 3. Men’s Gender Roles • Men’s gender roles are socially constructed, much like those of women. • Prove one’s masculinity at work and in sports • Aggressive and self-reliant • Initiating and controlling sexual relations • Men pursuing nontraditional jobs often encounter negative responses from others. Examples: male nurses, preschool teachers • Many men find that traditional masculinity does not serve them well in the service-oriented job market. • Multiple masculinities refers to how, although society reinforces the dominant male role, most men do play other roles such as nurturer. 4. Gender and Human Sexuality • Separating sex from gender is impossible, but it is also incorrect to equate males with stereotypically masculine expressions or females with feminine expressions of sexuality. • New terms like metrosexual and bromance suggest men should feel comfortable embracing traditionally feminine tastes or developing deep friendships with other men. B. Cross-Cultural Perspective • Margaret Mead points to the importance of cultural and environmental conditioning—rather than biology—in defining the social roles of males and females. Example: sex in New Guinea • Every society has women and men who resist and successfully oppose stereotypes. Maintenance of traditional gender roles requires constant social controls that are not always effective. • UN intervention has helped Afghanis begin to recognize that violence against women is a social problem. II. Sociological Perspectives on Gender A. Functionalist Perspective • Gender differentiation contributes to overall social stability. Family requires specialized roles. • Parsons and Bales contended women take the expressive role and men the instrumental. • Instrumentality refers to an emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one’s family and other social institutions. • Expressiveness denotes concern for maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family. Example: Women become anchored as wives. • Women’s interest in expressive goals frees men for instrumental tasks, and vice versa. B. Conflict Perspective • The relationship between men and women has traditionally been one of unequal power. • Gender differences reflect the subjugation of one group (women) by another group (men). Example: Marx’s bourgeoisie and proletariat C. Feminist Perspective • Much of the conflict approach to gender stratification draws on feminist theory. • Women’s subjugation is part of the overall exploitation and injustice inherent in capitalist societies. • Radical feminists view the oppression of women as inevitable in all male-dominated societies. • Women have been excluded from academic thought. Example: Jane Addams and Ida Wells-Barnett D. Intersections with Race, Class, and Other Social Factors • Contemporary feminists also recognize the effect of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on differential treatment of women. • Patricia Hill Collins calls the convergence of these social forces that contributes to the subordinate status of these low-status women the matrix of domination. • Low-status minority women are oppressed much more by their race and ethnicity than by their gender. • Latinas are usually considered part of either the Hispanic or feminist movements, their distinctive experience ignored. E. Interactionist Perspective • Interactionists focus on the micro level of everyday behavior, whereas functionalists and conflict theorists focus more on the macro level. • People can both conform to and challenge gender roles in day-to-day interactions. III. Women: The Oppressed Majority • Women remain noticeably underrepresented in political structures. Examples: Following the 2012 elections, only 5 of the nation’s 50 states had a female governor. The Congress that held office following the 2012 elections had 98 women: 78 in the House and 20 in the Senate. The membership and leadership of Congress remains overwhelmingly male. A. Sexism and Sex Discrimination • Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. • Institutional discrimination contributes to sexism. All major institutions are controlled by men and are biased in their treatment of women. Examples: government, armed forces, large corporations, the media, universities B. The Status of Women Worldwide • According to a detailed overview of the status of the world’s women, issued by the World Bank in 2012, the lives of girls and women have changed dramatically over the past quarter century. Progress has been limited in some respects, however. In many parts of the world, women still lag far behind men in their earnings and in their ability to speak out politically. • Regardless of culture, women everywhere suffer from second-class status. • Women rarely own land. • Women work in jobs with lower pay and lower status than men. • Female, single-parent households are typically found among the poorest segments of the population. • The feminization of poverty is a global phenomenon. • Much of the exploited labor in developing nations (especially in the nonindustrial sector) is performed by women. • In industrialized countries, women’s unequal status can be seen in the division of housework, as well as in the jobs they hold and the pay they earn. IV. Women in the Workforce of the United States A. Labor Force Participation • 58 percent of adult women in the United States were in the labor force in 2011, compared to 41 percent in 1970. • Occupational segregation: confinement to sex-typed “women’s jobs.” Example: In 2011, women accounted for approximately 47 percent of the paid labor force of the United States, yet they constituted only 14 percent of civil engineers, 31 percent of computer systems analysts, and 34 percent of physicians. See Table 11-3. • The glass ceiling prevents women from reaching their full potential. B. Compensation • When men and women hold the same jobs, men usually make more money. • The gender gap persists even after controlling for age, education, and work experience. • Legally, sex discrimination in wage payments is difficult to prove. • While women are at a disadvantage in male-dominated occupations, men are at an advantage in female occupations (the “glass escalator”). C. Social Consequences of Women’s Employment • Sociologist Arlie Hochschild describes the double burden of housework and childcare following work outside the home as the “second shift.” • Women spend 15 fewer hours per week in leisure activities compared to men. • Feminists have advocated greater government and corporate support for childcare, family leave policies, and other reforms. V. Emergence of a Collective Consciousness • Feminism is an ideology that favors equal rights for women. • The first wave of feminists worked for voting and other rights for women, and won many victories, including the passage and ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution. • The second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s with the realization that suffrage had not led to social or economic equality. Women today do not necessarily call themselves feminists, but there is a growing acceptance of women in nontraditional roles. • By the 1980s the movement’s influence was beginning to wane; many women and men believe the word feminist has negative implications. VI. (Box) Social Policy and Gender Stratification: The Battle over Abortion from a Global Perspective A. Looking at the Issue • The debate over legalized abortion stirs as much intense conflict, or more, than any other issue. • In Roe v. Wade, a 1973 U.S. Supreme Court decision, the ruling was based on a woman’s right to privacy. The debate that has followed this ruling revolves around prohibiting abortion altogether, or at the very least, limiting it. • In the U.S., people seem to support a woman’s right to a legal abortion, but with reservations. According to a 2012 national survey, 52 percent say that abortion should be legal in any case; 28 percent, legal only under certain circumstances; and 18 percent, illegal in all cases. There is no gender difference in opinion on this issue: Women are just as likely as men to embrace a right-to-life orientation. B. Applying Sociology • Gender and social class are defining issues surrounding abortion. • The conflict reflects broader differences over women’s position in society. Feminists largely defend abortion rights; antiabortion activists tend to believe that women are best suited to child rearing, and are troubled by women’s growing participation in work outside the home. • Access to abortion providers is a problem for the poor. • State and local policies that hamper the doctors and clinics that provide abortions have increased. C. Initiating Policy • A Supreme Court majority of 5–4 supported abortion rights in 1973; however, recent appointments of John Roberts and Samuel Alito to the Supreme Court leaves the future status of Roe v. Wade in question. • Antiabortion members of Congress have often blocked foreign aid to countries that might use the funds to encourage abortion. • Forty percent of abortions worldwide are performed illegally, in many cases because the woman lives in a country where abortion is illegal or severely restricted. KEY TERMS Brass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a woman in the military because of her official (not necessarily actual) exclusion from combat. Expressiveness Concern for maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family. Feminism An ideology that favors equal rights for women. Gender role Expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. Glass ceiling An invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual’s gender, race, or ethnicity. Homophobia Fear of and prejudice against homosexuality. Institutional discrimination The denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society. Instrumentality An emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one’s family and other social institutions. Matrix of domination The cumulative impact of oppression because of race and ethnicity, gender, and social class, as well as religion, sexual orientation, disability, age, social and citizenship status. Multiple masculinities A variety of male gender roles, including nurturing-caring and effeminate-gay roles, that men may play along with their more pervasive traditional role of dominating women. Second shift The double burden—work outside the home followed by childcare and housework—that many women face and few men share equitably. Sexism The ideology that one sex is superior to the other. CHAPTER 12 THE FAMILY AND HUMAN SEXUALITY CHAPTER OUTLINE GLOBAL VIEW OF THE FAMILY Composition: What Is the Family? Kinship Patterns: To Whom Are We Related? Authority Patterns: Who Rules? SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE FAMILY Functionalist Perspective Conflict Perspective Interactionist Perspective Feminist Perspective MARRIAGE AND FAMILY Courtship and Mate Selection Variations in Family Life and Intimate Relationships Child-Rearing Patterns DIVORCE Statistical Trends in Divorce Factors Associated with Divorce Impact of Divorce on Children DIVERSE LIFESTYLES Cohabitation Remaining Single Marriage without Children HUMAN SEXUALITY Labeling and Human Sexuality Lesbian and Gay Relationships SOCIAL POLICY AND THE FAMILY: GAY MARRIAGE Boxes Sociology in the Global Community: One Wife, Many Husbands: The Nyinba Our Wired World: Love Is in the Air and on the Web Research Today: Transracial Adoption: The Experience of Children from Korea Research Today: Adolescent Sexual Networks LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 12 1. Describe the different family types across cultures. 2. Describe the significance of kinship patterns. 3. Explain the three ways in which power is distributed within families. 4. Analyze the family using the functionalist, conflict, interactionist, and feminist perspectives. 5. Describe the variations in marital patterns and family life. 6. Describe various child-rearing patterns in family life. 7. Analyze the trends and factors associated with divorce. 8. Analyze the impact of diverse lifestyles on the social institution of the family. 9. Analyze policy concerning gay marriage through a sociological lens. • Discussion of how the gay marriage debate has revived the polygamous marriage debate • Our Wired World box, “Love Is in the Air and on the Web” • Discussion of the Healthy Marriage and Responsible Fatherhood Initiative under the Obama administration • Mapping Life Nationwide map, “Same-Sex Couple Households as Percent of All Households” • Coverage of increased acceptance of LGBT people, especially by businesses and federal agencies • Thoroughly revised Social Policy section on gay marriage, including (a) discussion of queer theorists’ perspective on gay marriage; (b) the Supreme Court decision in United States v. Windsor, which invalidated a key section of the Defense of Marriage Act; (c) local resistance to gay marriage; (d) dissenting LGBT views of same-sex marriage; and (e) Mapping Life Nationwide map, “Gay Marriage Recognition by State” CHAPTER SUMMARY In the United States, family has traditionally been viewed in a very narrow set of terms: as a married couple and their unmarried children living together. In sociology, this traditional family arrangement is referred to as a nuclear family. Most Americans view the nuclear family as the ideal family configuration. By contrast, an extended family is a family in which relatives (e.g., grandparents, aunts, uncles) live in the same home as parents and their children. While most Americans equate monogamy with marriage, there are other forms of marriage as well. Polygamy involves the marriage of one person to multiple spouses. Polygyny, the most common type of polygamy, involves one husband who is married to multiple wives. Polyandry, which is less common, involves one wife who is married to multiple husbands. In the United States, it is common for individuals to marry, divorce, and then remarry. This pattern has led to the term serial monogamy. The state of being related to others is called kinship. The United States follows the pattern of bilateral descent, which means that both sides of a person’s family are regarded as equally important. Patrilineal descent indicates that only the father’s relatives are important in determining property, inheritance, and emotional ties. Conversely, in societies that favor matrilineal descent, only the mother’s relatives are significant. Authority patterns within families are often related to kinship descent. If a society expects males to dominate in all the family decision making, it is termed a patriarchy. By contrast, in a matriarchy, women have greater authority than men. Within the egalitarian family, spouses are regarded as equals; however, wives may hold authority in some spheres and husbands in others. The various sociological perspectives hold varying views on family. Functionalists focus on the ways in which family gratifies the needs of its members and contributes to the stability of society in providing reproduction, protection, socialization, regulation of sexual behavior, affection and companionship, and social status. To the extent that many of these “functions” have been taken over by outside institutions, the family as an institution is weakened. In addition, functionalists suggest that in order for families to function optimally, they require a specialized division of labor in which husbands perform one set of tasks (known as “instrumental”) and wives another (known as “expressive”). This explicit support for a gendered division of household labor has prompted a certain amount of criticism in recent years for the functionalist perspective. Conflict theorists view family as a reflection of the inequality in wealth and power found within the larger society. Both feminist and conflict theorists contend that family has traditionally legitimized and perpetuated male dominance. In essence, the family is viewed as an economic unit that contributes to societal injustice. Women and children are subordinate members of the family and may be subjected to a number of injustices, economic or otherwise. Domestic violence committed against wives, for example, may occur as a result of husbands’ perceived lack of power in the economic realm. Feminist theorists also stress the need to rethink the notion that families in which no adult male is present are automatically a cause for concern, or even dysfunctional. Feminists who take the interactionist perspective stress the need to investigate neglected topics in family studies, such as dual-income households in which wives earn more than their husbands. Interactionists focus on the micro level of family and other intimate relationships. Interactionists are interested in how individuals, whether cohabitating or married, interact with one another. Mate selection is influenced by distinctive cultural norms and values. Endogamy specifies that people are expected to marry within their own racial, ethnic, or religious group. Conversely, exogamy requires mate selection outside certain groups, usually outside one’s own family or certain kinfolk. Homogamy refers to the conscious or unconscious process of selecting a mate with similar characteristics to one’s own. The incest taboo prohibits sexual relationships between certain culturally specified relatives. In the United States, love is important in the courtship process and is considered a rationale for marriage. Arranged marriages often take precedent over love relationships in many parts of the world. Within the United States, social class, race, and ethnicity create variations in family life. Social class differences can result in very different constructions of social life. Upper class families tend to focus on lineage and extended family, while lower-class families often have only one parent at home and are preoccupied with paying the bills. The subordinate status of racial and ethnic minorities also profoundly affects family life in the United States. The African American family suffers from many negative and inaccurate stereotypes. Mexican Americans have traditionally placed proximity to their extended families above other needs and desires. Caring for children is a universal function of the family, yet the ways in which this care is assigned to family members vary significantly. Parenthood is one of the most important social roles in the United States. In some homes, a full nest includes grandchildren. By 2009, 9 percent of White children, 17 percent of Black children, and 14 percent of Hispanic children lived with at least one grandparent. In about a third of these homes, no parent was present to assume responsibility for the youngsters. Adoption is the transfer of the legal rights, responsibilities, and privileges of parenthood to a new legal parent or parents. Functionalists suggest that governments should have a strong interest in promoting adoption. Adopting a child is an enormous adjustment for new parents, especially when the child comes from another culture. The expectation that a family consists of a wage-earning husband with a wife who stays at home has largely given way to the dual-income household. The rise of the dual-income model is partly contingent on economic need, the increasing desire on the part of both men and women to pursue careers, and increasing acceptance of egalitarian marriage. The diminishing of the “unwed mother” stigma has contributed to more single-parent families. In 2010, a single parent headed about 24 percent of White families with children under 18, 37 percent of Hispanic families with children, and 62 percent of African American families with children. Approximately 45 percent of all people in the United States will marry, divorce, and then remarry. Since the 1980s the divorce rate has declined by 30 percent. However, increased divorce and remarriage have led to a noticeable increase in stepfamily relationships. Perhaps the most important factor in the increase in divorce over the last hundred years has been the greater social acceptance of divorce. One of the most dramatic trends in recent years has been the tremendous increase in male-female couples who choose to live together without marrying. The practice of cohabitation is increasing; the number of households in the United States that are headed by unmarried opposite-sex couples was 7.8 million in 2012. Since 1970, the number of unmarried couples with children has increased 12-fold. More and more people are postponing entry into marriage. However, fewer than four percent of women and men in the United States are likely to remain single throughout their lives. There has been a modest increase in childlessness in the United States. About 16 to 17 percent of women will now complete their childbearing years without having borne any children, compared to 10 percent in 1980. The lifestyles of gay and lesbian couples can be varied. The issue of gay marriage is highly controversial. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from The Accordion Family: Boomerang Kids, Anxious Parents, and the Private Toll of Global Competition by Katherine S. Newman • A family is defined as a set of people related by blood, marriage, adoption, or some other agreed-upon relationship who share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for any dependent members. I. Global View of the Family A. Composition: What Is the Family? • The nuclear family consists of a married couple and their unmarried children living together. Nuclear families have steadily decreased over the last 30 years. By 2000, only about a third of U.S. family households fit this model. • An extended family is a family in which relatives—such as grandparents, aunts, uncles—live in the same home as parents and their children. • Extended families provide greater emotional and financial support. • Monogamy refers to one woman and one man married only to each other. • Serial monogamy refers to a person who may have several spouses in his or her lifetime, but only one at a time. • There are two types of polygamy: Polygyny refers to the marriage of a man to more than one woman at the same time, and polyandry refers to a woman with more than one husband at the same time. Around the world, polygyny is much more common than polyandry. B. Kinship Patterns: To Whom Are We Related? • The state of being related to others is called kinship. • Kinship is culturally learned and follows a system of descent. • In bilateral descent, both sides of a person’s family are regarded as equal. • In patrilineal descent, only the father’s relatives are important in terms of property, inheritance, and emotional ties. • In matrilineal descent, only the mother’s relatives are significant. C. Authority Patterns: Who Rules? • In a patriarchal family, males are expected to dominate all family decision making. • In patriarchal families (and societies), men may find divorce easier than women, particularly in terms of economic outcomes. • Women have greater authority than men in matriarchies, which are very rare. • In an egalitarian family, authority is shared between spouses. Egalitarian families are becoming more common in the United States. II. Sociological Perspectives On The Family • Friedrich Engels (1884) described family as the ultimate source of social inequality. A. Functionalist Perspective • Families gratify the needs of members and contribute to the stability of society. • William F. Ogburn outlined six paramount functions of family: (1) reproduction, (2) protection, (3) socialization, (4) regulation of sexual behavior, (5) affection and companionship, and (6) providing social status. • Some functions have been shifted to outside groups. Examples: education and recreation B. Conflict Perspective • Family is a reflection of inequality in wealth and power, perpetuated by male dominance. • Family is viewed as an economic unit that contributes to social injustice. • Children inherit the class status of their parents. C. Interactionist Perspective • Micro-level analysis interested in how individuals interact • Examples: father/children interaction as it relates to behavioral problems; studies related to behavior of stepfamilies D. Feminist Perspective • Research on gender roles in childcare and household chores has been extensive. Example: Arlie Hochschild • Feminist theorists have urged others to rethink the notion that families with no adult male are automatically cause for concern. • Other areas of research includes that of single women, single-parent households, and lesbian couples. Feminists who take the interactionist perspective stress the need to investigate neglected topics in family studies, such as dual-income households in which the woman earns more than her husband. III. Marriage and Family • Over 95 percent of all men and women in the U.S. will marry at least once. A. Courtship and Mate Selection • Internet romance via matchmaking services has taken a much larger role in mate selection. • Traditional courtship rituals are still dominant in places like Uzbekistan, where a female will be socialized to anticipate marriage to a man she only meets once. • The process is taking longer than in the past, many people are delaying their entrance into marriage, and cohabitation is increasingly likely. 1. Aspects of Mate Selection • Endogamy specifies that people are expected to marry within their own racial, ethnic, or religious group. It is intended to reinforce group cohesiveness. • Exogamy requires mate selection outside certain groups—usually one’s own family or certain kinfolk. • Incest taboos prohibit sexual relationships between culturally specified relatives. In the U.S. this means we must marry outside the nuclear family. • Although it has increased in the United States, interracial and interethnic marriages are still the exception. • Endogamy is still the social norm in the United States. • Homogamy is the conscious or unconscious tendency to choose a mate with similar personalities and cultural interests. Example: “Like marries like” rule; however, others observe the rule that “Opposites attract.” So mate selection is unpredictable. 2. The Love Relationship • In the U.S., love is important in courtship as a rationale for marriage. • Love is not universal for marriage in all cultures. • Arranged marriages are the basis for mate selection in many cultures and in some subcultures within the U.S. B. Variations in Family Life and Intimate Relationships 1. Social Class Differences • Upper-class families emphasize lineage of family position. • Lower-class families struggle to pay bills and survive. • Middle-class families are more permissive than lower-class families, which have tended to be more authoritative; however, these differences have recently narrowed. • Women play a significant economic role in poor families. Example: In 2012, 31 percent of all families headed by women with no husband present were below the poverty line. The poverty rate for married couples was only 6.2 percent. 2. Racial and Ethnic Differences • The subordinate status of racial and ethnic minorities affects family life. • African American families suffer from negative and inaccurate stereotypes. • Female kin ease financial strains among Black families headed by single mothers. • There is an emphasis on deep religious commitment and aspirations for achievement in Black family life. • Mexican Americans exhibit strong familism, or pride in the extended family, which is expressed through the maintenance of close ties and strong obligations to kinfolk outside the immediate family. Mexican American men exhibit machismo. • Familism can also have negative consequences. C. Child-Rearing Patterns 1. Parenthood and Grandparenthood • Parenthood is one of the most important social roles in the U.S. • Alice Rossi identified four factors regarding socialization into parenthood: (1) little anticipatory socialization for the care-giving role; (2) limited learning occurs during the pregnancy period; (3) transition to parenthood is abrupt; and (4) society lacks clear guidelines for successful parenthood. • There is no consensus on how parents can produce happy, well-adjusted children. • By 2009, 9 percent of White children, 17 percent of Black children, and 14 percent of Hispanic children lived with at least one grandparent. 2. Adoption • Adoption is a process that allows the transfer of legal rights, responsibilities, and privileges of parenthood to a new legal parent or parents. • Functionalists suggest that government policy should encourage adoption for stability. • There are two legal methods for adoption: licensed agency or (in some states) private agreement. • In 1995, New York held that couples do not have to be married to adopt. Under this ruling, unmarried heterosexual couples, lesbian couples, and gay male couples can all legally adopt children in New York. • The Haiti earthquake drew international attention to some problems with international adoption. 3. Dual-Income Families • A majority of married people are dual-wage earners out of economic need. • The increase in the proportion of men and women who desire to pursue careers contributes to the increase in dual-income families. Increased participation of women in the labor force is associated with both the rise in the number of married couples who live apart for reasons other than marital discord and in the increased acceptance of the egalitarian family type. 4. Single-Parent Families • The stigma attached to “unwed” mothers has significantly declined. • In 2010, a single parent headed about 24 percent of White families with children under 18, 37 percent of Hispanic families with children, and 62 percent of African American families with children. • The majority of babies born to unwed teenage mothers are born to White adolescents. • 84 percent of single-parent households in the U.S. are headed by mothers; however, households headed by single fathers more than quadrupled between 1980 and 2013. • Single fathers tend to be more isolated than single mothers. 5. Stepfamilies • Rising rates of divorce and remarriage have increased stepfamily relationships. • Children of stepfamilies may not be better off than children of divorced, single-parent households. • Compared to children raised by biological mothers, children raised in families with stepmothers are likely to have less healthcare, education, and money for food. IV. Divorce A. Statistical Trends in Divorce • Divorce began to increase in the late 1960s, and has declined since the late 1980s. • About 63 percent of divorced people in the U.S. have remarried. • Some regard the remarriage rate as an endorsement of the institution of marriage. B. Factors Associated with Divorce • There is greater social acceptance of divorce. • Negative attitudes of religious denominations have relaxed. • There is growing worldwide acceptance. Example: increasing divorce rate in South Korea • States have adopted more liberal divorce laws (no fault). • Divorce is a more practical option, since families today tend to have fewer children. • The general increase in family income and the availability of free legal aid to some poor make divorce more affordable. • Women are less dependent on their husbands, both economically and emotionally, and feel more able to leave a bad marriage. C. Impact of Divorce on Children • Some suggest divorce is a welcome end for children witnessing family dysfunction. • A national study that tracked 6,332 children both before and after their parents’ divorce found that their behavior did not suffer from the marital breakups. V. Diverse Lifestyles • The marriage rate has declined since 1960 because people are postponing marriage, and because more couples, including same-sex couples, are forming partnerships without marriage. A. Cohabitation • Cohabitation refers to male-female couples who choose to live together without marrying. • The number of households in the United States that are headed by unmarried opposite-sex couples has been rising steadily; in 2012 it was 7.8 million. • Cohabitation is also extremely common in Europe. • Cohabitation is no longer associated more strongly with younger, childless couples. • Presidents George W. Bush and Barak Obama have attempted to bolster the desirability of a lifelong commitment to marriage with legislation. B. Remaining Single • Fewer than 4 percent of women and men in the U.S. are likely to remain single throughout their lives. • Postponing marriage is related to the growing economic independence of young people. • Single persons may choose not to limit their sexual intimacy and not to become dependent on another person. • Singles may form solid, supportive relationships with others for child-rearing and thus may not feel pressure to re-partner. C. Marriage without Children • There has been a modest increase in childlessness in the U.S. • About 16 to 17 percent of women will complete their childbearing years without having borne any children, compared to 10 percent in 1980. • Economic considerations have contributed to this attitude. Example: In 2012, the average middle-class family will spend $241,080 to feed, clothe, and shelter a child from birth to age 18. If the child attends college, that amount could double. VI. Human Sexuality • Medical advances have encouraged what many refer to as a sexual revolution. • Sexual attitudes and practices change radically over time. A. Labeling and Human Sexuality • Labeling theorists look at how labels are used to sanction certain sexual behaviors as “deviant.” • The definition of deviant sexual behavior changes over time and between cultures. • The American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of mental illnesses in 1973. • The terms gay and lesbian are often used because they seem more positive, but such labels ignore those who are bisexual. • Transgendered persons are those whose current gender identity does not match their physical identity at birth. • The concept of sexual deviance is always shifting. Example: U.S. law now allows women to accuse their husbands of rape; a generation ago this was not recognized. B. Lesbian and Gay Relationships • The lifestyles of gays and lesbians vary greatly. • Two to five percent of the adult population identify themselves as either gay or lesbian. • Much progress has been made in reducing legal discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people. However, prohibitions against gay marriage remain a highly contentious issue. VII. (Box) Social Policy and the Family: Gay Marriage A. Looking at the Issue • National surveys of attitudes toward gay marriage in the United States have shown an almost even split among the public, with a slight majority supporting full legalization nationwide. • The issue came to attention in 1999 when the state of Vermont began to give same-sex couples in civil unions the same legal benefits as married couples. • In 2003, the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that gay couples had the right to marry. B. Applying Sociology • Functionalists emphasize the link between marriage and reproduction; they also wonder if religious views toward marriage can be ignored. • Conflict theorists see the lack of marriage rights for gays and lesbians as a way of continuing to subordinate them. • Interactionists are interested in the household dynamics of same-sex households. • Queer theorists point to the relative lack of high-quality research on LGBT households and their relationship to the larger society and to non-LGBT relatives. C. Initiating Policy • A number of European countries recognize same-sex partnerships. • In 1996 Congress enacted the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), but in 2013 the Supreme Court struck it down, declaring that the federal government must recognize same-sex marriages in those states where it was legal at the time. • Some states have moved to ban same-sex marriage, though they still prohibit discrimination against gays and lesbians. • Opponents of same-sex marriage are finding new ways to oppose it, such as denial of consumer services. • Some in the LGBT community equate same-sex marriage with assimilation, which they view negatively. KEY TERMS Adoption In a legal sense, the transfer of the legal rights, responsibilities, and privileges of parenthood to a new legal parent or parents. Bilateral descent A kinship system in which both sides of a person’s family are regarded as equally important. Cohabitation The practice of living together as a male–female couple without marrying. Egalitarian family An authority pattern in which spouses are regarded as equals. Endogamy The restriction of mate selection to people within the same group. Exogamy The requirement that people select a mate outside certain groups. Extended family A family in which relatives—such as grandparents, aunts, or uncles—live in the same home as parents and their children. Familism (Familismo) Pride in the extended family, expressed through the maintenance of close ties and strong obligations to kinfolk outside the immediate family. Family A set of people related by blood, marriage or some other agreed-on relationship, or adoption, who share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of society. Homogamy The conscious or unconscious tendency to select a mate with personal characteristics similar to one’s own. Impression management The altering of the presentation of the self in order to create distinctive appearances and satisfy particular audiences. Incest taboo The prohibition of sexual relationships between certain culturally specified relatives. Kinship The state of being related to others. Machismo A sense of virility, personal worth, and pride in one’s maleness. Matriarchy A society in which women dominate in family decision making. Matrilineal descent A kinship system in which only the mother’s relatives are significant. Monogamy A form of marriage in which an individual has only one partner. Nuclear family A married couple and their unmarried children living together. Patriarchy A society in which men dominate in family decision making. Patrilineal descent A kinship system in which only the father’s relatives are significant. Polyandry A form of polygamy in which a woman may have more than one husband at the same time. Polygamy A form of marriage in which an individual may have several husbands or wives simultaneously. Polygyny A form of polygamy in which a man may have more than one wife at the same time. Serial monogamy A form of marriage in which a person may have several spouses in his or her lifetime, but only one spouse at a time. Single-parent family A family in which only one parent is present to care for the children. Transracial adoption The adoption of a non-White child by White parents or a Hispanic child by non-Hispanics. Instructor Manual for Sociology: A Brief Introduction Richard T. Schaefer 9780078027109, 9781259374630, 9781259252242, 9781259912436
