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CHAPTER 1 UNDERSTANDING SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER OUTLINE WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? The Sociological Imagination Sociology and the Social Sciences Sociology and Common Sense WHAT IS SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY? THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY Early Thinkers Émile Durkheim Max Weber Karl Marx W. E. B. DuBois Twentieth-Century Developments MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Functionalist Perspective Conflict Perspective Interactionist Perspective The Sociological Approach TAKING SOCIOLOGY WITH YOU Applied and Clinical Sociology Developing a Sociological Imagination Boxes Research Today: Looking at Sports from Five Sociological Perspectives Sociology in the Global Community: Your Morning Cup of Coffee APPENDIX: CAREERS IN SOCIOLOGY LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 1 1. Explain the sociological imagination and the characteristics of sociology as a discipline. 2. Differentiate the natural sciences, social sciences, and sociology. 3. Distinguish sociology from common sense knowledge about society. 4. Explain the characteristics of sociological theory. 5. Summarize the contributions of the major figures in the history of sociology from Auguste Comte on. 6. Distinguish macrosociology and microsociology. 7. Summarize the characteristics of each of the three major theoretical perspectives in sociology. 8. Describe the objectives of applied sociology and clinical sociology. 9. Employ the sociological imagination to address issues such as globalization, social inequality, race, gender, and religion. • Discussion of the Atlanta Sociological Laboratory, founded by W. E. B. DuBois, and its contributions to applied sociology • Expanded Thinking Critically exercise on social and cultural capital • Subsection on queer theory, with key term treatment • Research Today box, “Looking at Sports from Five Sociological Perspectives” CHAPTER SUMMARY Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human groups. In attempting to understand social patterns of behavior, sociologists rely on a unique type of critical thinking referred to by C. Wright Mills as the sociological imagination. A key element of the sociological imagination is having an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society. Sociology, along with anthropology, psychology, economics, history, and political science, is a social science. Sociologists study the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior and the ways in which people interact and shape society. Sociology is extremely broad in scope and encompasses a number of substantive topics ranging from aging and the life course to crime, education, health, religion, and sexuality. Unlike common sense, sociological data is empirical, meaning that sociologists rely on scientific studies in order to describe and understand a social environment. Common sense, on the other hand, is based on conventional wisdom, which as we know is often inaccurate and unreliable. Sociologists use theories to help explain events, forces, ideas, or behavior in a comprehensive manner. A theory is simply a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior. The strongest theories are those that both explain and predict. Sociologists rely on a variety of theories, each with a different set of assumptions and a unique perspective. Several European social theorists made long-standing contributions to the development of sociology and to sociological theory. Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term sociology and was one of the first to suggest an application of scientific principles to the study of human behavior. Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), an English sociologist, is known both for her translations of Comte’s writings and for her original studies of the customs and social practices of Britain and the United States. Martineau’s writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, health, and population could have on social problems, and she worked as an activist for religious and gender rights, as well as the for the emancipation of slaves. One of the most controversial social theorists of the 19th century was Herbert Spencer (1820–1903). Drawing on the ideas of Charles Darwin, Spencer argued that like animals, humans have varying levels of social fitness, and those who are the most fit will thrive, while those who are less fit will struggle and eventually die out. His theories appealed to many throughout Britain and the United States, especially the powerful, who had a vested interest in protecting the status quo. Émile Durkheim was one of the first appointed professors of sociology in France. Durkheim was interested in the processes and consequences of modernization. According to Durkheim, the modernization of society may lead to a condition known as “anomie,” or normlessness. Anomie is experienced when social norms lose their effectiveness as instruments of control. The inability of modern societies to regulate or control behavior may lead to higher levels of deviance, including suicide. Indeed, Durkheim’s most well-known work examined the social patterns underlying suicide rates. Max Weber (1864–1920), another important theorist, was well-versed in many subject areas, including history, law, and religion. Weber made several contributions to the field of sociology, including the concept of verstehen, the German word for “understanding” or “insight.” Weber argued that social phenomenon cannot be studied using objective criteria only. Rather, sociologists must understand the subjective meanings human actors attach to their actions and to things around them. Weber is also known for the concept of ideal type. An ideal type is a construct based on pure characteristics. Ideal types are used in sociology for understanding, describing, and comparing. Like Spencer, Karl Marx (1818–1883) is one of the most controversial figures in sociology, although for very different reasons. Marx was highly critical of existing social institutions and their tendency to create and maintain the status quo. He was especially outspoken on the matter of worker exploitation by the bourgeoisie. Together with his friend and colleague Friedrich Engels, Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto, a brief but compelling document, urging the working class (or “proletariat”) to overthrow the ruling class (“bourgeoisie”). Because of his subversive writings, endorsement of major social change, and involvement with underground organizations, Marx was eventually exiled from Germany. His work, however, continues to have an enormous influence on sociological research and theory even to this day. A number of contemporary social theorists, many from the United States, have also made contributions to the field of sociology. W. E. B. DuBois (1868–1963), one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Persons (NAACP), used sociological research to study urban life for Black and White Americans in hopes that his studies would be used to assist in the struggle for racial equality. DuBois stressed that empowerment comes through knowledge, and he was a champion of equal access to higher education. Like Marx, DuBois encountered a certain amount of resistance from the academy due to the political and activist nature of his writings. In 1897 he coined the term double consciousness to refer to the division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929), a convert from economics to sociology, preferred to look at smaller units, including intimate, face-to-face groups such as dyads. Cooley’s work contributed immensely to our understanding of group dynamics, particularly as they relate to group size. Jane Addams (1860–1935) often combined intellectual rigor with political activism. She is known for the establishment of “Hull House” in Chicago, a settlement house for the poor. Addams was involved in a number of social causes, including the rights of women, children, and immigrants. Although Addams helped to grow the discipline of social work, by the mid-20th century the field of sociology had begun to separate itself from social workers and activists. Robert Merton (1910–2003), recently a sociologist at Columbia University, proposed one of the most popular and frequently cited explanations for deviant behavior. Merton based his explanation of crime on individual behavior that has been influenced by society’s approved goals and means. When social norms advocate a certain lifestyle but simultaneously prevent some from achieving that lifestyle, deviance and criminal behavior is likely to result. Finally, Pierre Bourdieu, a sociologist from France, developed the concept of “cultural capital.” In addition to material assets, capital may take the form of cultural assets, including such things as family background, occupational prestige, and access to important informal networks. In comparison, “social capital” refers to the collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust. Sociologists, like lay persons, view society in different ways. The functionalist perspective views society like a living organism in which each part contributes to its overall survival. This perspective was developed primarily by Talcott Parsons (1902–1979), a sociologist at Harvard University. According to this view, any aspect of society that persists over time does so because it serves some purpose and in some way contributes to its livelihood. Even something such as crime or poverty may persist so long as it serves some purpose or “function.” For functionalists, the parts of society normally work together toward a common goal. Robert Merton distinguished between the manifest functions of institutions, which are open, stated, and conscious, with latent functions, which are unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect the hidden purposes of an institution. The conflict perspective views the parts of society as at odds with one another. From the conflict perspective, groups in society are constantly engaged in a power struggle over scarce, highly valued, resources. Dominant groups, wishing to maintain their positions of power, create ideologies and institutions that serve to protect the status quo. Karl Marx, a key figure among conflict theorists, viewed conflict (rather than consensus) as the primary characteristic of all human societies. Furthermore, it was his belief that it was capitalism that was primarily responsible for the exploitation of the working class. Derived from the conflict perspective, the feminist perspective (or “feminist theory”) views gender as the primary sorting device in all societies. Not only are women and men separated, they are also stratified. Patriarchy, like other forms of social and economic dominance, is maintained through the presence of ideologies and institutional arrangements. Queer theory, another branch, approaches the study of society from the perspective of a broad spectrum of sexual identities, including heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality. Finally, the interactionist perspective is concerned with everyday forms of interaction, including symbols, language, and nonverbal communication. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), an American sociologist and philosopher, first developed interactionism in the United States and is regarded as the founder of this perspective. It should be noted that sociologists make use of all perspectives, since each offers unique insights into the character of social behavior. Applied sociology involves the use of sociological findings or insight with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for persons or society. Clinical sociology is dedicated to altering social relationships or to restructuring social institutions. Both applied and clinical sociology can be contrasted with basic or pure sociology, which seeks to build a knowledge base of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. This type of research is not necessarily meant to generate specific applications. This book will attempt to show sociological imagination in several different ways: showing theory in practice and in research, thinking globally, exploring inequality, and investigating racial, religious, and gender boundaries. Strong research is a foundation to all the approaches to sociology, and it can shed light on many different sociological processes. Globalization, the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas, is also an important and growing factor in sociological study. Perhaps the most dominant theme of analysis in sociology today is social inequality, a condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. Many sociologists have used their research and analysis to advocate for social justice. In general, sociologists seek to draw conclusions that speak to all people. An important use of the sociological imagination is in the attempt to form a greater understanding of social issues throughout the world. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other by Sherry Turkle I. What Is Sociology? • Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human groups. It focuses on social relationships and how those relationships influence people’s behavior. It also focuses on how societies develop and change. The range of sociological issues is very broad. A. The Sociological Imagination • American sociologist C. Wright Mills (1916–1962) described this type of creative thinking as the ability to view one’s own society as an outsider. Examples: What constitutes a normal sporting event is different in the United States than it is in Bali. Divorce can be understood not simply as a personal problem but as a wider societal concern. • The sociological imagination allows us to look beyond a limited understanding of things and people in the world, and allows for a broader vision of society. B. Sociology and the Social Sciences • The term science refers to the body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation. Just like other sciences, sociology involves the organized, systematic study of phenomena. • Natural science is the study of the physical features of nature. Astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology, and physics are natural sciences. • Social science is the study of the social features of human society. Sociology, anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and political science are social sciences. • In contrast to other social sciences, sociology emphasizes the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behaviors, and examines the ways in which people interact and shape society. Example: Sociologists and other social scientists offer a unique perspective on such events as Hurricane Katrina. C. Sociology and Common Sense • Common sense is often unreliable and inaccurate. Example: There is a common belief that women are more talkative than men. However, researchers have found that both male and female college students speak about 16,000 words per day (Mehl et al. 2007). • Sociologists test, record, and analyze information scientifically to describe and understand a social environment. Example: Common sense may tell us the world is round, but the notion is based on centuries of scientific work. II. What Is Sociological Theory? • Theory is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behaviors. Effective theory may be both explanatory and predictive. Example: Durkheim’s theory on suicide both explains and predicts which groups are most at risk for suicide. • Durkheim’s research suggested that, while a solitary act, suicide is related to group life. Suicide rates reflect the extent to which people are integrated into the group life of society. Modern research reveals a similar pattern. Example: Las Vegas has a low level of community cohesiveness and a high suicide rate compared to the rest of the United States. • Theory and research should not be thought of as separate processes. Remember, an essential task in building sociological theory is to examine the relationship between bits of data that are gathered through the research process that may seem completely unrelated. III. The Development of Sociology • European theorists made pioneering contributions to the development of a science of human behavior. A. Early Thinkers 1. Auguste Comte (1798–1857) • Comte coined the term sociology to refer to the science of human behavior; he is credited with being the most influential of the philosophers of the early 1800s. • Comte believed a theoretical science of society and systematic investigations of behavior were needed to improve society. 2. Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) • Martineau offered insightful observations on the customs and social practices of both Britain and the United States. She emphasized the impact of economy, law, trade, health, and population on social problems. • She spoke in favor of the rights of women, the emancipation of slaves, and religious tolerance. • She believed that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social conditions; they should act on their convictions in a manner that will benefit society. 3. Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) • Spencer adapted Charles Darwin’s evolutionary view of the “survival of the fittest” by arguing that it is natural that some people are rich while others are poor. • Spencer’s view appealed to those with a vested interest in the status quo, and it was most opposed by those seeking social change. • The idea of “social Darwinism” is highly controversial. B. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) • Durkheim stressed that behavior must be understood within a larger social context, not just in individualistic or psychological terms. • Durkheim concluded that religion reinforces a group’s solidarity. • The consequences of work were of interest to Durkheim. He suggested that the highly specialized division of labor in industrial societies leads to anomie, a state of normlessness. • Durkheim was concerned about the dangers that alienation, loneliness, and isolation might pose for modern industrial societies. C. Max Weber (1864–1920) • Weber was a German sociologist who suggested social researchers should employ verstehen (a deep level of understanding) in their intellectual work. To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions—how they themselves view and explain their behavior. • Weber is also credited with the concept of an ideal type, a construct based on pure or ideal characteristics. He described various characteristics of an organizational model of bureaucracy as an ideal type. D. Karl Marx (1818–1883) • Marx suggested that society is fundamentally divided between classes that clash in pursuit of their own class and self-interests. He saw the factory as the center of conflict between the owners of the means of production (bourgeoisie) and the exploited labor forces (proletariat). • Marx and his colleague Friedrich Engels argued that workers should unite to overthrow capitalist societies. E. W. E. B. DuBois (1868–1963) • DuBois, a Black sociologist, contended knowledge was essential to combat prejudice and discrimination. He believed that full political rights and education were both key to economic and social progress for Black Americans. • Because he challenged the status quo, he didn’t find a receptive audience in either government or academia. • DuBois coined the term double consciousness, referring to the division of a person’s identity into two or more social realities. According to DuBois, this concept captures the experiences of Blacks living in a White America. F. Twentieth-Century Developments • Sociologists within the United States have contributed to the development of new insights to better understand the workings of society. 1. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) • Cooley preferred to use the sociological perspective to look first at smaller units, such as intimate face-to-face groups. He saw these groups as the seedbeds of society in the way they shape people’s ideals, beliefs, values, behavior patterns, and ultimately our sense of self. • Cooley’s work increased our understanding of groups, particularly in the area of groups of relatively small size. 2. Jane Addams (1860–1935) • A social reformer, Addams co-founded Chicago’s Hull House. • Working with Ida Wells-Barnett, she successfully prevented racial segregation in Chicago public schools. • Addams advocated for a more egalitarian society. 3. Robert Merton (1910–2003) • Merton produced a theory that is one of the most frequently cited explanations of deviant behavior. In it, he noted different ways people achieve success. • He emphasized sociology should strive to bring together the macro-level and micro-level approaches to the study of society. • Macrosociology concentrates on large-scale phenomena such as institutions. • Microsociology stresses small group interaction. 4. Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) • According to Bourdieu, capital has many forms, including knowledge, prestige, culture, formal schooling, and social connections. • Cultural capital sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next. • Cultural capital, therefore, contributes to a reproduction of the class structure. IV. Major Theoretical Perspectives • The major perspectives provide an introductory look at the discipline of sociology. They are used to help explain, interpret, and analyze social patterns uncovered by sociologists. A. Functionalist Perspective • In the view of functionalists, society is like a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival. • Functionalism emphasizes the way the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability. • In examining any aspect of society, then, functionalists emphasize the contribution it makes to overall social stability. • Talcott Parsons dominated functionalist thought in sociology for over four decades in the United States. 1. Manifest and Latent Functions • Robert Merton described manifest functions as open, stated, conscious functions that involve intended, recognized consequences. • Latent functions are unconscious or unintended functions, which may reflect a hidden purpose. Example: Education has the manifest function of teaching and training the next generation of workers. At the same time, schooling ensures that a certain segment of the population will not compete for jobs. In addition, colleges and universities often serve as meeting grounds for people to form new relationships. Thus, we might say that mate selection is a latent function of education. 2. Dysfunctions • This term refers to an element or process of a society that may disrupt the social system or reduce its social stability. • Dysfunctions can be negative or positive in nature. Example: Prison gangs can be functional for prison security. B. Conflict Perspective • The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups. • Expanding on Marx’s work, conflict theorists are interested in how society’s institutions maintain privileges for the upper classes and keep others in a subservient position. • The conflict approach (also known as “conflict theory”) has become increasingly persuasive since the late 1960s. 1. The Marxist View • This view considers the exploitation of workers under capitalism. • The perspective emphasizes social change and a redistribution of resources. • This view is considered more radical and more activist-oriented than the functionalist view. 2. The Feminist Perspective • This view suggests that gender is the major sorting device in society. • The feminist view derived from and is typically allied with the conflict perspective. • Feminist theory focuses on macro-level relationships, like conflict theory. • Feminist theory views the subordination of women as inherent in capitalist societies. • Radical feminists hold the oppression of women as inevitable in all male-dominated (patriarchal) societies. 3. Queer Theory • French social theorist Michel Foucault pointed out that what is regarded as normal or even acceptable human sexuality varies dramatically from one culture and time period to another. • Queer theory is the study of society from the perspective of a broad spectrum of sexual identities, including heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality. • Queer theory argues that any analysis of society is incomplete if it does not include the spectrum of sexual identities that people embrace. C. Interactionist Perspective • The interactionist perspective generalizes about everyday, taken-for-granted, forms of social interaction in order to better understand society as a whole. It involves the assumption that human beings live in a world of meaningful, or symbolic, objects. Example: commuter “slugging” in response to higher gas prices • American sociologist George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is regarded as the founder of interactionism. • Symbols are seen as an especially important part of human communication. Example: Consider what is communicated by a salute or a clenched fist. Nonverbal communications can include facial gestures, expressions, and postures. • Canadian sociologist Erving Goffman (1922–1982) popularized what is known as the dramaturgical approach. This approach compares the actions of individuals in everyday life to actors performing on a stage. Example: Consider how we may project a serious image in class but a recreational or “party” image with friends. D. The Sociological Approach • Sociology makes use of all the perspectives. See Table 1-2. • No single approach is the correct one. Perspectives may often overlap, and they can also diverge. Each offers a unique perspective on social life. V. Taking Sociology With You • Applied and clinical sociology are two growing fields that allow sociology majors and those with advanced degrees in sociology to apply what they have learned to real-world settings. A. Applied and Clinical Sociology • Applied sociology is the use of sociology with the specific intent to yield practical applications for human behavior and organizations. Example: the study and serving of a particular community’s women of childbearing age who have little or no regular access to health care in order to reduce infant mortality rates • Applied sociology has led to specializations, such as medical and environmental sociology. • Clinical sociology is dedicated to facilitating change by altering social relationships (as in family therapy) or restructuring social institutions (as in the reorganization of a medical center). • Basic (pure) sociology seeks to expand a knowledge base and our understanding of a topic. Example: Durkheim’s research on suicide is an example of basic or pure sociology rather than applied or clinical sociology. B. Developing a Sociological Imagination 1. Theory in Practice • The ways in which the sociological perspectives are useful for understanding today’s issues are illustrated. 2. Research Today • New information on social factors that influence human social behavior is revealed. • Research today has direct applications to improving people’s lives. 3. Our Wired World • For many, “news” can mean social network postings just as much as traditional news reporting. • More and more, electronic gadgets and applications are altering our social behavior. 4. Thinking Globally • Globalization refers to the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. • Globalization is increasing. Sociologists recognize that social behavior must be viewed within a global context. • Some view globalization as a natural result of advances in communication (i.e., the Internet). Others suggest the expansion of multinational corporations has created a world without borders. 5. The Significance of Social Inequality • Social inequality is a condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power as well as different levels of access to these important resources. • Sociologists often see behavior as shaped by social inequality. 6. Speaking across Race, Gender, and Religious Boundaries • Men and women, as well as people from a variety of ethnic, national, and religious origins, are included in research by sociologists. • Sociology today seeks to better understand the experiences of all people. 7. Social Policy throughout the World • An important way we can improve our sociological imagination is to enhance our understanding of current social issues throughout the world. Social Policy sections will focus on how fundamental sociological concepts can enhance critical thinking skills and understanding of social policy debates. • Sociology has been used to evaluate the success of programs or the impact of changes brought about by policymakers and political activists. KEY TERMS Anomie The loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective. Applied sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical applications for human behavior and organizations. Basic sociology Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology. Clinical sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of altering social relationships or restructuring social institutions. Conflict perspective A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services, and political representation. Cultural capital Noneconomic goods, such as family background and education, which are reflected in a knowledge of language and the arts. Double consciousness The division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities. Dramaturgical approach A view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers. Dysfunction An element or a process of society that may disrupt a social system or reduce its stability. Feminist perspective A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as central to all behavior and organization. Functionalist perspective A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability. Globalization The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases. Interactionist perspective A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain society as a whole. Latent function An unconscious or unintended function that may reflect hidden purposes. Macrosociology Sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations. Manifest function An open, stated, and conscious function. Microsociology Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through experimental means. Natural science The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change. Nonverbal communication The sending of messages through the use of gestures, facial expressions, and postures. Queer theory The study of society from the perspective of a broad spectrum of sexual identities, including heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality. Science The body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon systematic observation. Social capital The collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust. Social inequality A condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, and power. Social science The study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change. Sociological imagination An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past. Sociology The scientific study of social behavior and human groups. Theory In sociology, a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior. Verstehen The German word for “understanding” or “insight”; used to stress the need for sociologists to take into account the subjective meanings people attach to their actions. CHAPTER 2 SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH CHAPTER OUTLINE WHAT IS THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD? Defining the Problem Reviewing the Literature Formulating the Hypothesis Collecting and Analyzing Data Developing the Conclusion In Summary: The Scientific Method MAJOR RESEARCH DESIGNS Surveys Ethnography Experiments Use of Existing Sources ETHICS OF RESEARCH Confidentiality Conflict of Interest Value Neutrality FEMINIST METHODOLOGY QUEER THEORY AND METHODOLOGY THE DATA-RICH FUTURE SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH: STUDYING HUMAN SEXUALITY Boxes Our Wired World: Surveying Cell Phone Users Research Today: Gender Messages in Scouting Taking Sociology to Work: Dave Eberbach, Associate Director, Iowa Institute for Community Alliances Our Wired World: Lying for Love Online APPENDIX I: USING STATISTICS AND GRAPHS APPENDIX II: WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 2 1. Outline and describe the steps in the scientific method. 2. Give an example of an operational definition. 3. Explain the relationship between hypotheses and variables. 4. Distinguish correlation from cause. 5. Summarize the characteristics, advantages, and limitations of the major research designs. 6. List the basic principles of the American Sociological Association’s code of ethics. 7. Apply ethical principles to the challenges researchers encounter in conducting research. 8. Describe the impact of feminist theory on sociological research practices. 9. Summarize the benefits and challenges of conducting research online. 10. Analyze through a sociological lens the challenges in conducting research on human sexual behavior and the potential impact of such research on social policy. • Inclusion of a written report with executive summary as the final task in the scientific method • Updated figure on educational level and household income, based on 2013 census release • Discussion of the reliability and validity of the American Community Survey • Updated figure on the impact of a college education on income • Updated coverage of the U.S. Army’s Human Terrain System as an example of ethnographic research • Coverage of the use of content analysis of children’s books to assess children’s environmental awareness • Section on queer theory and methodology • In the section on the data-rich future, discussion of researchers’ use of a government database to map housing conditions in Boston, with figure, “Seeing Boston’s Housing Issues” • Updated coverage of public opinion research on the legalization of marijuana CHAPTER SUMMARY Sociologists are committed to the use of the scientific method in their research. The basic steps in the scientific method are defining the problem, reviewing the literature, formulating the hypothesis, selecting the research design, and collecting and analyzing the data. Finally, the researcher develops a conclusion based on the findings of the research. An operational definition is an explanation of an abstract concept that allows a researcher to assess or measure the concept. For example, a sociologist interested in status might use membership in exclusive social clubs as an operational definition of status. A review of the relevant literature helps to refine the problem, consider previous attempts to investigate it, and reduce avoidable mistakes. A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Variables are measurable traits or characteristics that are subject to change under certain conditions. The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another variable is called the independent variable (sometimes referred to as the “causal” variable). The variable that is changed or dependent on the independent variable is called the dependent variable. Causal logic involves the relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one leading to the other. A correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other. A correlational relationship does not necessarily indicate a causal relationship, however. Control variables are those factors that are held constant to test the strength of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables. In most studies, social scientists carefully select a sample. A sample is a selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of the population. In a random sample, every member of the population being studied has the same chance of being selected for the study. The scientific method requires both validity and reliability. Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study. Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results. In formulating a conclusion, sociological studies sometime fail to support the original hypothesis and researchers must reformulate their conclusions. A research design is a detailed plan or method for obtaining or collecting data. Surveys are a common method of quantitative research used by researchers to collect data. A quantitative method is one in which data are represented as numbers or statistics. Surveys may consist of oral interviews or written questionnaires. Ethnography is a qualitative research method that allows researchers to collect data through everyday interaction with a group or community under study. Observation is the basic technique of ethnography. Qualitative research involves smaller samples and different research methodologies. Experiments are artificially created situations in which researchers can manipulate variables. Typically, an experimental group is exposed to the independent variable (or “stimulus”) and the control group is not. Sometimes experiments can suffer from the Hawthorne effect, a term sociologists have used to refer to the unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects. Analyzing existing data that has been previously collected is called secondary analysis. Content analysis involves the systematic coding and objective recording of data, such as using newspapers, periodicals, and other common documents or venues to interpret and test the significance of data. All researchers must abide by a code of ethics to ensure that researchers are not causing harm or violating a person’s privacy. The American Sociological Association (ASA) is responsible for publishing a code of ethics for researchers in the field of sociology. Most research seeks to remain value neutral in its judgments when interpreting research results. However, some have suggested neutrality may be impossible to attain. As the feminist perspective gains influence among sociological researchers, feminist methodology is changing both how issues are defined and how data is collected. Queer theory is also exposing some of the inherent sexuality bias in sociology that can lead to underreporting of gay and lesbian groups in a research process. Computers and the Internet are exciting technologies that are having a major impact on research. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from The Tender Cut: Inside the Hidden World of Self-Injury by Patricia A. Adler and Peter Adler I. What Is the Scientific Method? • A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem. It is important to be able to distinguish between scientific and popular sources, as we are constantly bombarded with information and so-called “facts.” A. Defining the Problem • An operational definition is necessary to assess or measure a concept. Example: A sociologist may use membership in exclusive social clubs as an operational definition of “status.” B. Reviewing the Literature • This process serves to refine the problem under study, clarify data collection techniques, and reduce avoidable mistakes. C. Formulating the Hypothesis • Hypothesis: a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables (a variable being a measurable trait or characteristic) • Independent variables cause or influence change in dependent variables. • Dependent variables are changed by the independent variables or are dependent on them. • Causal logic refers to the relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other. Example: Time spent studying may result in a higher grade on an exam. • Correlation is only an indication that causality may be present. Other factors are necessary to determine causation. D. Collecting and Analyzing Data • Research designs guide researchers in collecting data. 1. Selecting the Sample • Sample: a statistically representative selection from a larger population. • Researchers collect samples because the population is too large to be studied. • A random sample occurs when every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected for the study. 2. Ensuring Validity and Reliability • Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or scale accurately reflects the phenomenon under study. • Reliability refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results. E. Developing the Conclusion • The conclusion represents both an end and a beginning in research. 1. Supporting Hypotheses • Some studies refute a hypothesis, which leads to reformulations about a conclusion and adjustments in research designs. 2. Controlling for Other Factors • A control variable is a factor held constant to test the relative impact of the independent variable. Example: If researchers wanted to know how adults in the United States feel about restrictions on smoking in public places, they would probably attempt to use a respondent’s smoking behavior as a control variable. F. In Summary: The Scientific Method II. Major Research Designs • A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically A. Surveys • Surveys are generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, providing researchers with information about how people think or act. • The survey is an example of quantitative research, which collects and reports data primarily in numerical form. For a survey to be accurate, the researcher must develop a representative sample. • The two main survey forms are: the interview, in which a researcher obtains information through face-to-face, telephone, or online questioning; and the questionnaire, in which the researcher uses a printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent. • Survey questionnaires have the advantage, over most other methods, of being cheaper to administer. They also offer the advantage of uniform questions and answers, thereby allowing researchers to make comparisons across the sample. Samples for survey research are often quite large. B. Ethnography • Qualitative research offers more depth and detail than quantitative analysis. This type of research relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings, and often focuses on small groups and communities. Ethnography is the most common form. Observation, or direct participation in closely watching a group or organization, is the basic technique of ethnography. Example: A researcher might observe gang life or homeless persons through close study that may include personal interviews and research into the history of these groups. • William F. Whyte’s 1930s study, in which he moved into a low-income Italian neighborhood in Boston, is a classic example of participant observation research. C. Experiments • An experiment is an artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables. Classic experiment form uses an experimental group exposed to an independent variable, and a control group that is not exposed to the independent variable. • The Hawthorne effect refers to the tendency for subjects of research to deviate from typical behavior because they are under observation. D. Use of Existing Sources • Secondary analysis refers to making use of previously collected or publicly accessible information and data. Example: census data • Secondary analysis is nonreactive, since it does not influence people’s behavior; thus, researchers can avoid the Hawthorne effect by using secondary analysis. Example: Durkheim’s research on suicide • Content analysis is the systematic coding and objective recording of data. Example: To assess children’s awareness of the environment, sociologists conducted a content analysis of award-winning picture books over the last seventy years. III. Ethics of Research • The American Sociological Association’s Code of Ethics for sociologists was first published in 1971. Its principles included objectivity; integrity; privacy and protection from harm for subjects; confidentiality; informed consent; acknowledgement of collaboration and assistance; and disclosure of sources of financial support. A. Confidentiality • Rik Scarce was jailed for refusing to divulge what he knew about a 1991 raid on a university lab by animal rights activists. • The Supreme Court has failed to clarify the rights of scholars preserving the confidentiality of research subjects. B. Conflict of Interest • When accepting funding for their research, sociologists must be careful that the funding source does not taint the objectivity of the research. Example: Exxon funded research on jury deliberations after the Valdez disaster. C. Value Neutrality • Weber argued that value neutrality must be employed in research. Some sociologists argue that true value neutrality in research may be impossible, but it should not be ignored. IV. Feminist Methodology • The feminist perspective has had an impact on sociological research, both in terms of methodology and in terms of substantive content. Example: Research is now being conducted on the integration of work and family, rather than viewing the two topics as unrelated. Feminist scholars were among the first to identify unpaid, domestic labor as a form of work. • Historically, sociologists researched men’s work, associations, and communities, and generalized this research to all people, resulting in a biased picture of social life. • Recent feminist scholars have shown substantive interest in female self-injury and in drawing links between the role of women in developed and developing nations. • Feminist scholarship often employs a multidisciplinary approach to the research itself and its application. V. Queer Theory and Methodology • Queer theorists draw attention to the underreporting of gays and lesbians in the collection of research, often due to the nature in which the questions are asked (“veiled reporting”). • Because it is a sensitive topic, researchers that want to generalize about both heterosexuals and homosexuals should be extremely careful in wording questions about respondents’ sexual orientation VI. The Data-Rich Future • Impact of computers and Internet on research • Example: Sociologists can now access real-time, geocoded (that is, location specific) incident reports instead of relying on victim complaints or police reports. VII. (Box) Social Policy and Sociological Research: Studying Human Sexuality A. Looking at the Issue • Human sexuality is a difficult topic to research due to privacy concerns as well as the myths, beliefs, and preconceptions people attach to the subject. B. Applying Sociology • There have been few reliable studies of patterns of sexual behavior in the United States. The sensitive nature of the subject makes it difficult to obtain accurate information, and until the AIDS crisis, there was little scientific demand for data on sexual behavior. • Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial. C. Initiating Policy • Sociologists may fear studying and objectively reporting findings for fear of losing government funds in the event the research criticizes government policies. • In 1987, the federal government’s National Institute of Child Health and Human Development sought research proposals for a national survey of sexual behavior. • In 1991, the U.S. Senate voted to forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices. • Researchers secured private funding for the research to go forth: National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS). Careful procedures helped establish validity of the NHSLS findings. • Authors of the study contend their data will allow sociologists and policymakers to better address such issues as AIDS, sexual harassment, welfare reform, sex discrimination, abortion, teenage pregnancy, and family planning. • The research findings countered conventional notions about abortion and birth control. Example: Researchers found that women do not regularly use abortion for birth control and that affluent women are more likely to have abortions than poor teens. Both of these findings challenge conventional wisdom and common sense about abortion. KEY TERMS Causal logic The relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other. Code of ethics The standards of acceptable behavior developed by and for members of a profession. Content analysis The systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale. Control group The subjects in an experiment who are not introduced to the independent variable by the researcher. Control variable A factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable. Correlation A relationship between two variables in which a change in one coincides with a change in the other. Cross-tabulation A table or matrix that shows the relationship between two or more variables. Dependent variable The variable in a causal relationship that is subject to the influence of another variable. Ethnography The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic observation. Experiment An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables. Experimental group The subjects in an experiment who are exposed to an independent variable introduced by a researcher. Hawthorne effect The unintended influence that observers or experiments can have on their subjects. Hypothesis A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. Independent variable The variable in a causal relationship that causes or influences a change in a second variable. Interview A face-to-face, telephone, or online questioning of a respondent to obtain desired information. Mean A number calculated by adding a series of values and then dividing by the number of values. Median The midpoint or number that divides a series of values into two groups of equal numbers of values. Mode The single most common value in a series of scores. Observation A research technique in which an investigator collects information through direct participation, by closely watching a group or community. Operational definition An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to measure the concept. Percentage A portion of 100. Qualitative research Research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data. Quantitative research Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form. Questionnaire A printed or written form used to obtain information from a respondent. Random sample A sample for which every member of an entire population has the same chance of being selected. Reliability The extent to which a measure produces consistent results. Research design A detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically. Sample A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population. Scientific method A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem. Secondary analysis A variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data. Survey A study, generally in the form of an interview or questionnaire, that provides researchers with information about how people think and act. Validity The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study. Value neutrality Max Weber’s term for objectivity of sociologists in the interpretation of data. Variable A measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change under different conditions. CHAPTER 3 CULTURE CHAPTER OUTLINE WHAT IS CULTURE? Cultural Universals Ethnocentrism Cultural Relativism Sociobiology and Culture ROLE OF LANGUAGE Language: Written and Spoken Nonverbal Communication NORMS AND VALUES Norms Values GLOBAL CULTURE WAR SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON CULTURE CULTURAL VARIATION Subcultures Countercultures Culture Shock DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURE AROUND THE WORLD Innovation Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology SOCIAL POLICY AND CULTURE: BILINGUALISM Boxes Sociology in the Global Community: Symbolizing 9/11 Sociology on Campus: A Culture of Cheating? Sociology in the Global Community: Life in the Global Village Sociology in the Global Community: Cultural Survival in Brazil LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 3 1. Explain the sociological meaning of culture and society. 2. Compare and contrast ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. 3. Recognize the difference between sociobiological and cultural explanations of human social behavior. 4. Explain the processes by which culture develops and spreads. 5. Describe the influence of language on culture. 6. Distinguish between norms and values. 7. Identify examples of sanctions for formal and informal norms. 8. Describe and identify examples of shared and conflicting global values. 9. Analyze culture and the dominant ideology using the major sociological perspectives. 10. Analyze through a sociological lens the implications of bilingualism on social policy. • Updated figure, “Life Goals of First-Year College Students in the United States, 1966–2012” • In the Sociology on Campus box “A Culture of Cheating,” discussion of two recent cases of high-achieving students caught cheating on exams • Sections on cultural variation and the development of culture moved to end of the chapter • Example of the culture shock a Westerner might experience in Japan • Use of the culture wars that arise out of regional political differences in the United States as an illustration of the development of subcultures • In the Social Policy section, opening example of the role of language differences in increasing the risk of clinical errors in emergency rooms • In the Social Policy section, discussion of the current trend toward linguistic diversity in the United States • Updated Mapping Life Nationwide map, “Percentage of People Who Speak a Language Other Than English at Home, by State” • Two Take the Issue with You exercises CHAPTER SUMMARY Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. A fairly large number of people living in the same territory are said to constitute a society. Members of a society are relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate in a common culture. Society is the largest form of human group. Members of a society learn culture and transmit it from one generation to the next. Language is a critical element of culture that sets humans apart from other species. Virtually all societies share common practices and beliefs known as cultural universals. Many cultural universals are created to meet basic human needs. Some common cultural universals include sports, cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, marriage, and sexual restrictions. While cultural universals are found in most every culture, the actual expression of a cultural universal may vary considerably from one society to the next. Cultural universals may also change dramatically over time. Since most of us are embedded in a single culture for most of our lives, we come to think of our native cultural traits and practices as “natural,” “normal,” or right. Sociologist William Graham Sumner coined the term ethnocentrism to refer to the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to others. The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which means to view people’s behavior and beliefs from the perspective of their own culture. While sociologists stress the learned nature of culture, sociobiologists consider the biological basis of social patterns. Sociobiologists, for example, assert that differentiated gender roles are not the result of social learning but of genetic and hormonal differences between women and men. Darwin’s principle of natural selection is used by sociobiologists for the study of social behavior. Language is an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture. Language not only describes reality, it also serves to shape one’s perspective and experience of social reality. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds that language is culturally determined and serves to influence our mode of thought. Communication can also be nonverbal, such as gestures, facial expressions, symbols, and other visual images used to communicate thought. Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by society. Norms are classified as either formal or informal. Formal norms generally are written down and specify certain behaviors through laws and regulations. By contrast, informal norms are generally understood, but not precisely written. Norms are classified into mores and folkways. Mores are norms deemed necessary to the welfare of society and demand obedience. Folkways play a role in shaping behavior, without the strict sanctions of obedience attached. Acceptance of norms is subject to change as the political, economic, and social conditions of a culture are transformed. Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. The more powerful a norm is in a society, the more extreme the sanction will be for breaking it. Values are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper, or what is considered bad, undesirable, and improper in a culture. Values may be specific or they may be more general. The values of a culture may change, but most remain relatively stable during any one person’s lifetime. For some time there has been an interest in the increasing polarization over controversial cultural elements in the United States, suggesting a growing culture war. In recent decades, however, this has taken on a global dimension. Especially after the terrorist attacks of 9/11, there has been a growth in negative foreign opinion of the United States. Some sociologists view war and terrorism of the 21st century as a clash of civilizations. Cultural beliefs are influenced by the dominant ideology. Within the dominant culture, segments of the populace may develop cultural patterns that differ from the patterns of dominant society. These aspects of cultural variation include subcultures and countercultures. Subcultures are smaller cultures within the larger culture. While distinct from the larger culture in some ways, subcultures remain compatible with, and are not threatening to, the larger culture. Countercultures are also smaller cultures existing within the larger culture, but unlike subcultures, countercultures support values, beliefs, or behaviors that are not accepted by the larger culture. Culture shock occurs when a person feels surprised or disoriented due to experiencing cultural practices different from his or her own. Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency of a person to assume that one’s culture and way of life are superior to all others. Observing other cultures through value neutral standards is referred to as cultural relativism. It places priority on understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as strange or exotic. Innovation is the process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture. Discovery involves making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality. Invention results when existing cultural items are combined into a form that did not exist before. With globalization, more and more cultural expressions and practices are crossing national borders through a process known as diffusion. This process results in the melding of cultural traditions (McDonaldization is an example of such diffusion). Technology, in its many forms, has increased the speed of cultural diffusion and broadened the distribution of cultural elements. Globalization is not universally welcomed in all nations. Sociologist William F. Ogburn (1922) made a useful distinction between the elements of material and nonmaterial culture, and coined the term “culture lag” to describe the period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions. LECTURE OUTLINE Introduction • Excerpt from “Body Ritual among the Nacirema” by Horace Miner I. What Is Culture? • Culture is the totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. • Culture consists of all objects and ideas within a society, not just those elements thought of as prestigious, popular, or status-giving. • Society is a large number of people living in the same territory, who are relatively independent of those outside their area and who participate in a common culture. A society is the largest form of human group. • A common culture simplifies day-to-day interactions. • Some sociologists refer to media businesses as the culture industry and suggest that the primary effect of a global popular culture is to limit people’s choices. A. Cultural Universals • Cultural universals are practices and beliefs found in most, if not all, cultures around the world. Anthropologist George Murdock uncovered several examples of cultural universals including sports, cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, marriage, and sexual restrictions such as “incest taboos.” • The specific expression of cultural universals varies from society to society. B. Ethnocentrism • Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others. Example: a Westerner looking down on India’s Hindu religion and culture, which views the cow as sacred • Ethnocentrism is not limited geographically; all cultures and societies exhibit ethnocentric beliefs to some degree. C. Cultural Relativism • Cultural relativism refers to the viewing of people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture. • It stresses that different social contexts give rise to different norms and values. D. Sociobiology and Culture • Sociobiology is a discipline that involves the systematic study of the biological bases of social behavior. This field relies on the principles of natural selection (Darwin) to study social behavior. • Sociobiology suggests that aspects of human biology program or determine social behavior. • Interactionists, conflict theorists, and functionalists believe that people’s behavior rather than their genetic structure defines social reality. Conflict theorists in particular fear that sociobiological approaches could be used against disadvantaged people who are not competing successfully. II. Role of Language A. Language: Written and Spoken • Language is the foundation of every culture. Language may be thought of as an abstract system of word meanings and symbols. • The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis describes the role of language in shaping our interpretation of reality. This hypothesis suggests that language is culturally determined and leads to many different interpretations of reality. Example: Navajo term for cancer • Language can transmit stereotypes. Feminist theorists have noted that gender-related language can reflect—although in itself it does not determine—the traditional acceptance of men and women in certain occupations. Example: Each time we use a term such as mailman, policeman, or fireman, we are implying that these occupations can be filled only by males. • Language can shape how we taste, smell, feel, and hear. B. Nonverbal Communication • Nonverbal communication includes gestures, facial expressions, and other learned visual images. • Symbols in the form of gestures, objects, and words, convey meaning to others. • Nonverbal communication varies from culture to culture. Example: the meaning of the “thumbs-up” symbol in the U.S. and Australia III. Norms and Values A. Norms • Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by society. For a norm to become significant, it must be widely shared and understood. 1. Types of Norms • Formal norms are generally written down and specify strict punishments for violations. Typical formal norms include laws, regulations, and organizational rules. • Informal norms are generally understood, but not precisely recorded. Example: standards of proper dress • Mores are norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of society. Example: prohibition of murder, treason, and child abuse • Folkways are norms governing everyday behavior. They help shape behavior, but violating them raises little concern among others. Example: Walking up a down escalator in a department store challenges our standards of appropriate behavior, but it will not result in a fine or a jail sentence. 2. Norms and Sanctions • People do not follow norms in all situations. • Sanctions refer to penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. • Sanctions for norms are a reflection of a culture’s values and priorities; the most cherished values will be the most heavily sanctioned. 3. Acceptance of Norms • In some instances, behavior that appears to violate society’s norms may actually represent adherence to the norms of a particular group. • Norms may be violated due to norm conflict. Example: reporting domestic violence after hearing screams at your neighbor’s house, even though that conflicts with the norm of minding your own business • Adherence to norms is contingent on changes in political, economic, and social conditions of a culture. Example: views on interracial marriage B. Values • Values are collective conceptions about what is considered good, desirable, and proper. They can also be collective ideas about what is bad, undesirable, and improper. • Values influence people’s behavior and serve to evaluate the actions of others. Often values, norms, and sanctions are directly related. Example: If a culture views private property as a basic value, it will probably have stiff laws against theft and vandalism. • Values and norms tend to remain relatively stable over one’s lifetime. IV. Global Culture War • Culture war refers to the polarization of society over controversial cultural elements. • Culture war has also taken on an international significance, with public opinion of the United States becoming quite negative since the U.S. invasion of Iraq. V. Sociological Perspectives on Culture • Functionalists view culture as a stabilizing agent for society. Common cultural elements (such as language, values, and norms) ensure that members of a society will be able to coordinate their actions with one another. • Conflict theorists view culture as serving the interests of powerful groups. • A dominant ideology is a set of cultural beliefs and practices that help maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. Example: Feminists argue that all of society’s powerful institutions tell women that they should be subservient to men. • It is difficult to identify a “core culture” in America. VI. Cultural Variation • Within a single nation, certain segments of the populace develop cultural patterns that differ from the patterns of the dominant society. A. Subcultures • A subculture is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the larger society. Examples: rodeo riders, residents of a retirement community, workers on an offshore oil rig • Subcultures may develop a specialized language or argot. Example: athletes who play parkour • Subcultures may be based on common age, region, ethnic heritage, occupation, or beliefs. Example: employees of call centers in India • Functionalists view subcultures as variations of particular social environments and as evidence that differences can exist within a common culture; conflict theorists suggest that variation in culture often reflects the inequality of social arrangements within a society. B. Countercultures • A counterculture is a subculture that conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture. Example: ultraconservative military groups operating within the U.S. C. Culture Shock • Culture shock refers to the surprise and disorientation experienced when people encounter cultural practices different from their own. Example: Japanese use of special slippers exclusively for the toilet VII. Development of Culture around the World A. Innovation • Innovation refers to the process of introducing new ideas or objects to a culture. Sociologists are interested in the consequences of innovation for a society. • Forms of innovation include discovery and invention. • The process of discovery involves making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality. • Invention results when items are combined into a form that did not exist before. Examples: automobile, Protestantism, democracy B. Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology • Globalization is the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. Examples: Starbucks in China, bento boxes in the U.S. • Diffusion refers to the process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group or society to society. • George Ritzer’s “McDonaldization” is associated with the melding of cultures. McDonaldization refers to the adoption of characteristics originally associated with the fast food industry by many other industries, such as higher education, shopping, banking, and health care. • Technology accelerates the diffusion process and transmission of culture. Example: the Internet being dominated by the English language • Material culture refers to the physical or technological aspects of a culture; nonmaterial culture refers to the intangible aspects of a culture, such as customs, language, and beliefs. • Culture lag refers to the period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is struggling to adapt to new material conditions, according to sociologist William Ogburn. Typically, nonmaterial culture is more resistant to change than the material culture. Example: Manufacturers introduced electronic cigarettes, and the innovation soon had officials at airlines (which ban smoking) and the Food and Drug Administration scrambling to respond to the latest technology. VIII. (Box) Social Policy and Culture: Bilingualism A. Looking at the Issue • Bilingualism refers to using two or more languages in a particular setting, treating each language as equally legitimate. • About 21 percent of the population in the United States speaks a language other than English as their primary language. • Results of bilingual studies are mixed, and bilingual programs vary widely in their quality and approach. • An overview of 17 different studies suggests that students offered lessons in both English and their home languages make better progress than similar children who are taught only in English. B. Applying Sociology • The functionalist view (that language serves to unify members of a society) suggests that immigrants assimilate into the dominant culture and learn to speak the dominant language, English. This has been the default view in the U.S. for a long time, though it has weakened in recent decades. • The conflict view suggests that bilingualism is a form of self-expression and that diversity or multiculturalism is an asset. It argues that attacks on bilingual programs stems from an ethnocentric view that deviation from the majority is bad. C. Initiating Policy • Nations vary in their tolerance of multiple languages. Example: China • In some nations it is a regional issue (e.g., in Québec, Canada). • Federal policy in the U.S. has vacillated on bilingualism. In the 1970s, it was widely supported in school districts. In 1998, voters in California all but eliminated bilingualism in education. • In the U.S. there have been repeated efforts to create a constitutional amendment to make English the official language. • By 2012, 31 states had declared English their official language. KEY TERMS Argot Specialized language used by members of a group or subculture. Bilingualism The use of two or more languages in a particular setting, such as the workplace or schoolroom, treating each language as equally legitimate. Counterculture A subculture that deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture. Cultural relativism The viewing of people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture. Cultural universal A common practice or belief found in every culture. Culture The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior. Culture industry The worldwide media industry that standardizes the goods and services demanded by consumers. Culture lag A period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions. Culture shock The feeling of surprise and disorientation that people experience when they encounter cultural practices that are different from their own. Culture war The polarization of society over controversial cultural issues. Diffusion The process by which a cultural item spreads from group to group or society to society. Discovery The process of making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality. Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. Ethnocentrism The tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others. Folkway A norm governing everyday social behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern. Formal norm A norm that has been written down and that specifies strict punishments for violators. Informal norm A norm that is generally understood but not precisely recorded. Innovation The process of introducing a new idea or object into a culture through discovery or invention. Invention The combination of existing cultural items into a form that did not exist before. Language An abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture; includes gestures and other nonverbal communication. Law Governmental social control. Material culture The physical or technological aspects of our daily lives. Mores Norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society. Nonmaterial culture Ways of using material objects, as well as customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication. Norm An established standard of behavior maintained by a society. Sanction A penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis A hypothesis concerning the role of language in shaping our interpretation of reality. It holds that language is culturally determined. Society A fairly large number of people who live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate in a common culture. Sociobiology The systematic study of how biology affects human social behavior. Subculture A segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the larger society. Symbol A gesture, object, or word that forms the basis of human communication. Technology Cultural information about the ways in which the material resources of the environment may be used to satisfy human needs and desires. Value A collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper—or bad, undesirable, and improper—in a culture. Instructor Manual for Sociology: A Brief Introduction Richard T. Schaefer 9780078027109, 9781259374630, 9781259252242, 9781259912436
