CH-1 The Sociological Perspective and Research Process – Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials : Exam Guide

CHAPTER 1 – THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE AND RESEARCH PROCESS MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. Sociology is defined as the __________. A. systematic study of human society and social interaction B. methodological analysis of groups and individuals C. scientific analysis of premodern people D. academic discipline that examines individual human behavior Answer: A 2. A __________ is a large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. A. culture B. society C. nation D. country Answer: B 3. __________ defines a relationship in which the lives of all people are intertwined closely and any one nation's problems are part of a larger global problem. A. Societal cohesiveness B. Universal cooperation C. Global interdependence D. International interlock Answer: C 4. Environmental problems are an example of __________. People throughout the world share the same biosphere. When environmental degradation, such as removing natural resources or polluting the air and water, takes place in one region, it may have an adverse effect on people elsewhere. A. international interlock B. universal cooperation C. societal cohesiveness D. global interdependence Answer: D 5. __________ are problems that affect large numbers of people and often require solutions at the societal level. A. Non-personal troubles B. Non-private difficulties C. Public issues D. Societal woes Answer: C 6. Which statement concerning suicide is false? A. White Americans have a higher rate of suicide than African Americans. B. One of the warning signs of suicide is if the person talks about it. C. People who commit suicide often fail to see the bright side of life. D. Children can learn how to harm themselves from the mass media. Answer: A 7. Which statement concerning suicide is true? A. The rate of suicide is higher for older men than older women. B. Most people who attempt suicide remain suicidal throughout life. C. Older women have a lower rate of attempted suicide as compared with older males. D. There is no evidence that children under the age of 10 have taken their own lives. Answer: C 8. On average, a suicide occurs in the U.S. approximately every ___ minutes. A. 5 B. 10 C. 16 D. 23 Answer: C 9. What is the leading cause of death for teenagers and young adults? A. AIDS B. pneumonia C. heart disease D. suicide Answer: D 10. Which group below has the highest rate of suicide? A. white males B. white females C. black males D. black females Answer: B 11. In 2004, the average suicide rate in the U.S. was ____ per 100,000 population. A. 3 B. 11 C. 18 D. 25 Answer: B 12. According to sociologist C. Wright Mills, the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society is referred to as the __________. A. conflict perception B. sociological imagination C. reality perception D. symbolic interaction approach Answer: B 13. Becky is taking a course at a university in Bombay, India as a part of a student exchange program. She is having difficulty accepting many of the local customs including the status of cows, the caste system, and the apparent lack of respect women receive. Becky is making a sincere effort, however, to understand the Indian customs and to place this behavior within a broader social context. In view of this, Becky is engaging the __________. A. self-fulfilling prophecy B. bystander paradigm C. sociological imagination D. reality principle Answer: C 14. __________ are private problems that affect individuals and the networks of people with which they associate regularly; these problems must be solved by individuals within their immediate social setting. A. Personal troubles B. Public issues C. Non-public issues D. Psychological difficulties Answer: A 15. One person being unemployed may be an example of __________, whereas widespread unemployment as a result of economic changes such as plant closings is an example of __________. A. non-public issues; psychological difficulties B. personal troubles; public issues C. psychological difficulties; non-public issues D. public issues; personal troubles Answer: B 16. The world’s __________ countries are nations with highly industrialized economies; technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and personal income. A. high-income B. middle-income C. low-income D. superior-income Answer: A 17. Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan are classified as __________. A. middle-income countries B. superior-income countries C. high-income countries D. low-income countries Answer: C 18. The world’s __________ countries are nations with industrializing economies, particularly in urban areas, and reasonable levels of national and personal income. A. high-income B. middle-income C. low-income D. subordinate-income Answer: B 19. The world’s __________ countries are primarily agrarian nations with little industrialization and impoverished levels of national and personal income. A. high-income B. middle-income C. subordinate-income D. low-income Answer: D 20. __________ is a term used by many people to specify groups of people distinguished by physical characteristics such as skin color. A. Ethnicity B. Creed C. Race D. Color line Answer: C 21. __________ refers to the cultural heritage or identity of a group and is based on factors such as language or country of origin. A. Ethnicity B. Creed C. Race D. Genealogy Answer: A 22. __________ is the relative location of a person or group within the larger society, based on wealth, power, prestige, or other valued resources. A. Caste B. Class C. Economic position D. Social location Answer: B 23. __________ refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males. A. Sex B. Biology C. Gender D. Sociobiology Answer: A 24. __________ refers to the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with sex differences, referred to as femininity and masculinity. A. Sex B. Biology C. Gender D. Sociobiology Answer: C 25. Barbara is a female, which refers to her __________, and she acts very feminine, which is her __________. A. gender; sex B. biology; sociobiology C. sex; gender D. sociobiology; biology Answer: C 26. __________ is the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries. A. Ruralization B. Urbanization C. Suburbanization D. Industrialization Answer: D 27. During the __________, massive economic, technological, and social changes occurred as machine technology and the factory system shifted the economic base of nations from agriculture to manufacturing. A. Ruralization Revolution B. Industrial Revolution C. Suburbanization Revolution D. Urbanization Revolution Answer: B 28. __________ is the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas. A. Urbanization B. Suburbanization C. Industrialization D. Ruralization Answer: A 29. French philosopher Auguste Comte’s philosophy became known as __________, a belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry. A. absolutism B. positivism C. functionalism D. specific methodology Answer: B 30. British sociologist __________ translated and condensed Comte’s work and was noted for her study of social customs in Great Britain and the United States. A. Harriet Nelson B. Jane Addams C. Harriet Martineau D. Sarah Spencer Answer: C 31. Based on British social theorist Herbert Spencer’s theory, __________ is the belief that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out. A. social Darwinism B. social eugenics C. social statics D. social facts Answer: A 32. According to French sociologist Emile Durkheim, __________ are patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person. A. group behaviors B. social facts C. essential characteristics D. sociological generalizations Answer: B 33. French sociologist Emile Durkheim observed that rapid social change and a more specialized division of labor produce strain in society; these strains lead to a breakdown in traditional organization, values, and authority and to a dramatic increase in __________. A. anomie B. social disorganization C. social solidarity D. cultural conflict Answer: A 34. French sociologist Emile Durkheim referred to __________ as a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and a sense of purpose in society. A. social disorganization B. social dysfunctionalism C. cultural breakdown D. anomie Answer: D 35. In the Marxian framework, the __________ comprises those who own and control the means of production. A. bourgeoisie class B. upper-tier class C. proletariat class D. laissez-faire class Answer: A 36. The __________ are the tools, land, factories, and money for investment that form the economic basis of a society. A. means of production B. instruments of capitalism C. trappings of the bourgeoisie D. factory system Answer: A 37. From the Marxian viewpoint, the __________ is composed of those who must sell their labor because they have no other means to earn a livelihood. A. bourgeoisie class B. lower-tier class C. proletariat class D. laissez-faire class Answer: C 38. Tom works on the assembly line at the local Ford automobile factory. Based on the Marxian framework, Tom would be considered a member of the __________ because he does not own the means of production. A. laissez-faire class B. lower-tier class C. bourgeoisie class D. proletariat class Answer: D 39. According to German economist and philosopher Karl Marx, __________ is a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself. A. class conflict B. alienation C. anomie D. the bourgeoisie syndrome Answer: B 40. Unlike many early analysts, who believed that values could not be separated from the research process, German social scientist __________ emphasized that sociology should be value free—research should be conducted in a scientific manner and should exclude the researcher’s personal values and economic interests. A. Emile Durkheim B. Max Weber C. Karl Marx D. Herbert Spencer Answer: B 41. German social scientist Max Weber stressed that sociologists should employ __________ (understanding or insight) to gain the ability to see the world as others see it. A. verstehen B. positivism C. social facts D. social dynamics Answer: A 42. German sociologist Georg Simmel analyzed how social interactions vary depending on the __________. He concluded that interaction patterns differed between a dyad and a triad. A. sex of the social group B. size of the social group C. social class of the social group D. race of the social group Answer: B 43. Sociologist W.E.B. Du Bois observed that a dual heritage creates conflict for people of color: an identity conflict of being black and American. Du Bois referred to this duality as __________. A. double-consciousness B. the dual-labor market C. the double bind D. functional conflict Answer: A 44. A __________ is defined as a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events. A. hypothesis B. law C. theory D. generalization Answer: C 45. __________ perspectives are based on the assumption that society is a stable, orderly system. A. Functionalist B. Conflict C. Interactionist D. Developmental Answer: A 46. Based on the __________ perspective, a society is composed of interrelated parts, each of which (ideally) contributes to the overall stability of the society. A. conflict B. postmodern C. functionalist D. symbolic interactionist Answer: C 47. The __________ states that societies develop social structures, or institutions that persist because they play a part in helping society survive. These institutions include the family, education, government, religion, and the economy. A. postmodern theorist B. symbolic interactionist C. conflict theorist D. functionalist Answer: D 48. From a functionalist perspective, the husband/father performs the __________ tasks, which involve leadership and decision-making responsibilities in the home and employment outside the home to support the family. A. expressive B. instrumental C. contradictory D. interdependent Answer: B 49. From a functionalist perspective, the wife/mother is responsible for the __________ tasks, including housework, caring for the children, and providing emotional support for the entire family. A. expressive B. instrumental C. compatible D. independent Answer: A 50. According to sociologist Robert K. Merton, __________ are intended and/or overtly recognized by the participants in a social unit. A. dysfunctions B. latent functions C. prerequisite functions D. manifest functions Answer: D 51. According to sociologist Robert K. Merton, __________ are unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by participants. A. dysfunctions B. latent functions C. prerequisite functions D. manifest functions Answer: B 52. According to sociologist Robert K. Merton, __________ are the undesirable consequences of any element of a society. A. dysfunctions B. latent functions C. prerequisite functions D. manifest functions Answer: A 53. When students go away to college, they often make lifelong friends and may even find their spouse. According to Robert Merton, this is a _____ function of education. A. manifest B. latent C. dysfunction D. prerequisite Answer: A 54. Jill attends college in order to study accounting so that she can work as a CPA. In Merton’s terminology, college is serving a _____ function. A. manifest B. latent C. dysfunction D. prerequisite Answer: A 55. A __________ of education in the United States is the perpetuation of gender, racial, and class inequalities, which may threaten the capacity of a society to adapt and survive. A. manifest function B. dysfunction C. latent function D. prerequisite function Answer: B 56. According to the __________ perspective, groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. A. functionalist B. interactionist C. conflict D. developmental Answer: C 57. When analysing the tobacco industry, which theoretical perspective would most likely look at tobacco interests versus health care interests? A. functionalist B. interactionist C. conflict D. developmental Answer: C 58. C. Wright Mills used the term "__________" in referring to a small clique composed of the top corporate, political, and military officials. A. top of the heap B. bureaucracy C. niche D. power elite Answer: D 59. According to feminist theorists, we live in a(n) __________, a system in which men dominate women and in which things that are considered to be “male” or “masculine” are more highly valued than those considered to be “female” or “feminine.” A. patriarchy B. autarchy C. matriarchy D. monarchy Answer: A 60. A __________ analysis examines whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems. A. macrolevel B. metalevel C. microlevel D. mesolevel Answer: A 61. A __________ analysis focuses on small groups rather than large-scale social structures. A. macrolevel B. mesolevel C. microlevel D. metalevel Answer: C 62. According to the __________ perspective, society is the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups. A. functionalist B. conflict C. symbolic interactionist D. postmodern Answer: C 63. A __________ is anything that meaningfully represents something else and includes signs, gestures, written language, and shared values. A. symbol B. sociological construct C. norm D. status Answer: A 64. A physician wears a white lab coat and a stethoscope. The patient sees these as representing knowledge and authority. The coat and stethoscope are A. signals that defines the relationships between individuals. B. symbols used to define a relationship between individuals. C. symbols of power inequality among the individuals. D. signs that this is a public interaction among individuals. Answer: B 65. From the symbolic interactionist perspective, each person's interpretation or definition of a given situation becomes a(n) __________ from that person's viewpoint. A. objective phenomenon B. subjective reality C. imagination D. fictitious thought Answer: B 66. According to the __________ perspective, existing theories have been unsuccessful in explaining social life in contemporary societies that are characterized by post industrialization, consumerism, and global communications. A. functionalist B. conflict C. symbolic interactionist D. postmodern Answer: D 67. In relation to the study of education in America, __________ would look at the role the schools play in maintaining the social system as a whole; how education provides the young with skills they need later in life; and how it transmits cultural values from one generation to the next. A. symbolic interactionists B. postmodern theorists C. functionalists D. conflict theorists Answer: C 68. In relation to the study of education in America, __________ would emphasize the daily activities within the schools and the various forms of communication between teachers and students. They would also examine the influence of peer groups and look at the reaction when school rules are broken or followed. A. conflict theorists B. symbolic interactionists C. postmodern theorists D. functionalists Answer: B 69. In relation to the study of homelessness in American society, __________ would look at changing relationships in the family and economic conditions which causes homelessness among people who are unable to find jobs and do not have a family support system to fall back on. A. symbolic interactionists B. conflict theorists C. postmodern theorists D. functionalists Answer: D 70. In relation to the study of homelessness in American society, __________ would place emphasis on the struggle between social classes, especially how the policies of the wealthy push certain groups into unemployment and homelessness, and would examine welfare program reform. A. conflict theorists B. functionalists C. symbolic interactionists D. postmodern theorists Answer: A 71. In relation to the study of homelessness in American society, __________ would focus on homeless people’s communications (both verbal and non-verbal) and analyse what homeless people do when they are in shelters and on the streets A. functionalists B. conflict theorists C. symbolic interactionists D. postmodern theorists Answer: C 72. In relation to the sociology of sports in the United States, __________ would begin by pointing out that sports are closely linked to social inequality. For example, some sports (including tennis, swimming, golf, sailing, and skiing) are expensive, so participation is largely limited to the wealthy. Also throughout history, sports have been oriented primarily toward males. A. symbolic interactionists B. functionalists C. conflict theorists D. postmodern theorists Answer: C 73. In relation to the sociology of sports in the United States, __________ would describe a sporting event as a complex drama of face-to-face activities. Play is guided by the players’ assigned positions and rules of the game. Also, players are spontaneous and unpredictable. A. conflict theorists B. symbolic interactionists C. postmodern theorists D. functionalists Answer: B 74. Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behavior through __________, which is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one. A. common sense ideas B. research C. myths D. scientific laws Answer: B 75. With __________ research, the goal is scientific objectivity, and the focus is on data that can be measured numerically. A. qualitative B. observational C. quantitative D. explanatory Answer: C 76. Researchers in one study examined the effects of church membership, divorce, and migration on suicide rates in the United States and concluded that suicide rates are typically higher where divorce and migration rates are higher and church membership is lower. This is an example of __________. A. observational research B. quantitative research C. explanatory research D. qualitative research Answer: B 77. With __________ research, interpretative description (words) rather than statistics (numbers) are used to analyse underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships. A. qualitative B. observational C. quantitative D. explanatory Answer: A 78. Researchers in one study systematically analysed the contents of the notes of suicide victims to determine recurring themes, such as feeling of despair or failure. They hoped to determine if any patterns could be found that would help in understanding why people might kill themselves. This is an example of __________. A. explanatory research B. qualitative research C. observational research D. quantitative research Answer: B 79. Sociologists conducting research may formulate a(n) __________, which is a statement of the relationship between two or more variables. A. theory B. hypothesis C. variable D. operational definition Answer: B 80. Age is a factor that can change and varies from person to person. Age represents a A. variable B. theory C. hypothesis D. principle Answer: A 81. In a hypothesis, the researcher considers the __________ to be the cause of the relationship. A. independent variable B. dependent variable C. universal variable D. control variable Answer: A 82. In a hypothesis, the researcher presumes the __________ to be caused by another variable. A. independent variable B. dependent variable C. universal variable D. control variable Answer: B 83. David has developed the hypothesis that the stress felt by unemployed men increases the probability of spousal abuse. Stress would be considered the __________ variable and spousal abuse would be considered the __________ variable. A. dependent; independent B. universal; control C. independent; dependent D. control; universal Answer: C 84. __________ is the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure. A. Validity B. Reliability C. Predictability D. Variability Answer: A 85. __________ is the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time. A. Validity B. Reliability C. Predictability D. Variability Answer: B 86. John develops a scale to assess job satisfaction among industrial workers. He is especially concerned that the workers in his study will interpret the scale items on his questionnaire in an inconsistent fashion. John’s concern reflects the issue of __________. A. the representativeness of his sample B. the accuracy of his hypothesis C. the validity of his operational definition D. the reliability of his measure Answer: D 87. __________ are specific strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research. A. Investigative methods B. Research methods C. Theoretical methods D. Experimental methods Answer: B 88. A(n) __________ is a poll in which the researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationships among facts. A. survey B. experiment C. case study D. content analysis Answer: A 89. __________ are people who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires. A. Observers B. Respondents C. Polls D. Control groups Answer: B 90. A(n) __________ is a printed research instrument containing a series of items to which subjects respond. A. questionnaire B. interview C. telephone survey D. computer-assisted interview Answer: A 91. In __________, researchers use existing material and analyse data that were originally collected by others. A. primary analysis B. tertiary analysis C. secondary analysis D. manifest analysis Answer: C 92. Joyce wants to do a study of domestic abuse but lacks the time and money to gather her own data. Consequently, she analyses data previously gathered by the National Opinion Research Centre that is related to this topic. In this case, Joyce is conducting __________. A. content analysis B. secondary analysis C. survey D. participant observation Answer: B 93. __________ is the systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social life. A. Content analysis B. Content standardization C. Content validity D. Content reliability Answer: A 94. __________ is the study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play. A. The survey B. Secondary analysis C. Field research D. The experiment Answer: C 95. __________ refers to the process of collecting data while being part of the activities of the group that the researcher is studying. A. The experiment B. Survey research C. Participant observation D. Secondary analysis Answer: C 96. Lucy has volunteered at the local crisis centre. While she is performing as a volunteer, she is given permission to gather data on the number of women who report being abused, and the number of women who later participate in counseling. Lucy is using __________ as a method of gathering data. A. representative sampling B. secondary analysis C. content analysis D. participant observation Answer: D 97. A(n) __________ is a detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years. A. correlational study B. ethnography C. experiment D. content analysis Answer: B 98. A(n) __________ is a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects’ attitudes or behavior. A. case study B. correlational study C. experiment D. participant observation Answer: C 99. In an experiment, the __________ contains the subjects who are exposed to an independent variable to study its effect on them. A. experimental group B. dependent group C. control group D. independent group Answer: A 100. In an experiment, the __________ contains the subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable. A. experimental group B. independent group C. dependent group D. control group Answer: D TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. Sociology is a systematic study because sociologists apply both theoretical perspectives and research methods to examinations of social behavior. Answer: True 2. Among the young, suicide accounts for more deaths than cancer, heart disease, and AIDS combined. Answer: True 3. One of the great myths about suicide is that people who commit suicide will talk about doing so. Answer: False Rejoinder: It is not a myth. It is the case that people will often talk about taking their lives. 4. Among males, white Americans have a higher suicide rate than blacks. For females, the rate of suicide is higher for black females than white females. Answer: False Rejoinder: Black females actually have the lowest rate when looking at race and gender. 5. The sociological imagination helps us place personal troubles, such as losing one’s job or attempting suicide, into a larger social context, where we can distinguish whether and how personal troubles may be related to public issues. Answer: True 6. Middle-income countries are nations with highly industrialized economies, technologically advanced industrial, administrative, and service occupations; and relatively high levels of national and personal income. Answer: False Rejoinder: This describes high-income countries. Middle-income countries are nations with industrializing economies, particularly in urban areas, and moderate levels of national and personal income. 7. Urbanization is the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is the definition of Industrialization; Urbanization is the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas. 8. French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term sociology to describe a new science that would engage in the study of society. Answer: True 9. Sociologist Max Weber believed that societies developed through a process of “struggle” (for existence) and “fitness” (for survival), which he referred to as the “survival of the fittest.” Answer: False Rejoinder: This was Herbert Spencer’s view of society, known as social Darwinism. 10. Sociologist Emile Durkheim observed that rapid social change and a more specialized division of labor produce strains in society. These strains lead to a breakdown in traditional organization, values, and authority and to a dramatic increase in anomie. Answer: True 11. In the Marxian framework, the working class, or bourgeoisie, is composed of those who must sell their labor because they have no other means to earn a livelihood. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is the definition of the proletariat; the bourgeoisie or capitalist class comprises those who own and control the means of production. 12. Sociologist Max Weber emphasized that sociology should be value free—research should be conducted in a scientific manner and should exclude the researcher’s personal values and economic interests. Answer: True 13. The first department of sociology in the United States was established at the University of Chicago, where the faculty was instrumental in starting the American Sociological Society (now known as the American Sociological Association). Answer: True 14. Jane Addams is noted for both founding Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago, and winning the Nobel Prize. Answer: True 15. Sociologist George Herbert Mead was one of the first scholars to note that a dual heritage creates conflict for people of colour. He called this duality double consciousness—the identity conflict of being black and American. Answer: False Rejoinder: This was based on W.E.B. Du Bois’ research. 16. According to the functionalist perspective, societies develop social structures (institutions) that persist because they play a part in helping society survive. These institutions include the family, education, government, religion, and the economy. Answer: True 17. Sociologist Talcott Parsons suggested that a division of labor between husband and wife is essential for family stability and social order. The wife/mother is responsible for the instrumental tasks, including housework, caring for the children, and providing emotional support for the entire family. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is the correct description of expressive tasks performed by the wife/mother; the husband/father performs the instrumental tasks, which involve leadership and decision-making responsibilities in the home and employment outside the home to support the family. 18. Sociologist Robert K. Merton stated that manifest functions are intended and/or overtly recognized by the participants in a social unit. For example, a manifest function of education is the transmission of knowledge and skills from one generation to the next. Answer: True 19. C. Wright Mills believed that the most important decisions in the United States are made largely behind the scenes by the power superiors—a small clique composed of the top corporate, political, and military officials. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is power elite. 20. According to feminist theorists, we live in a patriarchy, which is a system in which men dominate women and in which things considered to be “male” or “masculine” are more highly valued than those considered to be “female” or “feminine.” Answer: True 21. The conflict and functionalist perspectives focus primarily on microlevel (focuses on small groups) analysis; whereas, the symbolic interactionist approaches are based on a macrolevel (examines whole societies, large-scale social structures, and social systems) analysis. Answer: False Rejoinder: Conflict and functionalist perspectives focus on macrolevel analysis and symbolic interactionist perspective is based on microlevel analysis. 22. From a symbolic interactionist point of view, a suicide attempt may be a way of moving toward other people in the form of a cry for help and personal acceptance, rather than a move toward death. Answer: True 23. With quantitative research, the goal is scientific objectivity, and typically emphasizes complex statistical techniques. For example, most sociological studies on suicide have compared rates of suicide with almost every conceivable variable, including age, sex, race/ethnicity, and education. Answer: True 24. Reliability is the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is the definition for validity; reliability is the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results. 25. After collecting and analysing the data, your first step in drawing conclusions is to return to your hypothesis or research objective to clarify how the data relate both to the hypothesis and to the larger issues being addressed. Answer: True SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Define sociology and explain how it helps us to better understand our social world and ourselves. Answer: Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction. Sociologists study human societies and their social interactions to develop theories of how human behavior is shaped by group life and how, in turn, group life is affected by individuals. Sociology helps us gain a better understanding of ourselves and our social world. It enables us to see how behavior is largely shaped by the groups to which we belong and the society in which we live. Most of us take our social world for granted and view our lives in very personal terms. Because of our culture’s emphasis on individualism, we often do not consider the complex connections between our own lives and the larger, recurring patterns of the society and world in which we live. Sociology helps us look beyond our personal experiences and gain insights into society and the larger world order. A society is a large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Examining the world order helps us understand that each of us is affected by global interdependence – a relationship in which the lives of all people are intertwined closely and any one nation’s problems are part of a larger global problem. Individuals can make use of sociology on a more personal level. Sociology enables us to move beyond established ways of thinking, thus allowing us to gain new insights into ourselves and to develop a greater awareness of the connection between our own “world” and that of other people. Sociology provides new ways of approaching problems and making decisions in everyday life. Sociology promotes understanding and tolerance by enabling each of us to look beyond our personal experiences. 2. Interpret what sociologist C. Wright Mills meant by the sociological imagination. Answer: Mills described sociological reasoning as the sociological imagination – the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society. This awareness enables us to understand the link between our personal experiences and the social contexts in which they occur. The sociological imagination helps us distinguish between personal troubles and social (or public) issues. Personal troubles are private problems that affect individuals and the networks of people with which they associate regularly. As a result, these problems must be solved by individuals within their immediate social setting. For example, one person being unemployed or attempting suicide could be identified as a personal trouble. Whereas, social (or public) issues are problems that affect large numbers of people and often require solutions at the societal level. For example, widespread unemployment as a result of economic changes such as plant closings could be identified as a social (or public) issue. 3. Define industrialization and urbanization, and explain the role of each in furthering sociological thought. Answer: Industrialization is the process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries. By the mid-nineteenth century, industrialization was well under way in the United States. Massive economic, technological, and social changes occurred as machine technology and the factory system shifted the economic base from agriculture to manufacturing. A new social class of industrialists emerged in textiles, iron smelting, and related industries. Many people who had labored on the land were forced to leave their tightly knit rural communities and sacrifice well-defined social relationships to seek employment as factory workers in the emerging cities, which became the centers of industrial work. Urbanization accompanied modernization and the rapid process of industrialization. Urbanization is the process by which an increasing proportion of a population lives in cities rather than in rural areas. The development of the factory system led to a rapid increase in both the number of cities and the size of the population. People from very diverse backgrounds worked together in the same factory. At the same time, many people shifted from being producers to being consumers. For example, families living in the cities had to buy food with their new wages because they could no longer grow their own crops to consume or to barter for other resources. Similarly, people had to pay rent for their lodging because they could no longer exchange their services for shelter. These living and working conditions led to the development of new social problems: inadequate housing, crowding, unsanitary conditions, poverty, pollution, and crime. Wages were so low that entire families—including very young children—were forced to work, often under hazardous conditions and with no job security. As these conditions became more visible, a new breed of social thinkers turned its attention to trying to understand why and how society was changing. 4. Briefly summarize at least three of Auguste Comte’s contributions to early sociology. Answer: French philosopher Auguste Comte coined the term sociology to describe a new science that would engage in the study of society. Comte’s theory stated that societies contain social statics (forces for social order and stability) and social dynamics (forces for conflict and change). Comte’s philosophy became known as positivism—a belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry. He believed that objective, bias-free knowledge was attainable only through the use of science rather than religion. However, scientific knowledge was “relative knowledge,” not absolute and final. Comte’s positivism had two dimensions: (1) methodological—the application of scientific knowledge to both physical and social phenomena—and (2) social and political—the use of such knowledge to predict the likely results of different policies so that the best one could be chosen. 5. Discuss Herbert Spencer’s “Survival of the Fittest” theory. What are the criticisms of his approach? Answer: British social theorist Herbert Spencer’s major contribution to sociology was an evolutionary perspective on social order and social change. According to Spencer’s Theory of General Evolution, society has various interdependent parts (such as the family, the economy, and the government) that work to ensure the stability and survival of the entire society. Spencer believed that societies developed through a process of “struggle” (for existence) and “fitness” (for survival), which he referred to as the “survival of the fittest.” Spencer’s view of society is known as social Darwinism—the belief that those species of animals, including human beings, best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out. Spencer equated this process of natural selection with progress, because only the “fittest” members of society would survive the competition, and the “unfit” would be filtered out of society. Critics say that he looked at society as the same as a biological system. Also, his idea of survival of the fittest can be used to justify different kinds of inequalities. 6. Discuss what Emile Durkheim meant by the concepts of social facts and anomie. Answer: French sociologist Emile Durkheim stressed that people are the products of their social environment and that behavior cannot be fully understood in terms of individual biological and psychological traits. Durkheim set forth the idea that societies are built on social facts. Social facts are patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person. He believed that social facts must be explained by other social facts—by reference to the social structure rather than to individual attributes. Durkheim’s recurring question was: How do societies manage to hold together? He concluded that preindustrial societies were held together by strong traditions and by members’ shared moral beliefs and values. As societies industrialized, more specialized economic activity became the basis of the social bond because people became interdependent on one another. Durkheim observed that rapid social change and a more specialized division of labor produce strains in society. These strains lead to a breakdown in traditional organization, values, and authority and to a dramatic increase in anomie—a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and of a sense of purpose in society. 7. Describe the main points of Karl Marx’s theory of class conflict. Answer: German economist and philosopher Karl Marx stressed that history is a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces. He believed that conflict – especially class conflict—is necessary in order to produce social change and a better society. Class conflict is the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class. The capitalist class, or bourgeoisie, comprises those who own and control the means of production – the tools, land, factories, and money for investment that form the economic basis of a society. The working class, or proletariat, is composed of those who must sell their labor because they have no other means to earn a livelihood. The capitalist class controls and exploits the masses of struggling workers by paying less than the value of their labor. This exploitation results in workers’ alienation—a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from themselves. Marx predicted that the working class would become aware of its exploitation, overthrow the capitalists, and establish a free and classless society. 8. State the major assumptions of the functionalist perspectives. Answer: Functionalist perspectives are based on the assumption that society is a stable, orderly system. This stable system is characterized by societal consensus, whereby the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioral expectations. A society is composed of interrelated parts, each of which serves a function and (ideally) contributes to the overall stability of the society. Societies develop social structures, or institutions that persist because they play a part in helping society survive. These institutions include the family, education, government, religion, and the economy. If anything adverse happens to one of these institutions or parts, all other parts are affected, and the system no longer functions properly. 9. State the major assumptions of the conflict perspectives. Answer: According to the conflict perspectives, groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. Conflict may take the form of politics, litigation, negotiations, or family discussions about financial matters. Today, advocates of the conflict perspective view social life as a continuous power struggle among competing social groups. The conflict perspective encompasses several branches: (1) the neo-Marxist approach, which views struggle between the classes as inevitable and as a prime source of social change; (2) the branch that focuses on racial-ethnic inequalities and the continued exploitation of members of some racial-ethnic groups; and (3) the feminist approach, which focuses on gender issues. 10. State the major assumptions of the symbolic interactionist perspective. Answer: According to symbolic interactionist perspectives, society is the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups. Theorists using this perspective focus on the process of interaction—defined as immediate, reciprocally oriented communication between two or more people—and the part that symbols play in giving meaning to human communication. A symbol is anything that meaningfully represents something else. Symbolic interaction occurs when people communicate through the use of symbols. Symbolic communication occurs in a variety of forms, including facial gestures, posture, tone of voice, and other symbolic gestures (such as a handshake or a clenched fist). Symbols are instrumental in helping people derive meanings from social situations. In social encounters, each person’s interpretation or definition of a given situation becomes a subjective reality from that person’s viewpoints. Symbolic interactionists attempt to study how people make sense of their life situations and the way they go about their activities, in conjunction with others, on a day-to-day basis. According to the postmodern perspectives, existing theories have been unsuccessful in explaining social life in contemporary societies that are characterized by post industrialization, consumerism, and global communications. Postmodern societies are characterized by an information explosion and an economy in which large numbers of people either provide or apply information, or they are employed in professional occupations or service jobs. 11. Outline the six (6) steps of the “conventional” research model. Answer: The “conventional” research model focuses on quantitative research and includes the following steps: (1) Select and clearly define the research problem (topic), (2) Review previous research—it is important to review the literature to see what others have written about the topic, (3) Formulate the hypothesis—a statement of the relationship between two or more concepts (independent variable and dependent variable) and create an operational definition—an explanation of an abstract concept in terms of observable features that are specific enough to measure the variable, (4) Develop the research design—considering the units of analysis (what or whom is being studied) and the time frame of the study (cross-sectional studies or longitudinal studies), (5) Collect (random sampling and probability sampling) and analyse the data (validity and reliability), and (6) Draw conclusions (noting limitations of the study) and report the findings. 12. Describe the issue of media framing and how it relates specifically to suicide. Answer: Media framing refers to the process by which information and entertainment are packaged by the mass media before being presented to the public. This includes such things as the amount of exposure given to a story, where it is placed, the positive or negative tone it conveys, and its accompanying headlines, photographs, or other visual or auditory effects. When this is done, the media is able to emphasize some beliefs and value over others. When the media presents a suicide, it often does so as a final precipitating situation. The media does not inform audiences that this was not the only cause of the suicide. In fact, many factors often interact in a complex manner to contribute to a person’s decision to commit suicide. 13. Describe the major ethical concerns in sociological research. Answer: Researchers are required to obtain written “informed consent” statements from the persons they study. The American Sociological Association (ASA) Code of Ethics sets forth certain basic standards that sociologists must follow in conducting research. (1) researchers must endeavor to maintain objectivity and integrity in their research by disclosing their research findings in full and including all possible interpretations of the data (even those interpretations that do not support their own viewpoints), (2) researchers must safeguard the participants’ right to privacy and dignity while protecting them from harm, (3) researchers must protect confidential information provided by participants, even when this information is not considered to be “privileged” (legally protected, as in the case between doctor and patient and between attorney and client) and legal pressure is applied to reveal this information, and (4) researchers must acknowledge research collaboration and assistance they receive from others and disclose all sources of financial support. Sociologists are obligated to adhere to this code and to protect research participants. 14. Briefly discuss either (a) secondary analysis or (b) the experiment in terms of what it involves along with its advantages and disadvantages. Answer: (a) secondary analysis uses already existing materials, materials that were collected by others. Examples include: public records, official reports, and raw data collected by other researchers. This method includes content analysis which is the systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract hematic data and draw conclusions. One of its strengths is that data are readily available and inexpensive. Also, since the researcher did not collect the data personally, the chances of bias may be reduced. A major problem is that the researcher does not always know if the data are incomplete, unauthentic or inaccurate. (b) The experiment is a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects’ attitudes or behaviours. An experiment has an experimental group which is exposed to the independent variable and a control group where the subjects are not exposed to the independent variable. A major advantage is the control which the experimenter has while the greatest limitation is that the experiment is artificial. 15. Briefly describe the warning signs of suicide. Answer: The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention suggests that there are certain warning signs. One of these is talking about death or suicide. One warning statement is: “Everyone would be better off without me.” A second sign is making plans. Here, a person may give away his/her possessions. Showing signs of depression is another warning sign. Although most depressed individuals are not suicidal, most suicidal people are depressed. Serious depression tends to be shown as a loss of pleasure or withdrawal from activities that a person has previously enjoyed. ESSAY SECTION 1. What is sociology and why should one study this particular discipline? Answer: Sociology is the study of society, social institutions, and social relationships. It involves understanding the structure and dynamics of societies, how they develop and change, and the complexities of human behavior within these contexts. Sociology examines how individuals and groups interact, the origins and consequences of social institutions, and the factors that influence social stability and change. Studying sociology is important for several reasons: • Understanding Social Dynamics: It helps individuals comprehend the underlying patterns and processes that govern social interactions and institutions. • Awareness of Social Issues: Sociology provides insights into critical social issues such as inequality, poverty, and discrimination, enabling individuals to become more informed and empathetic citizens. • Informed Decision-Making: It equips people with analytical tools to critically evaluate social policies and programs, fostering informed decision-making and advocacy. • Personal Development: Understanding social forces and their impact on personal life can lead to greater self-awareness and improved social skills. • Career Opportunities: Sociology graduates can pursue careers in various fields such as social work, education, public policy, and research, where they can apply their knowledge to real-world problems. 2. With the increasing diversity of the population, what personal troubles and public issues do you think are most important for the U.S. society to think about? Answer: With the increasing diversity of the U.S. population, several personal troubles and public issues warrant attention: • Racial and Ethnic Inequality: Disparities in income, education, healthcare, and criminal justice outcomes among different racial and ethnic groups remain significant issues. • Immigration: The experiences and challenges faced by immigrants, including integration, legal status, and cultural adaptation, are critical concerns. • Social Cohesion: Ensuring social harmony and reducing instances of discrimination, hate crimes, and xenophobia is vital in a diverse society. • Economic Inequality: Addressing the widening gap between the rich and the poor, which disproportionately affects minority communities, is essential for social stability. • Education Access and Equity: Ensuring equal educational opportunities for all, regardless of background, is crucial for social mobility and reducing inequality. • Healthcare Disparities: Tackling differences in health outcomes and access to healthcare services among diverse populations is a public health priority. 3. Suicide is a fairly significant problem in the U.S. Discuss. Answer: Suicide is indeed a significant problem in the U.S., with complex social, economic, and psychological dimensions: • Prevalence: Suicide rates have been rising in the U.S., with it being one of the leading causes of death, particularly among young adults and middle-aged individuals. • Mental Health: Mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse are major risk factors for suicide. Improving mental health care access and reducing stigma are crucial steps in prevention. • Socioeconomic Factors: Economic hardship, unemployment, and financial stress can contribute to feelings of hopelessness and despair, increasing the risk of suicide. • Demographic Disparities: Certain demographic groups, including veterans, LGBTQ+ individuals, and Native Americans, have higher suicide rates and may require targeted interventions. • Prevention Efforts: Effective suicide prevention requires a multi-faceted approach, including mental health support, crisis intervention, community programs, and public awareness campaigns. • Support Systems: Strengthening support systems such as family, community networks, and social services can provide crucial assistance to those at risk. 4. A number of Europeans were important in establishing sociology. Discuss these figures in terms of their contributions. Answer: Several European scholars were instrumental in the development of sociology as a discipline, each contributing unique perspectives and foundational theories: • Auguste Comte: Known as the father of sociology, Comte coined the term "sociology" and emphasized the use of scientific methods to study society. He proposed the law of three stages (theological, metaphysical, and positive) to explain the evolution of human thought. • Karl Marx: Marx's analysis of capitalism and class struggle laid the groundwork for conflict theory. His ideas about the economic base and superstructure, and the role of ideology in maintaining power dynamics, have profoundly influenced sociological thought. • Émile Durkheim: Durkheim is known for his work on social integration, collective conscience, and the study of social facts. His research on suicide highlighted the social factors influencing individual behavior, establishing the importance of empirical research in sociology. • Max Weber: Weber's contributions include his analysis of bureaucracy, the study of the relationship between religion and capitalism, and the concept of verstehen (understanding). His work emphasized the importance of subjective meaning and individual agency in social action. • Herbert Spencer: Spencer applied the principles of Darwinian evolution to societies, coining the term "survival of the fittest." His ideas about social evolution and organic analogy influenced early sociological theories of social structure and change. • Georg Simmel: Simmel's work on social forms, group dynamics, and the nature of social interactions provided valuable insights into micro-level sociology. His analysis of the role of money in modern society highlighted the impact of economic exchanges on social relationships. These foundational figures established key concepts and methodologies that continue to shape the field of sociology today. 5. A major difference between the theoretical perspectives is the level of analysis. Identify the focus of the three major perspectives (functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist). What are criticisms of each? Answer: The three major theoretical perspectives in sociology are functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist, each with a distinct level of analysis and focus: Functionalist Perspective: • Focus: This perspective, rooted in the works of Émile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer, views society as a complex system with interdependent parts that work together to promote stability and social order. Each part of society (institutions, norms, roles) has a function that contributes to the continued stability and functioning of the whole. • Level of Analysis: Macro-level, focusing on large-scale social structures and processes. • Criticisms: • Overemphasis on Stability: It tends to overlook social change and conflict, emphasizing stability and equilibrium. • Conservatism: It may justify the status quo and existing inequalities by portraying them as functional and necessary. • Neglect of Individual Agency: The focus on social structures can downplay the role of individual actions and agency. Conflict Perspective: • Focus: Based on the ideas of Karl Marx, this perspective views society as composed of groups competing for scarce resources. It emphasizes power dynamics, inequality, and social change, arguing that social structures are created and maintained by those in power to exploit and oppress others. • Level of Analysis: Macro-level, focusing on the broad patterns of social inequality and power relations. • Criticisms: • Overemphasis on Conflict: It may overstate the extent of conflict and overlook the aspects of social life that promote stability and consensus. • Economic Determinism: Often criticized for reducing social life to economic factors and neglecting the role of ideas, culture, and other non-economic factors. • Neglect of Micro-Level: It can ignore the everyday interactions and experiences of individuals. Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: • Focus: This perspective, influenced by George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer, emphasizes the meanings and definitions that individuals attach to their social world through interactions. It focuses on how people use symbols (language, gestures) to create and maintain social reality. • Level of Analysis: Micro-level, focusing on small-scale, everyday interactions between individuals. • Criticisms: • Neglect of Macro Structures: It may overlook the larger social structures and forces that influence individual interactions. • Subjectivity: The emphasis on subjective experiences can make it difficult to generalize findings and develop broad social theories. • Underestimation of Power Dynamics: It can underplay the role of power and inequality in shaping interactions and social reality. 6. Discuss the major research methods used by the sociologist. Answer: Sociologists employ various research methods to study social phenomena, each with distinct advantages and limitations. The major research methods include: 1. Surveys: • Description: Surveys involve collecting data from a large number of respondents using questionnaires or interviews. They can be conducted in person, over the phone, or online. • Advantages: • Large Sample Sizes: Surveys can gather data from a broad and diverse population. • Quantifiable Data: They produce quantifiable data that can be analysed statistically. • Generalizability: Findings can be generalized to larger populations if the sample is representative. • Limitations: • Superficial Responses: Responses may lack depth and nuance. • Response Bias: Respondents may provide socially desirable answers rather than truthful ones. 2. Experiments: • Description: Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on other variables, typically in a controlled setting. • Advantages: • Control: High level of control over variables allows for establishing causality. • Replicability: Experiments can be replicated to verify results. • Limitations: • Artificial Setting: Laboratory settings may not accurately reflect real-world situations. • Ethical Concerns: Some experiments may raise ethical issues, especially when manipulating human behavior. 3. Observational Studies: • Description: These involve systematically observing and recording behavior in a natural setting. This can be participant observation (researcher becomes part of the group) or non-participant observation (researcher observes without becoming involved). • Advantages: • Rich, Detailed Data: Provides in-depth understanding of social interactions and contexts. • Natural Setting: Observations are made in real-world environments. • Limitations: • Observer Bias: The presence and perspective of the researcher can influence observations. • Limited Generalizability: Findings may not be generalizable beyond the specific context studied. 4. Case Studies: • Description: In-depth analysis of a single case or a small number of cases, often using multiple data sources (interviews, observations, documents). • Advantages: • Comprehensive Understanding: Provides a thorough and detailed understanding of the case. • Contextual Analysis: Allows for exploring complex phenomena within their context. • Limitations: • Limited Generalizability: Findings are specific to the case and may not apply to other contexts. • Time-Consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. 5. Secondary Analysis: • Description: Involves analysing existing data collected by other researchers or institutions (e.g., census data, historical records). • Advantages: • Cost-Effective: Saves time and resources by using already collected data. • Broad Scope: Can analyse large datasets that would be difficult to collect independently. • Limitations: • Data Limitations: Researchers are limited by the quality and scope of existing data. • Lack of Control: Researchers cannot control how the data was collected or the variables included. 6. Content Analysis: • Description: Systematic analysis of communication (texts, media, speeches) to identify patterns, themes, and meanings. • Advantages: • Non-Intrusive: Analyzes existing content without influencing the subjects. • Flexible: Can be applied to a wide range of media and texts. • Limitations: • Interpretive Challenges: Analysis can be subjective and dependent on the researcher’s interpretation. • Context Dependency: The meaning of content can change based on the context in which it was produced and consumed. Each research method has its strengths and is suitable for different types of sociological inquiries, often complementing each other in a comprehensive research strategy. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154