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Thinking Critically About Society: An Introduction to Sociology Teaching Resource Guide Russell Westhaver Introduction While Thinking Critically About Society is an introductory sociology textbook, it was written with a series of pedagogical commitments from the scholarship on teaching and learning in mind. Below, I briefly spell out these commitments to give those interested in the text some food for thought. First, this book is informed by research and discussion on critical thinking, as set out in the scholarship on teaching and learning. This body of scholarship describes critical thinking as a pan-disciplinary way or method of thinking, one that is independent of disciplinary commitments. While this body of scholarship is very extensive, I have found the summarizing work of Van Gyn and Ford (2006) particularly helpful. They define critical thinking as: A quality of thinking that is characterized by self-regulated deliberations on a challenge situation or task that involve exploring and generating alternatives, and making evaluative judgments. These judgments are based on criteria, which provide justifications for the conclusions, and are applied to meaning, relational, empirical, or value claims (P. 11). More prosaically, critical thinking involves a reflexive response to an intellectual challenge based on available evidence and relevant concepts/methods. As pan-disciplinary way of thinking, this means that the intellectual labour of both sociologists and, say, chemists, can be characterized as “critical”. To some extent, this understanding of critical thinking is in contrast with how the term “critical” can be deployed in sociology, where it is often used as a short hand for intellectual approaches that place power differences at the center of any analytical scheme (for example, Marxist and feminist thinkers) or as a reference to particular schools of sociological thought (for example, The Frankfurt School of Social Research and Critical Theory). Thinking Critically About Society: An Introduction to Sociology does not use the term “critical” in this way, although I believe it can help lead students to seeing the importance of power in understanding the human experience. In this textbook, “thinking critically” is approached as a skill that can be taught “through” the content of any particular discipline. For an argument against this approach, see Buechler (2008). The second pedagogical commitment organizing this text, also stemming from the scholarship on teaching and learning, is the belief that students cannot be expected to exercise critical thinking skills unless these skills are clearly spelled out. Education scholars and practitioners advocate building explicit discussion about, and definitions of, critical thinking into teaching curriculum if the goal is to help students learn how to be a critical thinkers (Bangert-Drowns and Bankert 1990; Bensley, Crowe, Bernhardt, Buckner, and Allman 2010; Coleman, King, Ruth, and Stary 2001; Colomb 1988; Fairgrieve and Walton 1996; Fogarty and Bellanca 1993; Kassem 2005; McCormick 1987; Nokes 2008; Oswald 2002). In this sense, the text was imagined and written with two separate, but related, goals in mind. On the one hand, and more traditionally, it was written as a support for helping students make sense out of the sociological imagination. On the other hand, and perhaps less traditionally, Thinking Critically About Society: An Introduction to Sociology was also written as an explicit support for helping students to develop their capacity to think critically. Chapter 3 introduces students to the idea of critical thinking as a pan-disciplinary quality of thinking, casting sociology as a particular expression of this quality of thinking. Subsequent chapters relate or bring these two aims together by illustrating how the sociological imagination can be understood as a particular expression of more general set of critical thinking skills. In this way, concerns about losing sociological content to the coverage of critical thinking skills can be allayed insofar as this text delivers content through critical thinking without a significant loss of coverage (Sokolove 1998; Van Gyn and Ford 2006). The third commitment organizing this text is that learners can be expected to develop consolidated understandings of skill and content only if they are given the opportunity to develop those skills in a ways that resonate with how we learn and if they are given enough time to practice those skills (Hughes, Toohey, and Hatherly 1992; Stahl 1984; Toohey 1999). Toohey (1999) offers a simplified model of the stages of learning, noting that consolidated learning necessarily involves a number of related steps: 1) encountering or being introduced to an idea, concept, principle or skill; 2) getting to know more about that material; 3) actively trying it out for oneself; 4) receiving feedback; and 5) reflecting, adjusting, and trying again. Learning depends on ensuring adequate time is spent in each of these stages—which is to say that students need time and space to practice these developing skills. In operating from this commitment, Thinking Critically About Society: An Introduction to Sociology covers less material by focusing on sociological concepts rather than introducing students to all the substantive foci that occupy sociologists. In this sense, the goal is to give instructors and students an opportunity to do more with less material rather than doing less with more material (Hinch 1988). The Teaching Resource Guide is intended as a kind of clearinghouse for ideas and activities to help students develop a consolidated understanding of the material raised in the text. Learning objectives are discussed in ways that resonate with Toohey (1999) simplified stages of learning, under the headings First Encounter Together (steps 1 and 2), Actively Trying It Out (steps 3), and Feedback and Reflection (steps 4 and 5). In doing this, the Teaching Resource Guide does not aim to be an exhaustive exercise. Rather, its more modest aim is to offer some concrete activities. In many cases, these suggestions come from fellow sociologists writing in the scholarship of teaching and learning (from the journal Teaching Sociology in particular) as well as from my own experiences in the classroom. It is assumed that instructors will adopt and modify these ideas and suggestions in ways that resonate with their own style and needs. In this sense, and as Palmer (1998) argues, we teach who we are. Below are some general comments for thinking about these steps as well as scholarly resources that can provide direction for those interested in structuring their courses in ways that resonate with the model of learning described above. Because activities that might be used under “First Encounter Together” and “Feedback and Reflection” are technical and might be applied to any of the substantive foci of the text, they are touched only here, in the introduction. Readers will find more material under “Actively Trying It Out” in the following sections, given that this portion of learning process is more closely related to substantive content. First Encounter Together Frequently, this stage involves an instructional exercise, in which students are presented with new information, which may or may not be organized around the presentation of a problem or puzzle. While PowerPoint slides and lecture outlines are provided as a resource for supporting the instructor in sharing new material, the Teaching Resource Guide does not generally offer suggestions beyond these two resources. The Teaching Resource Guide assumes the instructor will use the text as a support for his or her own expertise, introducing students to what is likely new material while taking into consideration that students always bring their own experiences with them into the classroom. Examples of interactive techniques for introducing students to basic sociological concepts can be found in Misra (2000), Burkart (1991), and Snyder (1997). Misra (2000) describes a method for using television/film to introduce key concepts while Burkart (1991) relies on concrete objects shared with students. Snyder’s (1997) describes a strategy for using comics to introduce students to key sociological concepts. The concepts explicitly covered and illustrated by Misra (2000), Burkart (1991), and Snyder (1997) that are also explicitly covered in this text include culture, values, socialization, minority groups, social interaction, social groups, stratification, class, race, ethnicity, gender, bureaucracy, social context, dual labour market, and material/non-material culture. Many instructors will already be familiar with the teaching resources provided by the American Sociological Association. The lessons plans and activities presented through its introsocsite website are well suited for introducing students to some of basic sociological concepts (www.asanet.org/introtosociology/home.html.) Much of this material draws on American examples and data although with minor modifications, it can readily be used for Canadian students. Actively Trying It Out During this phase, students are assumed to have some understanding of the topic or content and are asked to practice/try out that material—further exploring course material, applying that material, finding examples of it, or sharing it with other students. In doing so, students are given an opportunity to confirm what they do understand as well as identify areas that require clarification. The efficacy of group discussion and models of active/collaborative learning in assisting students to develop a consolidated understanding of course content has been well documented (Van der Linden and Renshaw 2001). Resources and examples for organizing group work can be found within the journal Teaching Sociology (Hedeen 2003; Lusk and Weinberg 1994; Thompson 1993) as well as from the literature on active/collaborative learning and group discussion in general (Barkley, Cross, and Major 2005; Berridge 2009; Burdett and Hastie 2009; Cho, Cho, and Hacker 2010; Drouin 2010; Goff 2002; Goto and Schneider 2010; Knypstra 2009; Randall and DeCastro-Ambrosetti 2009; Slavin 1994; Tsay and Brady 2010; Tsui 2010). An excellent resource for assisting students to explore course readings via group discussion is William Fawcett Hill's Learning Through Discussion, which describes a structured group discussion format that is particularly powerful in terms of coverage and consolidated learning (Hill 1971; Hill 1973; Kelly 2004; Rabow, Charness, Kipperman, and Radcliffe-Vasile 1994). Large Group Suggestion: Large classes present obvious challenges for conducting small group discussion—shyer students are less likely to speak out to a larger group and instructors must content with the management of more students and more student interaction. Small group discussion can still be adopted if students are asked to choose a spokesperson to speak for the group as a whole. The fishbowl method offers another strategy. Discussions of both theory and concrete examples of large-group discussion strategies can be found in the scholarship of teaching and learning (Baxter 2000; Brookfield and Preskill 1999; Cooper and Robinson 2000; Hensley 2002; Huerta 2007; Jones 2000; Kastberg and Otoupal-Hylton 2006; Lark 2005; Maher 1998; Miller, Benz, and Wysocki 2002; Mollborn and Hoekstra 2010; Priles 1993; Smart and Featheringham 2006; Sokolove 1998; Young 2007). Clicker technology provides another opportunity for engaging large classes in discussion as well as higher order thinking (Mollborn and Hoekstra 2010; Tong 2012). The strength of Mollborn and Hoekstra’s(2010) discussion of clicker technology is its specific focus on teaching sociology. Film/television provide an obvious solution for larger classes. Dowd (1999) offers some insight as well as instructional suggestions for using film to teach sociology. A number of discussions on using film in class that also include assignment guidelines can also be found, primarily in Teaching Sociology (Anwar 2003; Baker-Sperry, Behringer, and Grauerholz 1999; Burton 1988; Dressel 1990; Elterman 1985; Fisher 1992; Laz 1996; Livingston 2004; Marcus and Stoddard 2009; Tan and Ko 2004; Tipton and Tiemann 1993; Valdez and Halley 1999). The Sociological Cinema (www.thesociologicalcinema.com) has an extensive list of teaching resources and already developed high quality assignments that might be adopted or used wholesale. Feedback and Reflection: Trepagnier (2002) provides a discussion of concept mapping exercises (“mind maps”) and their usefulness for helping students consolidate their understanding of sociological concepts. See also Jacobs-Lawson and Hershey (2002). An added strength of Trapagnier’s (2002) discussion is found in her specific focus on integrating reflections on Mills’ sociological imagination into the mapping exercise as well as suggestions for evaluating student performance and exercise itself. It is also an exercise that is well suited to group work and discussion. Students might be asked to identify key concepts prior to group discussion or develop their concept maps prior to group discussion. Subsequent group discussion could be used to test capacity to identify the relevant concepts/thinkers, their understanding of those concepts/thinkers, and the relationship between those concepts/thinkers. Alternatively, each group may be asked to produce a single concept map that is collectively worked out. For smaller groups, peer review might be organized as a verbal exercise, asking students to present the maps to their group or asking group spokespersons to present the maps to other groups. Peers could also review the written justifications for the map, generating formative feedback for the students. In both cases, students can take this opportunity to self-correct and modify their original maps. For those teaching larger classes, the mapping exercise could be adopted with some minor modification. After presenting the class with a list of concepts, the instructor could ask groups to chart out the relationships, and then present the ideas to the instructor through a spokesperson, who could record them on a whiteboard or chalkboard. The entire class might test the emerging maps testing them for soundness, coherence, or interest, giving each group an opportunity to reflect or adjust their own understanding. In almost all instances, peer review or peer evaluation of assignments or exercises suggested in the following pages can be used for the purposes of generating formative feedback and creating the opportunity for reflection. Peer review can be approached in a number of ways. Students could be asked to share their ideas and assignments during small group discussion in an informal manner. Students might be asked to review written material privately and share comments with students or they may be asked to conduct read aloud peer reviews. For those unable to integrate peer review into actual class time, McGraw-Hill provides an online peer review platform in conjunction with their products while the University of California at Los Angeles provides a free electronic peer review services (Calibrated Peer Review at cpr.molsci.ucla.edu/Home.aspx). Both platforms can be used to give students an opportunity for structured, anonymous, peer review outside class time. As with group discussion, the literature on peer review, which often contains examples and models, is extensive (Casey and et al. 1996; Chen 2010; Cho and MacArthur 2010; Cook and Prather 1994; Cook 1996; Covill 2010; Gielen, Peeters, Dochy, Onghena, and Struyven 2010; Hall 2009; Lundstrom and Baker 2009; Quarrie 2007; Rief and Heimburge 2007; Roberts 2006; Sandmann 2006; Smith and Cosmic 1995; Sterling 2008; Woolf and Quinn 2001; Yang 2010). 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Thinking Critically About Society: An Introduction to Sociology Teaching Resource Guide Russell Westhaver Chapter 1 The Sociological Imagination Learning Outcomes Thinking about the Human Experience in Context: students should be able to define the terms “human experience” and “context.” You should also be able to explain why or how context is important when it comes to the human experience. Sociology, the Human Experience, and Social Context: students should be able to describe what it means to say that sociologists use the sociological imagination to contextualize the human experience. Humans Are Fundamentally Social Creatures: students should be able to give reasons what it means to say that humans are necessarily social creatures. Contextualizing Sociological Thinking: students should be able to give reasons explaining how sociology, as a part of the human experience, emerged from the social and historical events taking place in Europe from the beginning of the 1700s to the end of the 1800s. Classical Sociological Thinkers”: students should be able to describe and compare key ideas of Durkheim, Weber, Marx, and Martineau as well as explain what it means to say that each of these thinkers gives us different ways of exercising the sociological imagination. 1. Thinking About the Human Experience in Context Students can be introduced to sociological imagination by situating their own and their family’s behaviour and thinking in historical context through a timeline assignment, where they describe what has occurred in their own lives in relation to what has occurred in the past 50 years. Placing the history of their family’s private troubles in the context of larger, global public issues gives first hand-experience and an “autobiographical” opportunity to understand what Mills meant when he argued that our day-to-day experiences are profoundly shaped “by society and by its historical push and shove” (Mills 1959 [2000]: 6). Adams, (1986), Disch (2004), Kebede, (2009), and Thompson (1996) offer excellent templates and discussions for the structure and evaluation of such an assignment. Adams’ (1986) assignment is better suited as a final assignment while Kebede’s (2009) assignment is better suited for those interested in building their course around the exercise of a time-line assignment. A shorter writing exercise for helping students begin to see the connections between public and private can be found at The Sociological Cinema (www.thesociologicalcinema.com/3/post/2012/01/developing-a-sociological-imagination.html). For those who might ask students to read Mills’ The Sociological Imagination, Disch (2004) offers a number of assignments to support their understanding. Simpson and Elias (2011) draw on role-playing game as part of a semester long series of in-class and homework activities that encourages the sociological imagination and can be applied to a wide range of substantive topics. Less writing intensive activities, better suited for large classes, for encouraging students to grasp the sociological imagination include Hanson’s (2002) use of photographs, Prendergast’s (1986), Tipton and Tiemann’s (1993), and Hoffmann’s (2006) use of film, Dowell (2006) garbage collection exercise, and Kaufman’s (1997) use of objects. Charles (2003) can be used as a brief example of how a student exercised his sociological imagination (pages 41 and 42 are particularly useful). Disch’s (2004) discussion of teaching Mills includes several suggestions for doing so through class discussion. Humans are Fundamentally Social Creatures Asking students to value the argument that understanding the human experience requires a contextualized understanding requires that students see how we are, fundamentally, social creatures. Jonah Weston’s Wild Child: The Story of Feral Children (2002), an episode of National Geographic Television’s Is it Real? (Episode 26 Season 2; “Feral Children”), and Nova: Secret of the Wild Child (PBS Video 1994) document cases of isolated and feral children along with contemporary critical assessments the children raised in isolation. Both can be used to provide students the opportunity to understand how those qualities that make us fundamentally human are intimately connected to our social-ness. The case of Christopher McCandless, illustrated in the film Into the Wild (2007) offers a somewhat more complex example of how our survival depends on being with others. The American Sociological Association’s intorosocsite website provides a lesson plan for using Nova: Secret of the Wild Child (http://www.asanet.org/introtosociology/TeacherResources/IMforUnitIV.html) Contextualizing Sociological Thinking This section depends on students understanding some of the history and consequences of or early industrialization, urbanization, and capitalism. Charlie Chaplin’s Modern Times (1936) can provide more substantive examples of the dynamics and consequences associated with industrialization, urbanization, and the emergence of capitalist modes of production. While Modern Times is set in America during the Great Depression, parallels can be made between the challenges the Little Tramp faces and those faced by those working in European factories in the late 1800s. Overall, the film provides an opportunity to exemplify the nature of the working conditions and the quality of life in industrialized settings as well as opportunities for discussing the consequences of capitalist relations of production. Tolich (1992) offers some suggestions for using Modern Times, among other films. Set in Britain during the Industrial Revolution, the movie adaptation of Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist (2005) provides offers an opportunity for illustrating the environmental and living conditions associated with industrialization and urbanization—and in this sense, might be linked to discussions of The Lorax. Asking students to characterize the physical, economic, social, and political conditions of the characters lives and link these to the broad themes in the text provides an opportunity for students to connect private troubles with public issues. And while both films are fictional events, students will have little difficulty understanding that they map onto real life events. Indeed, Charles Dickens own experiences with poverty and his role in social reform offers an opportunity to link these fictional events with actual events and social processes. A less serious means of introducing these debates can be found in Dr. Seuss’ The Lorax. Although environmental degradation is a dominant theme of the text, it is useful for identifying differential access to resources associated with ownership and its relationship to ideology, the role technological changes play in labour processes as well as land “enclosures” and the migratory consequences of industrialization. Asking students to identify examples of these processes and their consequences on the book’s characters can give students some very basic understandings of the consequences of these processes that might then be used with more complex historical examples. Henderson, Kennedy, and Chamberlin (2004) provide some pedagogical insight for using the Lorax as a teaching tool, although their observations are oriented primarily to children’s environmental education. One of the strengths of Henderson, Kennedy, and Chamberlin’s (2004) discussion of The Lorax is the reference to Canadian environmental issues, issues that can be leveraged for class discussion by the instructor. Weber’s (2010) provides some general discussion and concrete examples of the use fiction to introduce theory to undergraduate students (although her concrete assignments are geared toward undergraduate theory courses). Classical Sociological Thinkers Exposing students to classical thinkers necessarily points to the issue of theory and its importance as a framing device. Lowney (1998) describes a technique for reducing such anxiety, while giving students an understanding of how theory operates as a framing device, providing them with a reminder of the importance of theory. She asks students to complete puzzles without the aid of the original picture and without border pieces. The challenges and solutions students work through become useful places to discuss the way ideas and concepts are helpful for framing empirical observations. Even in the face of understanding the importance of theory as a framing device, students may find the arguments and ideas drawn from Durkheim, Weber, and Marx difficult to relate to each other, which presents a challenge for assisting students in sorting out the similarities and differences between the thinkers or in identifying how these disparate thinkers express variations of Mills’ sociological imagination. Similarity, active and collaborative learning approaches to paradigms and theory presents a number of teaching challenges—the abstract nature of theory and theorizing can be particularly daunting for new students. Rinehart (1999) provides a general description of the relationship between teaching students about concepts, theories, and paradigms and active learning as well as providing concrete and detailed examples of active learning exercises. The strength of her discussion is to be found in her discussion of techniques and mechanism useful for ensuring and monitoring an active and collaborative environment. Ahlkvist (2001) exposes introductory students to Durkheim, Weber, and Marx by asking them to examine lyrics and album covers of progressive rock bands(ie: Pink Floyd). The strength to Ahlkvist’s (2001) discussion is that he offers a detailed lecture structure which does not require knowledge of progressive rock on the part of the instructor. In a related vein, Walczak and Reuter (1994) describe a concrete and easily modified assignment using song lyrics to introduce new students to important sociological concepts. Donaghy (2000) describes a similar active learning assignment, in which students are asked to create television shows in which they consider how key theorists might respond as talk show guests or news program panellists to current issues. The strength of Donaghy’s (2000) suggestion lays in the evaluation structure and rubric of the assignment, in which both the instructor and the class assess the presentation. Sterling (2008) also offers general suggestions that can be used to complement peer feedback on presentations. References Adams, David S. 1986. "Writing with Sociological Imagination: A Time-Line Assignment for Introductory Sociology." Teaching Sociology 14 (3):200-203. Ahlkvist, Jarl A. 2001. "Sound and Vision: Using Progressive Rock to Teach Social Theory." Teaching Sociology 29 (4):471-482. Charles. 2003. ""It's Not My Fault": Overcoming Social Anxiety through Sociological Imagination." Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge 2 (1):42-49. Disch, Estelle. 2004. "Helping Students Make Sense of Mills' Sociological Imagination." The Discourse of Sociological Practice 6 (2):51-53. Donaghy, Mary L. 2000. "Simulating Television Programs as a Tool to Teach Social Theory." Teaching Sociology 28 (1):67-70. Dowell, William. 2006. "Throwing the Sociological Imagination into the Garbage: Using Students' Waste Disposal Habits to Illustrate C. Wright Mills's Concept." Teaching Sociology 34 (2):150-155. Hanson, Chad M. 2002. "A Stop Sign at the Intersection of History and Biography: Illustrating Mills's Imagination with Depression-Era Photographs." Teaching Sociology 30 (2):235-242. Henderson, Bob, Merle Kennedy, and Chuck Chamberlin. 2004. "Playing Seriously with Dr. Seuss: A Pedagogical Response to The Lorax." in Wild Things: Children's Culture and Ecocriticism, edited by S. I. Dobrin and K. B. Kidd. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Hoffmann, Elizabeth A. 2006. "The Importance of Place: Using Local-Focus Videos to Spark the Sociological Imagination." Teaching Sociology 34 (2):164-172. Kaufman, Peter. 1997. "Michael Jordan Meets C. Wright Mills: Illustrating the Sociological Imagination with Objects from Everyday Life." Teaching Sociology 25 (4):309-314. Kebede, Alem. 2009. "Practicing Sociological Imagination through Writing Sociological Autobiography." Teaching Sociology 37 (4):353-368. Lowney, Kathleen S. 1998. "Reducing "Theory Anxiety" through Puzzles." Teaching Sociology 26 (1):69-73. Mills, C., Wright. 1959 [2000]. The Sociological Imagination. Oxford: Oxford University Press. PBS Video. 1994. "Nova: Secret of the Wild Child." Boston: WGBH Education Foundation. Prendergast, Christopher. 1986. "Cinema Sociology: Cultivating the Sociological Imagination through Popular Film." Teaching Sociology 14 (4):243-248. Rinehart, Jane A. 1999. "Turning Theory into Theorizing: Collaborative Learning in a Sociological Theory Course." Teaching Sociology 27 (3):216-232. Simpson, Joseph M. and Vicky L. Elias. 2011. "Choices and Chances: The Sociology Role-playing Game-The Sociological Imagination in Practice." Teaching Sociology 39 (1):42-56. Sterling, Donna R. 2008. "Assessing Student Presentations from Three Perspectives." Science Scope 31 (5):34-37. Thompson, John. 1996. ""The Between" of Teaching Sociology: Ways of Knowing and Teaching." Teaching Sociology 24 (3):321-330. Tipton, Dana Bickford and Kathleen A. Tiemann. 1993. "Using the Feature Film to Facilitate Sociological Thinking." Teaching Sociology 21 (2):187-191. Tolich, Martin. 1992. "Bringing Sociological Concepts into Focus in the Classroom with Modern Times, Roger and Me, and Annie Hall." Teaching Sociology 20 (4):344-347. Walczak, David and Monika Reuter. 1994. "Using Popular Music to Teach Sociology: An Evaluation by Students." Teaching Sociology 22 (3):266-269. Weber, Christina D. 2010. "Literary Fiction as a Tool for Teaching Social Theory and Critical Consciousness." Teaching Sociology 38 (4):350-361. Instructor Manual for Thinking Critically About Society: An Introduction to Sociology Russell Westhaver 9781259066993
