CHAPTER ONE Studying Personality: Assessment, Research, and Theory LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the development of the history of personality. Explain the definitions of psychology. Describe how ethnic and gender issues affect personality development. Describe the concepts of assessment and research in the study of personality. Explain and give examples of various types of assessment instruments used in studying personality. Describe the theories of personality and inquire about human nature by asking questions for further discussion throughout the pages of this text. OUTLINE The Study of Personality The Place of Personality in the History of Psychology Psychology emerged from ideas borrowed from philosophy and physiology to become an independent and primarily experimental science. In the early 20th century, Wilhelm Wundt was largely responsible for this development as he established the first psychology laboratory. Concerned with studying human behavior, psychologists studied only those processes which could be controlled or manipulated by the experimenter. John B. Watson, an American psychologist, opposed Wundt’s focus on conscious experience. Watson’s movement was called behaviorism. Behaviorism presents a mechanistic picture of human beings as well-ordered machines that automatically respond to external stimuli. Freud called his theory of personality psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis was based on his clinical observations of his patient’s feelings and past experiences, which he creatively interpreted. In the 1930s, Gordon Allport formalized and systematized the study of personality in American psychology. Since Allport’s time, the study of personality includes the life span approach, the trait approach, the humanistic approach, the cognitive approach, as well as psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Definitions of Personality Personality is derived from the Latin word persona, which refers to a mask used by actors in a play. We may conclude that personality refers to our external and visible characteristics, (the aspects of us that other people can see). However, the word personality may refer to enduring characteristics, which may be stable or not stable over a person’s life. A definition of personality could be “an enduring and unique cluster of characteristics that may change in response to different situations.” C. Personality: the Internet, and Social Networking 1. Research shows that most people are honest about their online faces. Studies suggest that social networking sites do convey accurate images or impressions of the personality profiles we offer, however; a person may want to impress others. Researchers have shown that online social networking sites like Facebook can both shape and reflect our personalities. Ethnic and Gender Issues in Personality Most early studies by personality theorists used participants that were nearly all white men of European or American heritage. The study of ethnic minorities was limited. And yet, the personality theorists would imply that their scientific findings concerning personality were valid for all people, regardless of gender, race, or ethnic origin. Today, research across cultures, naturalistic observations, and our own experiences tell us that culture and ethnic issues really impact personality. Assessment in the Study of Personality Assessment measures are vital in our attempt to understand personality by differentiating between normal and abnormal behaviors and feelings. Clinicians are able to diagnose disorders and determine the best course of therapy. School psychologists assess student learning problems; counseling psychologists measure job applicants for certain employment requirements. Psychologists conducting research assess the participants to account for their behavior in an experiment or to correlate their personality traits with other measurements. Standardization involves the consistency or uniformity of conditions and procedures for administering a test. Everyone taking a test must take the test under the same conditions and in the same or similar environment as others. Reliability involves the consistency of response to an assessment device. There are several methods to determine the reliability of a test before use. The test-retest method involves giving a subject the same test twice over a period of time to see if the two sets of scores on the tests are highly correlated. Reliability is further measured by the use of the equivalent-forms method, which consists of two comparable forms of a test. The split-halves method is where a test is administered once and then the scores of half the test are compared with the scores of the other half. Validity refers to whether the assessment device measures what it is intended to measure. A good test must first have good validity and good reliability. Predictive validity is a prediction, (before the test is given) on how well future behavior can be predicted by the test scores. Content validity refers to the test’s individual items or questions, and whether or not they describe behavior accurately like we want them to do. Construct validity relates to a test’s ability to measure a construct, such as a question concerning behavior, like a trait or motive. The self-report inventory approach involves a paper-and-pencil type test which subjects complete by themselves about their own behavior and feelings. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely used psychological test. A true-false test consisting of 567 statements for assessing personality issues, this test is a valid measure that can discriminate between neurotics and psychotics and between emotionally healthy and emotionally disturbed persons (MMPI-2). The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) provides 17 personality dimensions. These self-report measures are objective in their scoring and have led to the widespread use of automated personality assessment programs on a computer. However, research has shown that minor changes in the wording of such tests can lead to major changes in the results. A test-taker may give more socially acceptable answers, especially when taking tests for employment. Many Self-Report Inventories can be taken on a computer laptop, easing the constraints of administration with no significant difference in results over paper and pencil tests. Test-takers report greater privacy and a sense of anonymity when revealing personal information. Projective techniques were developed to probe into the unconscious and were inspired by Freud’s work. The tests present a stimulus, such as an inkblot or a picture which can then be interpreted, especially with those who may be emotionally disturbed. Projective tests are subjective and are not high in reliability or validity. The Rorschach Inkblot Technique is a test with 10 cards of black and sometimes colored ink. The subject is asked what they perceive in the inkblots. Responses are interpreted by the examiner. Several interpretation systems are available for scoring the Rorschach but it is a less valid test than the MMPI. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 20 vague pictures. The subject is asked to make up a story about what they perceive in the pictures. The interpreter subjectively scores the TAT and these scores are used to measure specific aspects of personality, such as the needs for achievement, affiliation and power. Word associations and sentence completions require emotional responses from the client; however, interpretation of results can be highly subjective. Clinical interviews, along with psychological tests, help evaluate the effects of past and present life experiences, general appearance, behavior, degree of self-insight and contact with reality. Behavior assessments are given with the use of questionnaires, while positive and negative experiences are observed in the use of thought sampling. This procedure is typically used with groups. According to the authors, the assessment of personality can be influenced by a person’s gender. For example, women score higher in depression, anxiety, and related disorders than men. More women are seen in therapy and for longer periods of time than men. Some personality tests have been translated for use in other cultures; however there might be potential problems with “westernizing” important personality characteristics such as close family orientation, emphasizing harmony with others, and showing frugality in everyday lives. These values are important to Asian cultures, but not as valued in western cultures. When using assessment measures, the authors caution that psychological assessment techniques were developed largely for middle-class European-American populations. Cultural variations, various religious viewpoints and diversity must also be considered in the evaluative process. This requires knowledge of cultural differences and sensitivity in the assessment process. Research in the Study of Personality The clinical method used in personality research is the case study, which researches patients’ past and present to help with their emotional problems. Freud used psychoanalysis in his case studies to develop his theory of personality. Here, the psychologists would use techniques such as dream analysis, tests, and interviews to obtain data for assessment. However, the type of data obtained could be less accurate than either the experimental or correlational methods and could lead to different interpretations. For example, memories from childhood that are remembered as an adult may become distorted with time. One cannot control the preciseness of their own memories of the past when compared to memories that others have of the same life events. There are two kinds of variables in an experiment. One is the independent or stimulus variable, which is manipulated by the experimenter. The dependent variable is the research participants’ behavior or response to that manipulation. The experimental group includes the research participants to whom the experimental treatment is given, while the control group is not exposed to the independent variable. The correlational method investigates the relationships that exist among variables and how behavior on one variable changes or differs as a function of the other variable. The reliability and validity of assessment devices are typically determined through the correlational method. The statistical measure we use to compare the variables is the correlation coefficient. The relationship of the variables could be positive or negative, with a perfect correlation having a correlation coefficient of +1.00 or -1.00. The stronger the relationship, the more confident we become in making predictions about one variable to another. We cannot determine cause and effect with correlational research. Even though there may be a strong relationship between variables, this does not mean that one caused the other. Theory in the Study of Personality Theories are sets of principles used to explain a particular class of phenomena, such as behaviors and experiences relating to personality. Researchers must be able to conduct experiments to determine whether aspects of the theory should be accepted or rejected. Formal theories are based on data from observations of large numbers of persons. We can generalize from formal theories more effectively to explain and predict the behavior of more kinds of people. Personal theories are based on ourselves and others. With personal theories, we tend to evaluate our reactions to people we study with our own personal thoughts and feelings. The intent of formal theories is greater objectivity; personal theories tend to be more subjective. Personality theories are more subjective and may relate events in a theorist’s life, much like an autobiography. The first stage in constructing a theory may be based on intuition, which is later modified and refined by the theorist’s knowledge and experience. There is a sense of the autobiographical nature of personality in this text. There may also be distortions or errors in our information about a theorist. Questions about Human Nature Each theorist has a conception of human nature. The study of these different theories allows meaningful comparisons of human nature. The question of whether or not we as humans have free will or not is addressed by theorists in the text. The second area of questioning is with nature or nurture. Do our abilities, temperaments, and predispositions determine our personality, or are we influenced mainly by our parents, education, and training? Do past events, such as experiences in early childhood, shape our personalities to the point that is critical for personality development? This view is known as historical determinism. The opposite position considers personality to be more independent of the past, capable of being influenced by events and experiences in the present as well as the future. Is human nature unique or universal? Theorists differ on what constitutes our major motivation in life. Are we like machines that only seek equilibrium or balance? Are we optimistic or pessimistic? The final question addressed in this text is in terms of cultural influences. Are we influenced by culture, religion, individualism, or groupness? The impact of cultural issues in personality development has been seen to be significant in research. LECTURE TOPIC 1.1 My own Theory of Personality Students are to create (in groups or individually) their idea of the “perfect” person. Have the groups or individuals brainstorm ideas to come up with a list of traits that describe this “perfect” individual. An artistic rendering by the group or individual would be an added ingredient as a visual report for the entire class when reporting on their findings. Part of the purpose of this exercise is for the student to understand what a personality theorist needs to do in order to create their own theory. Elements of the “perfect” person may be drawn from characteristics in genetics, the influence of the environment, traits, and/or cultural and ethnic background. CHAPTER TWO: Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe the development of the psychoanalytic approach to personality. Provide a foundation of psychoanalytic thought through the study of its founder, Sigmund Freud. Describe the structure of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. Explain the concepts of defense mechanisms against anxiety. Detail the psychosexual stages of personality development. Describe free association and dream analysis used by Freud for assessment. Explain the extensions of Freudian theory with ego psychology and Object Relations Theory. OUTLINE The Life of Freud (1856-1939) Freud was born in Moravia in 1856. His father was a Jewish wool merchant. Since the age of five, Freud lived most of his life in Vienna, Austria. Freud had a passionate, sexual attachment towards his mother and childhood hostility towards his meek father. Many of his childhood experiences would influence his theories later in life. There were eight children in the family, but Sigmund had special privileges, such as his own room. Studying incessantly, Freud entered high school a year earlier and became fluent in several languages. Freud trained to be a physician and researched fish and eels. Freud also experimented with cocaine, before it became illegal. Freud unknowingly harmed a friend by prescribing cocaine and had used cocaine for himself. Because Freud lacked an independent income, he entered private practice in Vienna. He studied with Jean Charcot in Paris and learned how to use the technique of hypnotism for the treatment of neurosis. Freud became convinced that sexual conflicts were the primary cause of all neuroses. Freud claimed that childhood fantasies of sexual events were quite common for all children. Whether these memories are from true events or just sexual fantasies is controversial today. Freud’s attitude toward sex was negative and felt that sex was degrading, because it contaminated the mind and body. Freud, although having children, felt resentful toward his sex life with his wife. Freud diagnosed himself, as having an anxiety neurosis as he learned to psychoanalyze himself through the study of dreams. He was able to recall his dreams and interpret their meanings. Freud began to publish articles and books and he also presented papers at scientific meetings. His disciples or followers included Carl Jung and Alfred Adler. Jung later broke with Freud in disputing Freud’s approach to psychoanalysis. Freud received an honorary doctoral degree at Clark University in the United States in 1909, where his theories were warmly welcomed. By the 1920s and 1930s Freud was having much success, however he was to die several years later. Freud’s books were burned by the Nazis and he fled to England where he died in 1939 by an overdose of morphine that was given deliberately by his physician. Instincts: The Propelling Forces of the Personality Instincts are the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. Instincts, such as hunger and thirst, are internal. These instincts motivate people to behave in a way that satisfies the need. When the body is in a state of need, we become motivated to restore and maintain equilibrium by satisfying the need. These instincts are the source of energy for human behavior, but this energy may be expressed in a variety of interests, preferences, and attitudes. The life instincts are oriented toward growth and development and the psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. According to Freud, the most important life instinct is sex. Sex becomes our primary motivation, such as in erotic wishes. Death instincts are the opposite of life instincts and one component is the aggressive drive which compels us to destroy, conquer, and kill. The Levels of Personality There are two levels of personality, according to Freud. The conscious corresponds to its ordinary everyday meaning. The unconscious is the invisible portion of personality below the surface. The unconscious becomes the major driving power behind all behaviors and we are not able to control this portion. The Structure of Personality: Id, Ego, and Superego The id is the reservoir for the instincts and the libido. The id is powerful in the structure of personality because it supplies all the energy for the other two components. The id functions to increase pleasure and avoid pain, so id is driven by the pleasure principle. The ego is the rational master of the personality and is driven by reality principle. The purpose of the ego is to help the id obtain tension reduction in the personality. The superego is the internal moral rules of conduct, which forms whether we are perceived as being good or bad. The superego is a powerful force in its quest of moral perfection. Anxiety: A threat to the Ego Freud described anxiety as an objectless fear to a specific object that induced it. When we cannot cope with anxiety, when we are in danger of being overwhelmed by it; the anxiety is said to be traumatic. There are three types of anxiety. Reality or objective anxiety involves a fear of tangible dangers in the real world. Neurotic anxiety has its basis in childhood, in a conflict between instinctual gratification and reality. The third type is Moral anxiety which results from a conflict between the id and the superego. This is a fear of one’s conscience. Defenses against Anxiety If rational techniques to reduce tension do not work, then the person may resort to one or several defense mechanisms. Freud believed that defenses must, to some extent, always be in operation. These mechanisms deny or distort reality and operate unconsciously. Repression is an involuntary removal of something from the conscious awareness. Denial is related to repression and involves denying the existence of some external threat or traumatic event that has occurred. One defense against a disturbing impulse is to actively express the opposite impulse, which is called reaction formation. Another way of defending against disturbing impulses is to attribute them to someone else. This is called projection. Regression is the defense mechanism where a person retreats or regresses to an earlier period of life that is pleasant and free of frustration and anxiety. Rationalization is a defense mechanism that involves reinterpreting our behavior to make it seem more rational and acceptable to us. If an object that satisfies an id impulse is not available, the person may shift the impulse to another object. This is displacement. Finally, sublimation involves the altering of the id impulses to more socially acceptable behaviors. Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development Each of these stages is defined by an erogenous zone of the body. In each developmental stage a conflict exists that must be resolved before the infant or child can progress to the next stage. The oral stage lasts from birth until some time in the second year of life. This stage is where the infant’s principal source of pleasure is the mouth. Since the infant is in the primary care of the mother, the infant loves the mother and is satisfied. The anal stage begins about the age of 18 months, when a new demand, toilet training, is involved. Defecation, Freud believed, produces erotic pleasure for the child, but with the onset of toilet training the infant has to delay this pleasurable act. In the fourth or fifth year, the phallic stage begins. The focus shifts from the anus to the genitals, where the child again has to control their impulse in manipulating their genitals. The Oedipus complex is used by Freud to describe a boy or girl who desires to have sexual relations with their opposite sex parent. The boy or girl sees the same sex parent as a rival for their affections, so they may become hostile or jealous of the parents’ love relationship. A girl would develop penis envy, because she believes she may have lost her penis. In castration anxiety, a boy would be afraid of losing his penis if the father was to discover the boy’s love for his mother. The latency period lasts for five or six years where the sex instinct is dormant. The final stage is the genital stage, which begins at puberty. In this stage, the adolescent must conform to social sanctions and taboos that exist concerning sexual expression, but conflict is minimized through sublimation. Questions About Human Nature and Assessment in Freud’s Theory In Freud’s system there is only one ultimate and necessary goal in life: to reduce tension. Freud found little he liked about humanity. He was deterministic in his viewpoint of people and judged them harshly. I. Assessment in Freud’s Theory 1. Freud considered the unconscious to be the motivating force in life. He developed free association in which he would ask the patient to express spontaneously every idea and image that came to the patient’s mind. Freud would then analyze and interpret these associations. Some memories might have been too painful to recall. Freud called these moments resistances. Dream analysis was used to assess what dreams represent, in symbolic form, along with repressed desires, fears, and conflicts. Research in Freud’s Theory Freud’s major research method was the case study. These types of studies are neither replicable nor generalizable to other people. Freud did not keep verbatim records of his therapy sessions, so the data may have been incomplete, consisting of what he last remembered. Some critics have suggested that Freud’s patients did not actually reveal childhood sexual experiences, because, in most cases, those experiences never occurred. Freud’s cases were restricted to young, unmarried, upper-class women of good education; not a very broad sample of the population of his time. Since Freud’s death, many of his ideas have been submitted to experimental testing. Some Freudian concepts—the id, ego, superego, death wish, libido, and anxiety could not be tested by the experimental method. Researchers found no evidence to support the psychosexual stages of development or a relationship between Oedipal variables and sexual difficulties later in life. Research has been done in the area of subliminal perception, which supports the idea that people may be influenced by stimuli of which they are not consciously aware. In research findings, too much or too little ego control is considered maladaptive, while high ego resiliency is positively correlated with IQ, good grades, and even popularity. Catharsis is popularly expressed as having an ability to express emotion to reduce anxiety and depression. In more negative settings, research has shown that subjects under much stress use displacement as a viable option which researchers conclude that anger is maintained and more likely to be expressed in an aggressive manner. A person who uses repression, and therefore pushes their memories from conscious awareness, is more likely to be identified as personally and emotionally threatened by recall of previous traumatic events or by negative experience in the present. The efficacy and impact of dream interpretations, psychosexual personality types, aggressiveness and age, and overall personality types have been researched with mixed results. Incidentally, research into Freudian slips, which is forgetting or substitution in usage of speech, indicates that hidden anxieties can have their embarrassing moments when we speak. Finally, the area of research into repressed memories of childhood abuse indicates that a person can indeed forget these memories for years. However, evidence has also been shown that false memories can easily be implanted and appear to be real to the person or even as threatening as an authentic or real memory. Extensions of Freudian Theory Anna Freud was Sigmund’s youngest and most favored daughter. At age 22, Anna began four years of psychoanalysis conducted by her father. He was later criticized for analyzing his own daughter. Analyzing one’s child was a serious violation of Freud’s rules for the practice of psychoanalysis. She devoted her life to her father and his system of psychoanalysis. Anna worked with children, expanded the role of the ego, and argued that the ego operates independently of the id. Anna Freud clarified the operation of the defense mechanisms, which may be her most significant contribution to psychoanalysis. Object relations theories focus more on interpersonal relationships than on instinctual drives. They place particular emphasis on the mother-child relationship, suggesting that the core of personality is formed at infancy. The object relations theorist also see as critical the emergence in the early years of a strong sense of self and the maturing of relations with objects other than the mother. Heinz Kohut’s interest is on the formation of the nuclear self, which he described as the foundation for becoming an independent person. Melanie Klein formulated a system of personality development that focused on the intense emotional relationship between infant and mother. Emphasizing the first 5 to 6 months of a child’s life, Klein assumed babies are born with active fantasy lives that harbor mental representations (images) of Freudian id instincts, which the images temporarily satisfy. Margaret Mahler, a pediatrician, observed the relationship that developed between the infant and mother. She argued that newborns are incapable of distinguishing between themselves and everything else that is not themselves. The infant must learn how to separate from the mother, which involves psychic energy in interpersonal or object relationships rather than the sexual energy that Freud proposed. K. Reflections on Freud's Theory 1. Psychoanalysis has contributed and influenced psychology from the early 20th century in the study of personality and motivation in psychology. Many of the Freudian concepts, such as the role of the unconscious, the importance of childhood experiences in shaping adult behavior and the operation of defense mechanisms, have been absorbed into contemporary psychology. However, a growing number of people are choosing less expensive and time-consuming treatment programs. Freud’s case study approach raises issues by experimental psychologists. Freud's emphasis on past behaviors, unhealthy behaviors, and concepts of inferiority of women are criticized. Sigmund Freud gave personality theorists a solid, challenging base on which to build. CLASS DISCUSSION TOPICS Class Discussion Topic 2.1 Students are to discuss the use of drugs, such as cocaine, in Freud’s time. There was no Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to require tests to be run on animal and human subjects for safety. Was Freud really responsible for the death of one of his friends in giving him a lethal dose of cocaine? Was Freud using “good practice” when he prescribed the medication? Do you believe, based on the text and your own research, that Freud was addicted to cocaine well beyond middle age? Have students break up in groups to discuss these questions and then present their findings to the whole class. Class Discussion/Exercise Topic 2.2 Brainstorm the origins of anxiety on the board with your students. Name some environmental, social, physical and mental causes of anxiety. Now take at least two items from each category and construct a neurotic patient. This patient will be role-played by one student as another student takes the role of the therapist trained in psychoanalysis. Have the therapist use the free association method to bring to the conscious the anxieties that have been listed for the patient.
STUDENT PROJECTS Student Project 2.1 Freud used the case study method to study his patients. Unfortunately, Freud did not use verbatims, (writing down what the client would say, immediately after a therapy session). If Freud was here today, he may well have used an audio or video tape recorder; since he avoided writing notes down right after his session. For this project, the student could list three advantages and three disadvantages in the use of tape recorders by students. The students in your class could also do a "mock" video or audio recording of a session with someone using the techniques of dream analysis and free association popularized by Freud. Student Project 2.2 Have students (in class or an online environment) submit a video/audio "mock" session of a psychoanalytic session. This could be an individual or even a group project. Students would use the techniques of dream analysis and free association popularized by Freud. Student Project 2.3 In this project, the student is to consider the superego. Freud suggested the superego is the moral restraint that is needed, combined with the id and the ego. The following website suggests a link between the superego of Freud and the moral and religious viewpoint of a “Higher Power”. The student is to read the article and explain the concept of this kind of “Higher Power Superego” in their own words. Does the author of this article believe that Freud would have come to this conclusion about the superego, if he had not rejected his own religious background? Defend your answer. Click on the Web: http://www.earthtym.net/conscience.htm Student Project 2.4 The following web article will help the student critically examine Freud’s superego and the schools of psychoanalysis and the goals of psychotherapy. Students are to write a five page critique of the superego and how this concept might be related in psychoanalysis. Click on the Web: http://freud.org.uk/education/topic/10575/subtopic/40017/ ONLINE DISCUSSION BOARD Each student is to answer the following questions by giving their own opinions. TWO CAUTIONS: A. When you share personal information; remember, this information is NOT confidential. B. Be nice, encouraging, and uplifting when you respond to another person. Freud voiced strong opinions about religion. In your own opinion, (1) what were they; and, (2) what is your opinion of his views? 1. Freud's Opinions on Religion: 1. Freud was famously critical of religion, viewing it primarily as a product of human psychology rather than divine revelation. He believed that religion emerged as a way for individuals to cope with the anxieties and uncertainties of life, offering comfort and a sense of security in the face of existential questions and the harsh realities of existence. Freud proposed that religious beliefs and practices could be understood through psychoanalytic principles, such as projection, wish fulfillment, and the Oedipus complex. He famously described religion as a form of collective neurosis, suggesting that religious beliefs and rituals served as mechanisms for managing unconscious conflicts and desires. 2. My Opinion on Freud's Views: 1. Personally, I find Freud's perspective on religion to be thought-provoking, even if I don't fully agree with all of his conclusions. While his emphasis on the psychological origins of religious beliefs offers valuable insights into the human condition, I believe that his reductionist approach overlooks the complexity and diversity of religious experiences across cultures and individuals. Religion encompasses not only psychological phenomena but also social, cultural, and spiritual dimensions that defy simplistic explanations. While Freud's critique of religion encourages critical reflection on its role in society, I believe it's essential to approach religious beliefs and practices with respect and sensitivity, recognizing their significance for many people in providing meaning, community, and ethical guidance. This response acknowledges Freud's perspective on religion while also offering a nuanced critique and emphasizing the importance of respectful dialogue. Freud’s clients seemed to be mostly female. (1) Explain, in your own words, why he might have chosen women almost exclusively for his work in therapy. (2) Do you believe he was successful in helping his clients? Explain your answer. 1. Freud's preference for female clients could be attributed to several factors. Firstly, during Freud's time, women faced more social constraints and repression compared to men, which may have led them to seek therapy more frequently. Additionally, Freud himself acknowledged that he found it easier to establish rapport with women, possibly due to personal experiences or biases. Moreover, women were often confined to the domestic sphere, where psychosexual issues such as hysteria or anxiety were more pronounced, making them prime candidates for Freud's theories on sexuality and the unconscious mind. 2. Whether Freud was successful in helping his clients is a matter of debate. While he undoubtedly made significant contributions to the field of psychology and laid the groundwork for modern psychotherapy, his methods and theories have been criticized for being overly focused on sexuality and lacking empirical evidence. Moreover, his interpretation of female psychology has been heavily contested for being sexist and reductive. While some of Freud's clients may have found his therapy beneficial, many others may have been left feeling misunderstood or pathologized. Ultimately, Freud's legacy is complex, and his impact on his clients varies depending on individual experiences and perspectives. Instructor Manual for Theories of Personality Duane P. Schultz , Sydney Ellen Schultz 9781111834531
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