CHAPTER 9 – RACE AND ETHNICITY MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. __________ is a category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of real or alleged physical characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture, eye shape, or other subjectively selected attributes. A. Ethnic group B. Race C. Tribal group D. Culture Answer: B 2. Categories of people referred to as a(n) __________ include Native Americans, Latinos, African Americans, and Asian Americans. A. tribal group B. ethnic group C. race D. culture Answer: C 3. __________ is a collection of people distinguished by others or by themselves, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. A. Culture B. Tribal group C. Race D. Ethnic group Answer: D 4. Examples of a(n) __________ include Jewish Americans, Irish Americans, and Italian Americans. A. ethnic group B. tribal group C. culture D. race Answer: A 5. Ethnic groups share five main characteristics. Which of the following characteristics is not shared by ethnic groups? A. a sense of community B. a feeling of ethnocentrism C. unique genetic variations D. territoriality Answer: C 6. Historically, stratification based on race and ethnicity has pervaded all aspects of political, economics, and social life. Consider sports as an example. Even after __________ broke the “colour line” in 1947 to become the first African American in Major League Baseball, his experience was marred by racial slurs, hate letters, and death threats. A. Willie Mays B. Jackie Robinson C. Henry Aaron D. Satchel Paige Answer: B 7. Which statement concerning race, ethnicity and sports is false? A. Irish Americans were the first to dominate boxing. B. Chinese and Japanese Americans have not viewed sports as a means of social mobility. C. In recent years, racial minorities have moved into coaching and management positions in pro sports. D. As late as the 1990s, about 90% of quarterbacks and coaches on NFL teams were white. Answer: C 8. According to sociologists, a __________ is one that is advantaged and has superior resources and rights in a society. A. dominant group B. minority group C. subordinate group D. multilateral group Answer: A 9. In the United States, whites with Northern European ancestry (often referred to as Euro-Americans, white Anglo-Saxon Protestants, or WASPs) have been considered to be the __________ group for many years. A. multilateral B. minority C. subordinate D. majority Answer: D 10. To sociologists, a __________ is one whose members, because of physical or cultural characteristics, are disadvantaged and subjected to unequal treatment by the controlling group and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. A. dominant group B. multilateral group C. subordinate group D. majority group Answer: C 11. Persons of colour and white women are considered to be __________ group members in the United States, particularly when these individuals are from lower-income categories. A. dominant B. multilateral C. majority D. minority Answer: D 12. From a sociological perspective, __________ is a negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about members of specific racial, ethnic, or other groups. A. prejudice B. discrimination C. stereotyping D. profiling Answer: A 13. During World War II, Japan was an “enemy” of the United States, and some people in this country referred to everyone in Japan (or originating from that country) as “Japs.” This is an example of __________. A. discrimination B. profiling C. prejudice D. stereotyping Answer: C 14. In the context of racial and ethnic relations, __________ refers to the tendency to regard one’s own culture and group as the standard, and thus superior, whereas all other groups are seen as inferior. A. stereotyping B. ethnocentrism C. discrimination D. prejudice Answer: B 15. Ethnocentrism is maintained and perpetuated by __________, which is/are overgeneralization(s) about the appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of members of particular categories. A. prejudices B. stereotypes C. discrimination D. profiling Answer: B 16. According to sociologists, sports team names are examples of stereotypes. Which of the following sports team names is not an example of a stereotype? A. Atlanta Braves B. Pittsburgh Penguins C. Kansas City Chiefs D. Washington Redskins Answer: B 17. __________ is a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the superior treatment of one racial or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of another racial or ethnic group. A. Profiling B. Discrimination C. Stereotyping D. Racism Answer: D 18. __________ is blatant and may take the form of public statements about the “inferiority” of members of a racial or ethnic group. A. Open racism B. Subtle racism C. Overt racism D. Closed racism Answer: C 19. In sports, calling a player of colour a derogatory name, participating in racist chanting during a sporting event, and writing racist graffiti in a team’s locker room are all forms of __________ racism. A. closed B. overt C. open D. subtle Answer: B 20. __________ is often hidden from sight and more difficult to prove. A. Subtle racism B. Open racism C. Closed racism D. Overt racism Answer: A 21. Examples of __________ racism in sports include those descriptions of African American athletes which suggest that they have “natural” abilities and are better suited for team positions requiring speed and agility. A. open B. closed C. overt D. subtle Answer: D 22. The __________ states that people who are disappointed in their efforts to achieve a highly desired goal will respond with a pattern of assertiveness toward others. A. social learning theory B. authoritarian personality principle C. frustration-aggression hypothesis D. social convergence hypothesis Answer: C 23. A(n) __________ is a person or group that is incapable of offering resistance to the hostility or aggression of others. A. frustrated nonaggression B. scapegoat C. racist D. authoritarian personality Answer: B 24. Often members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become __________ and are often blamed for societal problems (such as unemployment or an economic recession) over which they have no control. A. authoritarian personalities B. racists C. frustrated no aggressors D. scapegoats Answer: D 25. Initially, children do not have a frame of reference from which to question the prejudices of their relatives and friends. When they are rewarded with smiles or laughs for telling derogatory jokes or making negative comments about outgroup members, children's prejudiced attitudes may be reinforced. According to symbolic interactionists, this exemplifies __________. A. social learning B. frustration-aggression C. the authoritarian personality D. unprejudiced discrimination Answer: A 26. Psychologist Theodor W. Adorno and his colleagues concluded that highly prejudiced individuals tend to have a(n) __________, which is characterized by excessive conformity, submissiveness to authority, intolerance, insecurity, a high level of superstition, and rigid, stereotypic thinking. A. frustrated-aggressive demeanor B. authoritarian personality C. scapegoat obsession D. superiority complex Answer: B 27. The __________ is most likely to develop in a family environment in which dominating parents who are anxious about status use physical discipline but show very little love in raising their children. A. superiority personality B. inferiority personality C. passive-aggressive personality D. authoritarian personality Answer: D 28. __________ involves actions or practices of dominant group members (or their representatives) that have a harmful impact on members of a subordinate group. A. Prejudice B. Racism C. Stereotyping D. Discrimination Answer: D 29. A restaurant owner in the South during the 1950s does not feel negatively towards African Americans but refuses to serve them in his restaurant. According to Robert Merton’s typology, the restaurant owner is a(n) _____. A. unprejudiced discriminator B. prejudiced non-discriminatory C. prejudiced discriminator D. unprejudiced non-discriminator Answer: D 30. One study found that as the economic conditions worsened in the South, whites’ aimed their anger towards African American who then became a scapegoat. As a result, there was an increase in the lynchings of African Americans. This illustrates which theory? A. authoritarianism B. conflict C. symbolic interaction D. frustration-aggression Answer: D 31. According to sociologist Robert Merton’s typology of prejudice and discrimination, __________ are not personally prejudiced and do not discriminate against others. A. prejudiced discriminators B. unprejudiced no discriminators C. prejudiced no discriminators D. unprejudiced discriminators Answer: B 32. Two players on a professional sports team are best friends; it so happens that one player is white and the other is African American. According to sociologist Robert Merton’s typology of prejudice and discrimination, these players are __________. A. unprejudiced non discriminators B. unprejudiced discriminators C. prejudiced non discriminators D. prejudiced discriminators Answer: A 33. Based on sociologist Robert Merton’s typology of prejudice and discrimination, __________ may have no personal prejudice but still engage in discriminatory behavior because of peer group pressure or economic, political, or social interests. A. unprejudiced discriminators B. prejudiced non discriminators C. prejudiced discriminators D. unprejudiced non discriminators Answer: A 34. According to sociologist Robert Merton’s typology of prejudice and discrimination, __________ hold personal prejudice but do not discriminate due to peer pressure, legal demands, or a desire for profits. A. prejudiced discriminators B. unprejudiced discriminators C. prejudiced non discriminators D. unprejudiced non discriminators Answer: C 35. A football coach dislikes African Americans but still hires black players because he thinks they will enhance the team's ability to win. According to sociologist Robert Merton’s typology of prejudice and discrimination, this coach is a(n) __________. A. unprejudiced non discriminator B. unprejudiced discriminator C. prejudiced non discriminator D. prejudiced discriminator Answer: C 36. Based on sociologist Robert Merton’s typology of prejudice and discrimination, __________ hold personal prejudices and actively discriminate against others. A. unprejudiced discriminators B. prejudiced non discriminators C. prejudiced discriminators D. unprejudiced non discriminators Answer: C 37. An umpire dislikes African Americans and with deliberate intent, often makes official calls incorrectly when black players are at bat. According to sociologist Robert Merton’s typology of prejudice and discrimination, this coach is a/an __________. A. unprejudiced non discriminator B. unprejudiced discriminator C. prejudiced non discriminator D. prejudiced discriminator Answer: D 38. The ultimate form of discrimination occurs when people are considered to be unworthy to live because of their race or ethnicity. An example of this is __________ , the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation. A. Discrimination B. Genocide C. Prejudice D. Racism Answer: B 39. Examples of __________ include the killing of thousands of Native Americans by white settlers in North America and the extermination of six million European Jews by Nazi Germany. A. prejudice B. discrimination C. genocide D. racism Answer: C 40. In some areas, such as Yugoslavia, people who are members of particular subordinate groups have been forced to flee or die. This is an example of __________. A. genocide B. ethnic cleansing C. ethnocentrism D. authoritarianism Answer: B 41. __________ discrimination consists of one-on-one acts by members of the dominant group that harm members of the subordinate group or their property. A. Individual B. Standard C. Institutional D. Uniform Answer: A 42. A person may decide not to rent an apartment to someone of a different race. This would be an example of __________ discrimination. A. uniform B. institutional C. standard D. individual Answer: D 43. __________ discrimination consists of the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups. A. Individual B. Marginal C. Institutional D. Uniform Answer: C 44. A bank might consistently deny loans to people of a certain race. This would be an example of __________ discrimination. A. marginal B. institutional C. uniform D. individual Answer: B 45. Sociologist Joe Feagin identified __________ as harmful action intentionally taken by a dominant group member against a member of a subordinate group. This type of discrimination occurs without the support of other members of the dominant group in the immediate social or community context. A. indirect institutionalized discrimination B. isolate discrimination C. direct institutionalized discrimination D. small-group discrimination Answer: B 46. A prejudiced judge gives harsher sentences to all African American defendants, even though he is not supported by the judicial system in his actions. According to sociologist Joe Feagin, this illustrates __________ discrimination. A. indirect institutionalized B. small-group C. direct institutionalized D. isolate Answer: D 47. Sociologist Joe Feagin identified __________ as harmful action intentionally taken by a limited number of dominant group members against members of subordinate groups. This type of discrimination is not supported by existing norms or other dominant group members in the immediate social or community context. A. isolate discrimination B. direct institutionalized discrimination C. small-group discrimination D. indirect institutionalized discrimination Answer: C 48. A small group of white students may deface a professor’s office with racial epithets without the support of other students or faculty members. According to sociologist Joe Feagin, these students' behavior illustrates __________ discrimination. A. indirect institutionalized B. small-group C. direct institutionalized D. isolate Answer: B 49. Sociologist Joe Feagin identified __________ as organizationally prescribed or community prescribed action that intentionally has a differential and negative impact on members of subordinate groups. These actions are routinely carried out by a number of dominant group members based on the norms of the immediate organization or community. A. small-group discrimination B. isolate discrimination C. indirect institutionalized discrimination D. direct institutionalized discrimination Answer: D 50. The contact hypotheses comes from which theoretical perspective? A. functional B. conflict C. symbolic interaction D. post-modernist Answer: C 51. In San Jose, California, managers of Denny's restaurants were instructed to implement policies designed to limit or discourage African American patronage. According to sociologist Joe Feagin, these policies illustrate __________ discrimination. A. indirect institutionalized B. small-group C. direct institutionalized D. isolate Answer: C 52. Sociologist Joe Feagin referred to __________ as practices that have a harmful impact on subordinate group members even though the organizationally or community prescribed norms or regulations guiding these actions were initially established with no intent to harm. A. direct institutionalized discrimination B. isolate discrimination C. indirect institutionalized discrimination D. small-group discrimination Answer: C 53. Special education classes were originally intended to provide extra educational opportunities for children with various types of disabilities. However, critics claim that these programs have amounted to racial segregation in many school districts. According to sociologist Joe Feagin, these policies illustrate __________ discrimination. A. indirect institutionalized B. small-group C. direct institutionalized D. isolate Answer: A 54. __________ focus on the macrolevel intergroup processes that occur between members of dominant and subordinate groups in society. A. Postmodern theorists B. Symbolic interactionists C. Functionalists D. Conflict theorists Answer: C 55. __________ analyse power and economic differentials between the dominant groups and subordinate groups in society. A. Conflict theorists B. Functionalists C. Postmodern theorists D. Symbolic interactionists Answer: A 56. __________ examine how microlevel contacts between people may produce either greater racial tolerance or increased levels of hostility. A. Conflict theorists B. Symbolic interactionists C. Functionalists D. Postmodern theorists Answer: B 57. In the __________ hypothesis, symbolic interactionists point out that when people from divergent groups are exposed to each other, favourable attitudes and behavior develop when certain factors are present. A. relationship B. social behavior C. contact D. participation Answer: C 58. Symbolic interactionists point out that when people from divergent groups are exposed to each other, favourable attitudes and behavior develop when certain factors are present. Which of the following is not one of these factors identified? A. Members must have equal status. B. Members must pursue different goals. C. Members must cooperate with one another to achieve their goals. D. Members must receive positive feedback when they interact with one another in positive, non-discriminatory ways. Answer: B 59. According to the “prejudice causes discrimination” belief, how can we best reduce discrimination? A. equality laws B. changing attitudes C. better use of affirmative action programs D. increasing peoples’ learning skills Answer: B 60. __________ is a process by which members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture. A. Participation B. Pluralism C. Assimilation D. Colonialism Answer: C 61. __________ assimilation occurs when members of an ethnic group adopt dominant group traits, such as language, dress, values, religion, and food preferences. A. Cultural (acculturation) B. Structural (integration) C. Biological (amalgamation) D. Psychological Answer: A 62. This kind of theorist emphasizes assimilation into the dominant culture: A. functional B. conflict C. symbolic interaction D. post-modernist Answer: A 63. __________ in this country initially followed an “Anglo conformity” model; members of subordinate ethnic groups were expected to conform to the culture of the dominant white Anglo-Saxon population. A. Psychological assimilation B. Structural (integration) assimilation C. Cultural (acculturation) assimilation D. Biological (amalgamation) assimilation Answer: C 64. __________ assimilation occurs when members of subordinate racial or ethnic groups gain acceptance in everyday social interaction with members of the dominant group. A. Biological (amalgamation) B. Psychological C. Structural (integration) D. Cultural (acculturation) Answer: C 65. __________ typically starts in large, impersonal settings such as schools and workplaces, and only later (if at all) results in close friendships and intermarriage. A. Psychological assimilation B. Structural (integration) assimilation C. Biological (amalgamation) assimilation D. Cultural (acculturation) assimilation Answer: B 66. __________ assimilation occurs when members of one group marry those of other social or ethnic groups. A. Cultural (acculturation) B. Biological (amalgamation) C. Structural (integration) D. Psychological Answer: B 67. __________ assimilation involves a change in racial or ethnic self-identification on the part of an individual. A. Cultural (acculturation) B. Biological (amalgamation) C. Structural (integration) D. Psychological Answer: D 68. Many groups share elements of the mainstream culture while remaining culturally distinct from both the dominant group and other social and ethnic groups. __________ is the coexistence of a variety of distinct racial and ethnic groups within one society. A. Ethnic pluralism B. Psychological pluralism C. Internal pluralism D. Cultural pluralism Answer: A 69. Equalitarian pluralism describes a situation in which ethnic groups coexist in equality with one another. This pattern is also referred to as __________. A. miscegenation B. segregation C. accommodation D. compatibility Answer: C 70. Switzerland has been described as a model of __________ pluralism; more than 6 million people with French, German, and Italian cultural heritages peacefully coexist there. A. miscegenation B. accommodation C. compatibility D. segregation Answer: B 71. Inequalitarian pluralism describes a situation in which specific ethnic groups are set apart from the dominant group and have unequal access to power and privilege. This pattern is also referred to as __________. A. miscegenation B. segregation C. accommodation D. incompatibility Answer: B 72. __________ refers to the spatial and social separation of categories of people by race, ethnicity, class, gender, and/or religion. A. Miscegenation B. Social isolation C. Segregation D. Social rejection Answer: C 73. Segregation may be enforced by law. __________ segregation refers to laws that systematically enforced the physical and social separation of African Americans in all areas of public life. A. De face B. De jure C. De hisce D. De facto Answer: B 74. An example of __________ was the Jim Crow laws, which legalized the separation of the races in public accommodations (such as hotels, restaurants, transportation, hospitals, jails, schools, churches, and cemeteries) in the southern United States after the Civil War. A. de face segregation B. de hisce segregation C. de facto segregation D. de jure segregation Answer: D 75. Segregation may be enforced by custom. __________ segregation refers to racial separation and inequality enforced by custom, and it may be difficult to document. A. de facto B. de hisce C. de jure D. de face Answer: A 76. __________ is still prevalent in many U.S. cities; owners, landlords, real estate agents, and apartment managers often use informal mechanisms to maintain their properties for “whites only.” A. De jure segregation B. De face segregation C. De facto segregation D. De hisce segregation Answer: C 77. The caste perspective views racial and ethnic inequality as a permanent feature of U.S. society. The caste system was strengthened by __________ laws, which prohibited sexual intercourse or marriage between persons of different races. A. antimiscegenation B. segregation C. ethnic purity D. racial cleansing Answer: A 78. Current and recent TV ads suggest that racially mixed families, groups and neighbourhoods are quite common in the U.S. These ads employ a particular devise known as _____ framing. A. ethnic B. racial and ethnic C. multicultural D. racial harmony Answer: D 79. Which statement below is false? A. Less than 3 percent of U.S. marriages are interracial. B. The majority of Americans have few close friends from another race. C. TV ads and programming accurately reflect interracial marriages and friendships. D. Most (80%) white Americans live in neighbourhoods that are almost all totally white. Answer: C 80. Class perspectives emphasize the role of the capitalist class in racial exploitation. Sociologist Oliver Cox suggested that African Americans were enslaved because __________. A. of prejudice toward black-skinned people B. they were the cheapest and best workers the owners could find for heavy labor in the mines and on plantations C. they allowed themselves to be dominated D. of the owed debts they were unable to pay Answer: B 81. Internal colonialism, the split-labor-market theory and gendered racism are all what kind of perspective? A. functional B. conflict C. symbolic interaction D. post-modernist Answer: B 82. According to sociologist Robert Blauner, groups that have been subjected to __________ remain in subordinate positions longer than groups that voluntarily migrated to the United States. A. classic colonialism B. structural segregation C. internal colonialism D. racial discrimination Answer: C 83. __________ occurs when members of a racial or ethnic group are conquered and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group in a particular society. A. Structural segregation B. Internal colonialism C. Classic colonialism D. Racial discrimination Answer: B 84. In the United States, indigenous groups lost property, political rights, aspects of their culture, and often their lives. The effects of past __________ are reflected today in the number of Native Americans who live on government reservations. A. ethnic pluralism B. structural assimilation C. internal colonialism D. racial accommodation Answer: C 85. __________ refers to the division of the economy into two areas of employment: a primary sector or upper tier, composed of higher-paid (usually dominant group) workers in more secure jobs, and a secondary sector or lower tier, composed of lower-paid (often subordinate group) workers in jobs with little security and hazardous working conditions. A. Subtle racism B. Internal colonialism C. Split labor market D. Racial formation Answer: C 86. __________ refers to the interactive effect of racism and sexism on the exploitation of women of colour. A. Gendered racism B. Internal colonialism C. Split labor market D. Domestic marginalization Answer: A 87. The theory of __________ states that actions of the government substantially define racial and ethnic relations in the United States. Government actions range from race-related legislation to imprisonment of members of groups believed to be a threat to society. A. domestic marginalization B. internal colonialism C. split labor market D. racial formation Answer: D 88. Sociologists Michael Omi and Howard Winant suggest that the U.S. government has shaped the politics of race through __________. A. affirmative action programs B. actions and policies that cause people to be treated differently because of their race, such as immigration legislation C. intervention in the internal political affairs of the nations of South Africa D. encouraging the release of political prisoners who have been detained primarily due to their ethnic background Answer: B 89. The __________ includes the belief that racism is such an ingrained feature of U.S. society that it appears to be ordinary and natural to many people. A. functionalist theory B. symbolic interactionist theory C. critical race theory D. conflict theory Answer: C 90. According to the text, Native Americans have not been subjected to __________. A. genocide. B. forced migration. C. restrictive immigration quotas. D. forced assimilation. Answer: C 91. The "Trail of Tears" refers to __________. A. systematic discrimination against Latinos/as B. the fact that white slaves were made wards of the government C. a long line of segregationist policies against African Americans D. the forced migration of Native Americans Answer: D 92. In terms of income, employment, housing, nutrition, and health, which of the following is the most disadvantaged racial or ethnic group in the United States? A. African Americans B. Hispanic Americans C. Native Americans D. Asian Americans Answer: C 93. Which group has the highest rate of infant mortality, and death by exposure and malnutrition? A. Native Americans B. African Americans C. Asian Americans D. Hispanic Americans Answer: A 94. Which of the following groups has been the most privileged group in the United States? A. Irish Americans B. White Anglo-Saxon Protestants C. Japanese Americans D. Italian Americans Answer: B 95. Slavery continued in the South until 1863, when the practice was abolished by the __________. A. Jim Crow Laws B. Emancipation Proclamation C. Bill of Rights D. United States Supreme Court Answer: B 96. __________ is a killing carried out by a group of vigilantes seeking revenge for an actual or imagined crime by the victim. A. A public execution B. A massacre C. A lynching D. A mob hit Answer: C 97. In the 1950s, the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the civil rights movement used __________ (nonviolent action seeking to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it) to call attention to racial inequality and to demand greater inclusion of African Americans in all areas of public life. A. action B. civil obedience C. civil unrest D. civil disobedience Answer: D 98. __________ refers to the policies or procedures that are intended to promote equal opportunity for categories of people deemed to have been previously excluded from equality in education, employment, and other fields on the basis of characteristics such as race or ethnicity. A. Positive retransformation B. Affirmative action C. Deregulation process D. Reversal discrimination Answer: B 99. In the United States today, African Americans make up about __________ percent of the population. A. 9 B. 13 C. 19 D. 28 Answer: B 100. Between 1964 and 1999, the number of African Americans elected to political office increased from about 100 to almost 9,000 nationwide. Despite these political gains, African Americans still represent __________ of all elected officials in the United States. A. less than 3 percent B. only about 10 percent C. only about 18 percent D. only about 25 percent Answer: A TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. Today, sociologists emphasize that race is a socially constructed reality, not a biological one. According to this approach, the social significance that people accord to race is more significant than any biological differences that might exist among people who are placed in arbitrary categories. Answer: True 2. An ethnic group is a category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of real or alleged physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, eye shape, or other subjectively selected attributes. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term defined is race; an ethnic group is a collection of people distinguished by others or by themselves, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. 3. Ethnic groups share five main characteristics. One of them is “territoriality,” or the tendency to occupy a distinct geographic area (such as Little Italy or Little Havana) by choice and/or for self-protection. Answer: True 4. Sociologists define a superordinate group as one whose members, because of physical or cultural characteristics, are disadvantaged and subjected to unequal treatment by the dominate group and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is subordinate group; a dominant group is one that is advantaged and has superior resources and rights in a society. 5. Ethnocentrism is maintained and perpetuated in stereotypes—overgeneralizations about the appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of members of particular categories. Answer: True 6. Overt discrimination in sports occurs when whites are described as having the intelligence, dependability, and leadership and decision-making skills needed in positions requiring higher levels of responsibility and control. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is an example of subtle discrimination (racism) which is often hidden from sight and more difficult to prove; in contrast to overt discrimination (racism) which is more blatant and may take the form of public statements about the “inferiority” of members of a racial or ethnic group. 7. Scapegoats are often used as substitutes for the actual source of the frustration. For example, members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups are often blamed for societal problems (such as unemployment or an economic recession) over which they have no control. Answer: True 8. According to psychologist Theodor Adorno, a permissive personality is more likely to develop in a family environment in which dominating parents who are anxious about status use physical discipline but show very little love in raising their children. Answer: False Rejoinder: Psychologist Theodor Adorno concluded that highly prejudiced individuals tend to have an authoritarian personality, which is characterized by excessive conformity, submissiveness to authority, intolerance, insecurity, a high level of superstition, and rigid, stereotypic thinking. 9. Discriminatory actions vary in severity from the use of derogatory labels to violence against individuals and groups. The ultimate form of discrimination, genocide, occurs when people are considered to be unworthy to live because of their race or ethnicity. Answer: True 10. According to sociologist Joe Feagin, indirect institutionalized discrimination takes place when a prejudiced judge may give harsher sentences to all African American defendants but may not be supported by the judicial system in that action. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is an example of isolate discrimination which is harmful action intentionally taken by a dominant group member against a member of a subordinate group. This type of discrimination occurs without the support of other members of the dominant group in the immediate social or community context. By contrast, indirect institutionalized discrimination refers to practices that have a harmful impact on subordinate group members even though the organizationally or community prescribed norms or regulations guiding these actions were initially established with no intent to harm. 11. In the contact hypothesis, symbolic interactionists point out that contact between people from divergent groups should lead to favourable attitudes and behavior when certain factors such as having equal status and pursuing the same goals are present. Answer: True 12. Diversity training programs are attempts at getting people to discard their negative stereotypes about race. Answer: True 13. Biological (amalgamation) assimilation in the United States initially followed an “Anglo conformity” model; members of subordinate ethnic groups were expected to conform to the culture of the dominant white Anglo-Saxon population. Answer: False Rejoinder: “Anglo conformity” actually occurs in cultural (acculturation) assimilation. This type of assimilation occurs when members of an ethnic group adopt dominant group traits, such as language, dress, values, religion, and food preferences. By contrast, biological (amalgamation) assimilation occurs when members of one group marry those of other social or ethnic groups. 14. An example of de jure segregation was the Jim Crow laws, which legalized the separation of the races in public accommodations (such as hotels, restaurants, transportation, hospitals, jails, schools, churches, and cemeteries) in the southern United States after the Civil War. Answer: True 15. African Americans were the only group to be subjected to slavery; when slavery was abolished, a class system was instituted to maintain economic and social inequality between whites and African Americans. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct response is a caste system was instituted. The caste perspective views racial and ethnic inequality as a permanent feature of U.S. society. According to this approach, the African American experience must be viewed different from that of other racial or ethnic groups. By comparison, the class perspectives emphasize the role of the capitalist class in racial exploitation. 16. The caste perspective, which sees racial and ethnic equality as a permanent feature of U.S. society, is a type of functional theory. Answer: False Rejoinder: Conflict theory is most likely to see this as the case. 17. TV ads and programming reflect the actual level of interracial friendships and marriage in the U.S. Answer: False Rejoinder: These ads and programs actually reflect a higher level of integration than actually exists. 18. Multiracial framing refers to ads that are targeted to diverse audiences in order to sell products. Answer: False Rejoinder: Racial Harmony Framing is the correct term. 19. Internal colonialism occurs when members of a racial or ethnic group are conquered or colonized and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group. Groups that have been subjected to internal colonialism remain in subordinate positions longer than groups that voluntarily migrated to the United States. Answer: True 20. The split-labor market theory refers to the division of the economy into two areas of employment, a privatization sector or upper tier, composed of higher-paid (usually subordinate group) workers in more secure jobs, and a tertiary sector or lower tier, composed of lower-paid (often superordinate group) workers in jobs with little security and hazardous working conditions. Answer: False Rejoinder: The split-labor market theory has two areas of employment: a primary sector or upper tier, composed of higher-paid (usually dominant group) workers and a secondary sector or lower tier, composed of lower-paid (often subordinate group) workers. 21. According to the critical race theory, the best way to document racism and ongoing inequality in society is to listen to the lived experiences of people who have experienced such discrimination. Answer: True 22. The “Trail of Tears” was one of the most disastrous acts of forced assimilation that African Americans experienced in the United States. Answer: False Rejoinder: The “Trail of Tears” was one of the most disastrous of the forced migrations that Native American were subjected to as entire nations were forced to move in order to accommodate the white settlers. In the coldest part of the winter of 1832, over half of the Cherokee Nation died during or as a result of their forced location from the southeastern United States to the Indian Territory in Oklahoma. 23. Native Americans are the most disadvantaged racial or ethnic group in the United States in terms of income, employment, housing, nutrition, and health. They also have high rates of tuberculosis, alcoholism, and suicide. Answer: True 24. White, ethnic immigrants of Irish and Italian descent have been the most privileged group in the United States. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct response is white Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs). Many of these immigrants from England came to North America as indentured servants; they quickly emerged as the dominant group, creating a core culture (including language and laws) to which all other groups were expected to adapt. 25. Some analysts believe that the central factor associated with the development of slavery in the United States was the plantation system, which was heavily dependent on cheap and dependable manual labor. Answer: True SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. Differentiate between race and ethnicity and explain their social significance. Answer: Popular usages of race have been based on the assumption that a race is a grouping or classification based on genetic variations in physical appearance, particularly skin colour. Sociologists emphasize that race is a socially constructed reality, not a biological one. A race is a category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of real or alleged physical characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture, eye shape, or other subjectively selected attributes. Categories of people frequently thought of as racial groups include Native Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans. As compared with race, ethnicity defines individuals who are believed to share common characteristics that differentiate them from the other collectivises in a society. An ethnic group is a collection of people distinguished by others or by themselves, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. Examples of ethnic groups include Jewish Americans, Irish Americans, and Italian Americans. Ethnic groups share five main characteristics: (1) unique cultural traits, such as language, clothing, holidays, or religious practices; (2) a sense of community; (3) a feeling of ethnocentrism; (4) ascribed membership from birth; and (5) territoriality, or the tendency to occupy a distinct geographic area by choice and/or for self-protection. Race and ethnicity take on great social significance because how people act in regard to these terms drastically affects other people’s lives, including what opportunities they have, how they are treated, and even how long they live. Historically, stratification based on race and ethnicity has pervaded all aspects of political, economic, and social life. 2. Discuss the changes in racial classifications and the meaning of race in the United States, and compare dominant and subordinate groups. Answer: Racial classifications in the United States have changed over the past century. We can see how the meaning of race continues to change. (1) race is defined by perceived skin colour: white or nonwhite. Whereas, one category exists for “whites” (who vary considerably in actual skin colour and physical appearance), all of the remaining categories are considered “nonwhite.” (2) racial purity is assumed to exist. Prior to the 2000 census, the true diversity of the U.S. population was not revealed in census data, since multiracial individuals were forced to either select a single race as being their “race” or to select the vague category of “other.” Example: professional golfer Tiger Woods. (3) categories of official racial classifications may (over time) create a sense of group membership or “consciousness of kind” for people within a somewhat arbitrary classification. The way people are classified remains important because such classifications affect their access to employment, housing, social services, federal aid, and many other “publicly or privately valued goods.” To sociologists, a dominant group is one that is advantaged and has superior resources and rights in a society. In the United States, whites with Northern European ancestry (often referred to as Euro-Americans, white Anglo-Saxon Protestants, or WASPS) are considered to be a majority group. A subordinate group is one whose members, because of physical or cultural characteristics, are disadvantaged and subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. 3. Define prejudice, stereotypes, and racism. Answer: From a sociological perspective, prejudice is a negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about members of selected racial and ethnic groups. The term prejudice means that people may be biased either for or against members of other groups even before they have had any contact with them. Although prejudice can be either positive (bias in Favor of a group—often our own) or negative (bias against a group—one we deem less worthy than our own), it most often refers to the negative attitudes that people may have about members of other racial or ethnic groups. To some extent, all people have prejudiced feelings against members of other groups. Prejudice is rooted in ethnocentrism and stereotypes. When used in the context of racial and ethnic relations, ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to regard one’s own culture and group as the standard—and thus superior—whereas all other groups are seen as inferior. Ethnocentrism is maintained and perpetuated by stereotypes—overgeneralizations about the appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of members of particular categories. Stereotypes can be either positive or negative. Racism is a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that is used to justify the superior treatment of one racial or ethnic group and the inferior treatment of another racial or ethnic group. The world has seen a long history of racism: it can be traced from the earliest civilizations. However, not everyone is equally racist. Recent studies have shown that the underlying reasoning behind racism differs according to factors such as gender, age, class, and geography. Racism may be overt or subtle. Overt racism is more blatant and may take the form of public statements about the “inferiority” of members of a racial or ethnic group. Subtle forms of racism are often hidden from sight and more difficult to prove. 4. Summarize the theories of prejudice and explain how prejudice is measured. Answer: The frustration-aggression hypothesis states that people who are frustrated in their efforts to achieve a highly desired goal will respond with a pattern of aggression toward others. The objective of their aggression becomes the scapegoat—a person or group that is incapable of offering resistance to the hostility or aggression of others. Scapegoats are often used as substitutes for the actual source of the frustration. For example, members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups are often blamed for societal problems (such as unemployment or an economic recession) over which they have no control. According to some symbolic interactionists, prejudice results from social learning; it is learned from observing and imitating significant others, such as parents and peers. Initially children do not have a frame of reference from which to question the prejudices of their relatives and friends. When they are rewarded with smiles or laughs for telling derogatory jokes or making negative comments about outgroup members, children’s prejudiced attitudes may be reinforced. Psychologist Theodor Adorno concluded that highly prejudiced individuals tend to have an authoritarian personality, which is characterized by excessive conformity, submissiveness to authority, intolerance, insecurity, a high level of superstition, and rigid, stereotypical thinking. It is most likely to develop in a family environment in which dominating parents who are anxious about status use physical discipline but show very little love in raising their children. To measure levels of prejudice, some sociologists use the concept of social distance—the extent to which people are willing to interact and establish relationships with members of racial and ethnic groups other than their own. 5. Discuss discrimination and distinguish between individual and institutional discrimination. Answer: Discrimination involves actions or practices of dominant group members (or their representatives) that have a harmful impact on members of a subordinate group. Discriminatory actions vary in severity from the use of derogatory labels to violence against individuals and groups. The ultimate form of discrimination occurs when people are considered to be unworthy to live because of their race or ethnicity. Genocide is the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation. Examples of genocide include the killing of thousands of Native Americans by white settlers in North America and the extermination of 6 million European Jews by Nazi Germany. More recently, the term ethnic cleansing has been used to define a policy of “cleansing” geographic areas (such as in Yugoslavia) by forcing persons of other races or religions to flee—or die. Discrimination also varies in how it is carried out. Individuals may act on their own, or they may operate within the context of large-scale organizations and institutions, such as schools, churches, corporations, and governmental agencies. Individual discrimination consists of one-on-one acts by members of the dominant group that harm members of the subordinate group or their property. For example, a person may decide not to rent an apartment to someone of a different race. By contrast, institutional discrimination consists of the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups. For example, a bank might consistently deny loans to people of a certain race. Institutional discrimination is carried out by the individuals who implement the policies and procedures of organizations. 6. Describe sociologist Robert Merton’s typology of the relationship between prejudice and discrimination and provide examples of each. Answer: Sociologist Robert Merton identified four combinations of attitudes and responses. (1) unprejudiced non discriminators are not personally prejudiced and do not discriminate against others. For example, two players on a professional sports team may be best friends although they are of different races. (2) unprejudiced discriminators may have no personal prejudice but still engage in discriminatory behavior of peer group pressure or economic, political, or social interests. For example, in some sports, a coach might feel no prejudice toward African American players but believe that white fans will accept only a certain percentage of people of colour on the team. (3) prejudiced non discriminators hold personal prejudices but do not discriminate due to peer pressure, legal demands, or a desire for profits. For example, a coach with prejudiced beliefs may hire an African American player to enhance the team’s ability to win. (4) prejudiced discriminators hold personal prejudices and actively discriminate against others. For example, an umpire who is personally prejudiced against African Americans may intentionally call a play incorrectly based on that prejudice. 7. Outline sociologist Joe Feagin’s four major types of discrimination and provide examples of each. Answer: Sociologist Joe Feagin has identified four major types of discrimination. (1) isolate discrimination is harmful action intentionally taken by a dominant group member against a member of a subordinate group. This type of discrimination occurs without the support of other members of the dominant group in the immediate social or community context. For example, a prejudiced judge may give harsher sentences to all African American defendants but may not be supported by the judicial system in that action. (2) small-group discrimination is harmful action intentionally taken by a limited number of dominant group members against members of subordinate groups. This type of discrimination is not supported by existing norms or other dominant group members in the immediate social or community context. For example, a small group of white students may deface a professor’s office with racist epithets without the support of other students or faculty members. (3) direct institutionalized discrimination is organizationally prescribed or community-prescribed action that intentionally has a differential and negative impact on members of subordinate groups. These actions are routinely carried out by a number of dominant group members based on the norms of the immediate organization or community. For example, intentional exclusion of people of colour from public accommodations. (4) indirect institutionalized discrimination refers to practices that have a harmful impact on subordinate group members even though the organizationally or community-prescribed norms or regulation guiding these actions were initially established with no intent or harm. For example, special education classes were originally intended to provide extra educational opportunities for children with various types of disabilities. However, critics claim that these programs have amounted to racial segregation in many school districts. 8. Discuss the symbolic interactionist perspectives on race and ethnic relations. Answer: Symbolic interactionist examine how microlevel contacts between people may produce either greater racial tolerance or increased levels of hostility. In the contact hypothesis, symbolic interactionists point out that contact between people from divergent groups should lead to favourable attitudes and behavior when certain factors are present. Members of each group must (1) have equal status, (2) pursue the same goals, (3) cooperate with one another to achieve their goals, and (4) receive positive feedback when they interact with one another in positive, non-discriminatory ways. When individuals meet someone who does not conform to their existing stereotype, they frequently ignore anything that contradicts the stereotype, or they interpret the situation to support their prejudices. Symbolic interactionist perspectives make us aware of the importance of intergroup contact and the fact that it may either intensify or reduce racial and ethnic stereotyping and prejudice. 9. Distinguish between assimilation and ethnic pluralism and explain why both are functionalist perspectives on racial and ethnic relations. Answer: Assimilation is a process by which members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture. Assimilation occurs in several distinct levels. (1) cultural assimilation or acculturation occurs when members of an ethnic group adopt dominant group traits, such as language, dress, values, religion, and food preferences. Cultural assimilation in the United States initially followed an “Anglo conformity” model; members of subordinate ethnic groups were expected to conform to the culture of the dominant white Anglo-Saxon population. (2) structural assimilation or integration occurs when members of subordinate racial or ethnic groups gain acceptance in everyday social interaction with members of the dominant group. This type of assimilation typically starts in large, impersonal settings such as schools and workplaces. (3) biological assimilation or amalgamation occurs when members of one group marry those of other social or ethnic groups. (4) psychological assimilation involves a change in racial or ethnic self-identification on the part of an individual. Rejection by the dominant group may prevent psychological assimilation by members of some subordinate racial and ethnic groups, especially those with visible characteristics such as skin colour or facial features that differ from those of the dominant group. Instead of complete assimilation, many groups share elements of the mainstream culture while remaining culturally distinct from both the dominant group and other social and ethnic groups. Ethnic pluralism is the coexistence of a variety of distinct racial and ethnic groups within one society. Equalitarian pluralism or accommodation is a situation in which ethnic groups coexist in equality with one another. Switzerland has been described as a model. Inequalitarian pluralism or segregation exists when specific groups are set apart from the dominant group and have unequal access to power and privilege. Segregation is the spatial and social separation of categories of people by race, ethnicity, class, gender, and/or religion. Segregation may be enforced by law. De jure segregation refers to laws that systematically enforced the physical and social separation of African Americans in all areas of public life. An example of de jure segregation was the Jim Crowe laws, which legalized the separation of the races in public accommodations (such as hotels and restaurants) in the southern United States after the Civil War. Segregation denied African Americans access to opportunities in many areas, including education, jobs, health care, and politics. Segregation may also be enforced by custom. De facto segregation—racial separation and inequality enforced by custom—is more difficult to document than de jure segregation. For example, residential segregation is still prevalent in many U.S. cities; owners, landlords, real estate agents, and apartment managers often use informal mechanisms to maintain their properties for “whites only.” 10. Do multiracial scenes in TV ads reflect reality? Why or why not? Answer: TV ads suggest that racially mixed families, marriages, friendships and neighbourhoods are quite common in the U.S. Also, TV ads use a framing device known as racial harmony framing to sell products to diverse audiences. These ads reflect advertisers’ to capitalize on the changing nature of our society. However, this is not the reality. In reality, the Census Bureau reports that less than 3 percent of all marriages are interracial, and about 80 percent of white Americans live in neighbourhoods that are more than 95 percent white. Additionally, most people have few close friends from another racial grouping. 11. Explain the key assumptions of the conflict perspectives on racial and ethnic relations. Answer: Conflict theorists focus on economic stratification and access to power in their analyses of race and ethnicity. The caste perspective views racial and ethnic inequality as a permanent feature of U.S. society. According to this approach, the African American experience must be viewed as different from that of other racial or ethnic groups. African Americans were the only group to be subjected to slavery; when slavery was abolished, a caste system was instituted to maintain economic and social inequality between whites and African Americans. The caste system was strengthened by antimiscegenation laws, which prohibited sexual intercourse or marriage between persons of different races. The class perspectives emphasize the role of the capitalist class in racial exploitation. African Americans were enslaved because they were the cheapest and best workers the owners could find for labor in the mines and on the plantation. According to sociologist Robert Blauner, groups that have been subjected to internal colonialism remain in subordinate positions longer than groups that voluntarily migrated to the United States. Internal colonialism occurs when members of a racial or ethnic group are conquered or colonized and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group. The experiences of internally colonized groups are unique in three ways: (1) these groups have been forced to exist in a society other than their own; (2) they have been kept out of the economic and political mainstream, so it is difficult for them to compete with dominant group members; and (3) they have been subjected to severe attacks on their culture, which may lead to its extinction. The split labor market refers to the division of the economy into two areas of employment, a primary sector or upper tier, composed of higher-paid (usually dominant group) workers in more secure jobs, and a secondary sector or lower tier, composed of lower-paid (often subordinate group) workers in jobs with little security and hazardous working conditions. According to this perspective, white workers in the upper tier use racial discrimination against nonwhites to protect their positions. The term gendered racism refers to the interactive effect of racism and sexism on the exploitation of women of colour. The theory of racial formation states that actions of the government substantially define racial and ethnic relations in the United States. Government actions range from race-related legislation to imprisonment of members of groups believed to be a threat to society. 12. Describe the critical race theory as an alternative perspective on racial and ethnic relations. Answer: Critical race theory derives its foundation from the U.S. civil rights tradition. The theory has several major premises, including the belief that racism is such an ingrained feature of U.S. society that it appears to be ordinary and natural to many people. As a result, civil rights legislation and affirmative action laws (formal equality) may remedy some of the more overt, blatant forms of racial injustice but have little effect on subtle, business-as-usual forms of racism that people of colour experience as they go about their everyday lives. According to this approach, the best way to document racism and ongoing inequality in society is to listen to the lived experiences of people who have experienced such discrimination. In this way, we can learn what actually happens in regard to racial oppression and the many effects it has on people, including alienation, depression, and certain physical illnesses. Central to this argument is the belief that interest convergence is a crucial factor in bringing about social change. 13. Explain how the experiences of Native Americans have been different from those of other racial and ethnic groups in the United States. Answer: Native Americans have been the victims of genocide and forced migration. Many Native Americans were either massacred or died from European diseases (such as typhoid, smallpox, and measles) and starvation. In battle, Native Americans were often no match for the Europeans, who had modern weaponry. Europeans justified their aggression by stereotyping the Native Americans as “savages.” After the Revolutionary War, the federal government offered treaties to the Native Americans so that more of their land could be acquired for the growing white population. The government broke treaty after treaty as it engaged in a policy of wholesale removal of indigenous nations in order to clear the land for settlement by Anglo-Saxon “pioneers.” The “Trail of Tears” during the winter of 1832 resulted in over half of the Cherokee Nation dying. Native Americans were made wards of the government (meaning they had a legal status similar to that of minors and incompetents) and were subjected to forced assimilation on the reservations after 1871. Currently, about 2 million Native American live in the United States. Most are concentrated in the Southwest, and about one-third live on reservations. Native Americans are the most disadvantaged racial or ethnic group in the United States in terms of income, employment, housing, nutrition, and health. The life chances of Native Americans who live on reservations are especially limited. They have the highest rate of infant mortality and death by exposure and malnutrition. They also have high rates of alcoholism and suicide. Native Americans have had very little educational opportunities and have a very high rate of unemployment. In spite of the odds against them, many Native Americans resist oppression. The American Indian Movement, Women of All Red Nations, and other groups have demanded the recovery of Native American lands and reparation for past losses. The American Indian Anti-Defamation Council advocates doing away with the word tribe because it demeans Native Americans by equating their level of cultural attainment with “primitivism” or “barbarism.” Moreover, reinterpretation of federal law in the 1990s has made it possible for Native American nations to open lucrative cigarette shops, bingo halls, and casino gambling operations on reservations. 14. Describe how the African American experience in the United States has been unique when compared with other groups. Answer: The African American (black) experience has been one uniquely marked by slavery, segregation, and persistent discrimination. By the 1660s, indentured servanthood had turned into full-fledged slavery with the enactment of laws in states such as Virginia that sanctioned the enslavement of African Americans. Between 1619 and the 1860s, about 500,000 African Americans were forcibly brought to the North America, primarily to work on southern plantations, and these actions were justified by the devaluation and stereotyping of African Americans. Some analysts believe that the central factor associated with the development of slavery in this country was the plantation system, which was heavily dependent on cheap and dependable manual labor. Slavery continued in the South until 1863, when it was abolished by the Emancipation Proclamation. Gaining freedom did not give African Americans equality with whites. African Americans were subjected to many indignities because of race. Through informal practices in the North and Jim Crow laws in the South. African Americans experienced segregation in housing, employment, education, and all public accommodations. African Americans who did not stay in their “place” were often the victims of violent attacks and lynch mobs. Lynching is a killing carried out by a group of vigilantes seeking revenge for an actual or imagined crime by the victim. In the twentieth century, the lives of many African Americans were changed by industrialization and two world wars. When factories were built in the northern United States, many African American families left the rural South in hopes of finding jobs and a better life. During World Wars I and II, African Americans were a vital source of labor in war production industries. In World War II, many African Americans fought for their country in segregated units in the military. African Americans began to demand sweeping societal changes in the 1950s. Initially, the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the civil rights movement used civil disobedience—nonviolent actions seeking to change a policy or law by refusing to comply with it—to call attention to racial inequality and to demand greater inclusions of African Americans in all areas of public life. Gradually, racial segregation was outlawed by the courts and the federal government. For example, the Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965 sought to do away with discrimination in education, housing, employment, and health care. Affirmative action programs were instituted in both public-sector and private-sector organizations in an effort to bring about greater opportunities for African Americans. African Americans today make up about 13 percent of the U.S. population. Since the 1960s, many African Americans have made significant gains in politics, education, employment, and income. 15. Compare the racial and ethnic experiences of Asian Americans in the United States. Answer: The U.S. Census Bureau uses the term Asian Americans to designate the many diverse groups with roots in Asia. Chinese and Japanese immigrants were among the earliest Asian Americans. Today, Asian Americans belong to the fastest growing ethnic minority group in the United States. The initial wave of Chinese immigration occurred between 1850 and 1880, when over 200,00 Chinese men were “pushed” from China by harsh economic conditions and “pulled” to the United States by the promise of gold in California and employment opportunities in the construction of transcontinental railroads. Chinese Americans were subjected to extreme prejudice and stereotypes. Prejudice and discrimination ran high against Asian immigrants, leading to Congress’s passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which brought Chinese immigration to a halt. The Exclusion Act was not repealed until World War II, when Chinese Americans who were contributing to the war effort by working in defense plants pushed for its repeal. After immigration laws were further relaxed in the 1960s, the second and largest wave of Chinese immigration occurred with immigrants coming primarily from Hong Kong and Taiwan. As a group, Chinese Americans have enjoyed considerable upward mobility. Most of the early Japanese immigrants were men who worked on sugar plantations in the Hawaiian Islands in the 1860s. Japanese Americans experienced one of the most vicious forms of discrimination ever sanctioned by U.S. laws. During World War II, when the United States was at war with Japan, nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans were placed in internment camps, where they remained for more than two years despite the total lack of evidence that they posed a security threat to this country. Since World War II, many Japanese Americans have been very successful. The median income of Japanese Americans is more than 30 percent above the national average. There have been three waves of Korean American immigration. Korean Americans have helped one another open small businesses by pooling money through the kye—an association that grants members money on a rotating basis to gain access to more capital. Today, Filipino Americans constitute the second largest category of Asian Americans. Indochinese Americans include people from Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos, most of who have come to the United States in the past three decades. ESSAY SECTION 1. Race and Ethnicity Answer: Race and Ethnicity: Race and ethnicity are key sociological concepts that significantly influence individual identities and social dynamics. Race refers to a category of people who are perceived to share distinct physical characteristics, such as skin color, that are deemed socially significant. These physical attributes are often used to classify people into racial groups. The concept of race is socially constructed, meaning that it has been created and defined by societies, rather than being based on inherent biological differences. Ethnicity, on the other hand, refers to shared cultural practices, perspectives, and distinctions that set apart one group of people from another. Ethnicity is often based on factors such as common language, religion, nationality, history, or other cultural practices. Unlike race, which is often externally imposed, ethnicity is more likely to be self-identified and may involve a sense of community and shared heritage. Both race and ethnicity play crucial roles in shaping individuals' experiences, opportunities, and social interactions. They influence various aspects of life, including education, employment, healthcare, and political participation. Understanding these concepts is essential for addressing issues of inequality and promoting social justice. 2. Prejudice – Stereotyping and Racism Answer: Prejudice – Stereotyping and Racism: Prejudice refers to preconceived opinions or attitudes held by individuals about another person or group, often without factual basis or direct experience. Prejudice is typically negative and is often directed towards people based on their membership in a particular social group. Stereotyping is a related concept where individuals attribute a set of characteristics to all members of a particular group, regardless of individual differences. Stereotypes are oversimplified and generalized beliefs about a group, and they can be positive or negative. For example, stereotypes about racial or ethnic groups often involve assumptions about behavior, intelligence, or moral character. Racism is a specific form of prejudice that involves the belief that one race is inherently superior or inferior to another. Racism manifests in attitudes, actions, and institutional practices that discriminate against individuals based on their race. Racism can be explicit and overt, such as racial slurs or hate crimes, or it can be subtle and systemic, such as discriminatory hiring practices or unequal access to education and healthcare. 3. Theories of Prejudice and Measuring Prejudice Answer: Theories of Prejudice and Measuring Prejudice: Several sociological theories explain the origins and persistence of prejudice. Some of the key theories include: 1. Social Learning Theory: This theory suggests that prejudice is learned through socialization. Individuals adopt prejudiced attitudes and behavior by observing and imitating others, especially family members, peers, and media representations. 2. Conflict Theory: From a conflict perspective, prejudice arises from competition and conflict between groups over scarce resources. Dominant groups use prejudice and discrimination to maintain power and control over subordinate groups. 3. Social Identity Theory: This theory posits that individuals derive a sense of identity and self-esteem from their membership in social groups. Prejudice can result from the need to enhance one's group identity by devaluing other groups. 4. Authoritarian Personality Theory: This theory, developed by Theodor Adorno and colleagues, suggests that individuals with an authoritarian personality are more likely to hold prejudiced views. These individuals tend to be rigid, conformist, and submissive to authority, and they often scapegoat marginalized groups. Measuring Prejudice: Prejudice can be measured using various methods, including: 1. Surveys and Questionnaires: Researchers use structured surveys to assess individuals' attitudes and beliefs about different social groups. These instruments can include both explicit and implicit measures of prejudice. 2. Implicit Association Test (IAT): The IAT measures unconscious biases by assessing the strength of associations between concepts (e.g., race) and evaluations (e.g., good or bad). It reveals implicit prejudices that individuals may not be aware of or may not want to disclose. 3. Field Experiments: Researchers conduct experiments in real-world settings to observe discriminatory behaviors. For example, they might send identical resumes with different names (suggesting different racial or ethnic backgrounds) to employers to measure hiring discrimination. 4. Discrimination – Sociologist Robert Merton’s Theory Answer: Discrimination – Sociologist Robert Merton’s Theory: Sociologist Robert Merton developed a typology to explain the relationship between prejudice and discrimination. Merton identified four types of individuals based on whether they are prejudiced and whether they discriminate: 1. All-Weather Liberal: This individual is neither prejudiced nor discriminatory. They consistently uphold egalitarian values and treat all people equally. 2. Fair-Weather Liberal: This individual is not prejudiced but may discriminate due to social pressure or situational factors. For example, they might conform to discriminatory practices in their workplace to avoid conflict or retaliation. 3. Timid Bigot: This individual holds prejudiced beliefs but does not act on them due to legal or social constraints. They may harbor negative attitudes towards certain groups but refrain from discriminatory behavior to avoid sanctions. 4. Active Bigot: This individual is both prejudiced and discriminatory. They openly express their prejudiced views and engage in discriminatory actions against targeted groups. Merton's typology highlights the complex interplay between attitudes and behaviors, showing that prejudice does not always lead to discrimination and vice versa. 5. Discrimination – Sociologist Joe Feagin’s Theory Answer: Discrimination – Sociologist Joe Feagin’s Theory: Sociologist Joe Feagin developed a theory of discrimination that emphasizes the systemic and institutionalized nature of racial discrimination in the United States. Feagin argues that discrimination is not merely the result of individual prejudices but is deeply embedded in social structures and institutions. Feagin identifies two main types of discrimination: 1. Individual Discrimination: This involves actions taken by individuals that intentionally harm or disadvantage members of a particular group. Examples include racist slurs, hate crimes, and biased decision-making in hiring or promotions. 2. Institutional Discrimination: This refers to policies, practices, and procedures within social institutions (e.g., education, criminal justice, housing, and employment) that systematically disadvantage certain groups. Institutional discrimination is often less visible and more insidious than individual discrimination. It includes practices such as redlining in housing, racial profiling by law enforcement, and unequal funding for schools in different neighbourhoods. Feagin's theory underscores the importance of addressing both overt and covert forms of discrimination to achieve true equality. It calls for systemic changes to dismantle institutional barriers and create a more just and equitable society. 6. Applying Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Race and Ethnic Relations Answer: Applying Symbolic Interactionist Perspective on Race and Ethnic Relations: The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on the daily interactions and symbols that individuals use to create and interpret their social reality. When applied to race and ethnic relations, this perspective emphasizes the ways in which race and ethnicity are socially constructed through language, symbols, and interactions. 1. Social Construction of Race: Symbolic interactionists argue that race is not a biological fact but a social construct. Racial categories are created, maintained, and changed through social processes, including language, media, and interpersonal interactions. 2. Racial Identity: Individuals develop their racial and ethnic identities through interactions with others. These identities are reinforced or challenged in various social contexts, such as schools, workplaces, and communities. 3. Labeling and Stereotypes: Symbolic interactionists study how labels and stereotypes are attached to different racial and ethnic groups. These labels influence how individuals are perceived and treated by others, and they can affect self-concept and behavior. 4. Microaggressions: Everyday interactions can include subtle forms of discrimination, known as microaggressions, which convey derogatory or negative messages to people based on their race or ethnicity. These interactions cumulatively impact the well-being and social standing of marginalized groups. By focusing on the micro-level of social interaction, symbolic interactionists provide insights into how racial and ethnic relations are experienced and reproduced in everyday life. 7. Applying Functionalist Perspective on Race and Ethnic Relations Answer: Applying Functionalist Perspective on Race and Ethnic Relations: The functionalist perspective views society as a complex system with interdependent parts that work together to promote stability and social order. When applied to race and ethnic relations, this perspective examines how racial and ethnic diversity contributes to or disrupts societal equilibrium. 1. Social Integration: Functionalists analyse how racial and ethnic diversity can enhance social cohesion by bringing different perspectives and skills to a society. They emphasize the importance of social institutions, such as education and the legal system, in integrating diverse groups. 2. Dysfunction: Functionalists also acknowledge that racial and ethnic tensions can create dysfunctions in society, such as social unrest, inequality, and conflict. These dysfunctions need to be addressed to maintain social stability. 3. Assimilation: One functionalist approach to race relations is the concept of assimilation, where minority groups are encouraged to adopt the dominant culture's norms and values. This process is seen as a way to reduce conflict and promote social harmony. 4. Equilibrium: Functionalists stress the need for policies and practices that promote equality and reduce disparities between racial and ethnic groups to achieve social equilibrium. This includes affirmative action, anti-discrimination laws, and programs that support minority communities. Overall, the functionalist perspective focuses on the role of social institutions and practices in managing diversity and ensuring the smooth functioning of society. 8. Compare and Contrast the Symbolic Interaction, Functional, and Conflict Perspectives Answer: Compare and Contrast the Symbolic Interaction, Functional, and Conflict Perspectives: Symbolic Interaction Perspective: • Focus: Micro-level interactions and the use of symbols in creating social reality. • Key Concepts: Social construction of race, labeling, stereotypes, identity formation, microaggressions. • Approach: Examines how individuals and groups interact and perceive race and ethnicity in everyday life. Functionalist Perspective: • Focus: Macro-level structures and functions of society. • Key Concepts: Social integration, dysfunction, assimilation, equilibrium. • Approach: Analyses how racial and ethnic diversity contributes to or disrupts social stability and cohesion. Conflict Perspective: • Focus: Macro-level power dynamics and inequalities. • Key Concepts: Power, exploitation, systemic inequality, social change. • Approach: Emphasizes how dominant groups maintain power and control over subordinate groups through economic, political, and social means. Comparison: • Similarities: All three perspectives address issues related to race and ethnicity and recognize the impact of social structures and interactions on racial and ethnic relations. • Differences: • Symbolic interactionists focus on individual and group interactions, while functionalists and conflict theorists analyse broader societal structures. • Functionalists emphasize stability and cohesion, whereas conflict theorists highlight power struggles and inequality. 9. Define Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism. What Kinds of Things Would You Recommend in Order to Achieve Lower Levels of Prejudice in the U.S.? Answer: • Prejudice: Preconceived opinions or attitudes about individuals or groups, often negative and not based on actual experience or knowledge. • Discrimination: Actions or behavior that unfairly treat individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, ethnicity, gender, or religion. • Racism: A belief system or ideology that asserts the superiority of one race over others, leading to systemic discrimination and unequal treatment of racial groups. Recommendations to Achieve Lower Levels of Prejudice in the U.S.: 1. Education: Implement comprehensive education programs that promote cultural awareness, inclusivity, and the history of racial and ethnic diversity in the U.S. 2. Media Representation: Encourage diverse and accurate representation of racial and ethnic groups in media to challenge stereotypes and promote positive images. 3. Intergroup Contact: Foster opportunities for meaningful interactions between diverse groups through community programs, workplace diversity initiatives, and social events. 4. Anti-Discrimination Policies: Strengthen and enforce anti-discrimination laws and policies in all sectors, including employment, housing, and education. 5. Bias Training: Provide training on implicit bias and prejudice reduction for educators, law enforcement, healthcare providers, and other key professionals. 6. Support for Marginalized Communities: Invest in programs that support the economic, educational, and social advancement of marginalized communities. 10. Discuss the Issue of Media Framing as It Relates to Race and Ethnicity Answer: Media framing refers to the way information is presented and organized by the media, shaping public perception and understanding of social issues. Media framing of race and ethnicity can have significant impacts on how these topics are perceived and discussed in society. Key Points: 1. Stereotypes and Bias: Media often perpetuates stereotypes by framing stories in ways that reinforce negative or simplistic images of racial and ethnic groups. For example, minority groups may be disproportionately portrayed as criminals or victims, while their positive contributions are overlooked. 2. Agenda-Setting: Media plays a crucial role in setting the public agenda by choosing which issues to highlight and how to present them. This can influence which racial and ethnic issues gain attention and how they are prioritized by policymakers and the public. 3. Language and Imagery: The language and imagery used in media coverage can shape viewers' perceptions. For instance, describing protests as "riots" versus "demonstrations" can evoke different reactions and imply different levels of legitimacy or threat. 4. Framing Effects: The framing of racial and ethnic issues can affect attitudes and behavior. Positive framing can foster empathy and support for equality, while negative framing can exacerbate prejudice and division. Recommendations for Improvement: 1. Diverse Perspectives: Ensure that media outlets include diverse voices and perspectives in their reporting and editorial teams to provide more balanced and accurate coverage. 2. Responsible Reporting: Encourage journalists to avoid sensationalism and instead focus on responsible, nuanced reporting that challenges stereotypes and provides context. 3. Media Literacy: Promote media literacy programs that educate the public on how to critically analyse media content and recognize framing techniques. 4. Accountability: Hold media organizations accountable for biased or harmful framing practices through public feedback, regulatory oversight, and professional standards. By addressing the ways in which media frames race and ethnicity, society can work towards more equitable and accurate representations that promote understanding and social cohesion. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154
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