CHAPTER 4 – SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND INTERACTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1. __________ is/are the process(es) by which people act toward or respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society. A. Response patterns B. Social interaction C. Psychological behavior D. Structurally patterned behavior Answer: B 2. __________ is the complex framework of societal institutions (such as the economy, politics, and religion) and the social practices (such as rules and social roles) that make up a society and that organize and establish limits on people’s behavior. A. Social interaction B. Structurally patterned behavior C. Social structure D. Group interaction Answer: C 3. __________ is essential for the survival of society and for the well-being of individuals because it provides a social web of familial support and social relationships that connects each of us to the larger society. A. Social structure B. Group interaction C. Social interaction D. Structurally patterned behavior Answer: A 4. Which is not one of the five traditional institutions? A. family B. educational C. military D. economic Answer: C 5. At the __________, the social structure of a society has several essential elements: social institutions, groups, statuses, roles, and norms. A. mesolevel B. macrolevel C. metalevel D. microlevel Answer: B 6. The mass media is an example of a(n) _______ institution. A. traditional B. emergent C. primary D. evolving Answer: B. 7. __________ theorists emphasize that social structure is essential because it creates order and predictability in a society. Social structure is also important for our human development. A. Functionalist B. Conflict C. Symbolic interactionist D. Premodern Answer: A 8. __________ gives us the ability to interpret the social situations we encounter. For example, we expect our families to care for us, our schools to educate us, and our police to protect us. A. Social interaction B. Structurally patterned behavior C. Social structure D. Group interaction Answer: C 9. Social structure consists of all except A. institutions. B. values. C. groups and their relationships. D. status and roles. Answer: B 10. __________ theorists maintain that in capitalistic societies, where a few people control the labor of many, the social structure reflects a system of relationships of domination among categories of people (for example, owner-worker and employer-employee). A. Premodern B. Symbolic interactionist C. Functionalist D. Conflict Answer: D 11. __________ is the state of being part insider and part outsider in the social structure. Sociologist Robert Park coined this term to refer to persons (such as immigrants) who simultaneously share the life and traditions of two distinct groups. A. Alienation B. Stigmatization C. Social marginality D. Anomie Answer: C 12. A(n) __________ is any physical or social attribute or sign that so devalues a person's social identity that it disqualifies that person from full social acceptance. A. deviant quality B. stigma C. anomic identity D. label Answer: B 13. A convicted criminal, wearing a prison uniform, is an example of a person who has been __________; the uniform says that the person has done something wrong and should not be allowed unsupervised outside the prison walls. A. alienated B. marginalized C. dislabeled D. stigmatized Answer: D 14. __________ are the fastest growing category of homeless persons in the United States. A. Families with children B. Divorced females C. Families without children D. Divorced males Answer: A 15. A __________ is a socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties, and it exists independently of the specific people occupying them. A. role B. label C. status D. class Answer: C 16. Although thousands of new students arrive on college campuses each year to occupy the __________ of first-year student, the position of being a college student and the expectations attached have remained relatively unchanged for the past century. A. label B. status C. role D. class Answer: B 17. A first grade teacher, a daughter, a wife, a mother, a Presbyterian, a soccer coach, and a Kansas resident. All of these socially defined positions constitute her __________. A. status grouping B. status set C. status category D. status diagram Answer: B 18. Jane defines herself first and foremost as a student. For Jane, being a student is considered her ____ status. A. ascribed B. valued C. conspicuous D. master Answer: D 19. Statuses are distinguished by the manner in which we acquire them. A(n) __________ status is a social position conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on attributes over which the individual has little or no control, such as race/ethnicity, age, and gender. A. achieved B. central C. ascribed D. universal Answer: C 20. Jorge is a male born to Mexican American parents; he was assigned these positions at birth. He is an adult and—if he lives long enough—will someday become an “older adult,” which is a(n) __________ status received involuntarily later in life. A. universal B. achieved C. central D. ascribed Answer: D 21. A(n) __________ status is a social position a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort. A. achieved B. central C. ascribed D. universal Answer: A 22. According to sociologist Everett Hughes, a(n) __________ status is the most important status a person occupies; it dominates all of the individual’s other statuses and is the overriding ingredient in determining a person’s general social position. A. valued B. master C. achieved D. ascribed Answer: B 23. Historically, the most common __________ statuses for women have related to positions in the family, such as daughter, wife, and mother. A. master B. ascribed C. achieved D. valued Answer: A 24. Historically for men, occupation has usually been the most common __________. Occupation provides important clues to a person’s educational level, income, and family background. A. valued status B. achieved status C. master status D. ascribed status Answer: C 25. In relation to media framing about the problem of homelessness, __________ refers to news stories that focus primarily on statistics about the homeless population and recent trends in homelessness. A. sociological framing B. semantic framing C. thematic framing D. procedural framing Answer: C 26. __________ include stories about changes in the U. S. poverty rate and articles about states and cities that have had the largest increases in poverty. Most articles of this type are abstract and impersonal, primarily presenting data and some expert’s interpretation of what those data mean. A. Procedural framing B. Thematic framing C. Semantic framing D. Episodic framing Answer: B 27. In relation to media framing about the problem of homelessness, __________ presents public issues such as poverty and homelessness as concrete events, showing them to be specific instances that occur more or less in isolation. A. episodic framing B. semantic framing C. psychological framing D. procedural framing Answer: A 28. __________ may focus on the problems of one homeless family, describing how the parents and kids live in a car and eat meals from a soup kitchen. Often what is not shown is the “big picture” of homelessness. A. Semantic framing B. Thematic framing C. Procedural framing D. Episodic framing Answer: D 29. When people are proud of a particular social status that they occupy, they often choose to use visible means to let others know about their position. __________ are material signs that inform others of a person's specific status. A. Occupational indicators B. Consumables C. Status symbols D. Conspicuous possessions Answer: C 30. Wearing a wedding ring proclaims that a person is married, and owning a Rolls-Royce announces that one has “made it.” These are examples of __________. A. status symbols B. conspicuous consumption C. consumables D. cultural capital Answer: A 31. A __________ is a set of behavioral expectations associated with a given status. A. position B. character C. value D. role Answer: D 32. A carpenter (employee) hired to remodel a kitchen is not expected to sit down uninvited and join the family (employer) for dinner. This is an example of a __________. A. value B. role C. position D. character Answer: B 33. Occupying the status of a college student means that one’s behavior will include attending class, completing assignments, and devoting a lot of time to personal enrichment through academic study. This behavior is referred to as a __________. A. position B. character C. label D. role Answer: D 34. Some statuses have __________ that are highly specific, such as that of surgeons or college professors, other statuses, such as friend or significant other, are less-structured. A. role expectations B. collective judgments C. role performances D. status expectations Answer: A 35. __________ is how a person actually plays a role. A. Role expectation B. Expected behavior C. Normative evaluation D. Role performance Answer: D 36. __________ occurs when the expectations associated with a role are unclear. A. Role expectation B. Role performance C. Role ambiguity D. Role alienation Answer: C 37. It is not always clear when the provider-dependent aspect of the parent-child relationship ends. Should it end at age 18 or 21? When a person is no longer in school? When the expectations associated with a role are unclear, __________ occurs. A. role expectation B. role performance C. role alienation D. role ambiguity Answer: D 38. When __________ occurs, we may feel pulled in different directions. We may prioritize our roles and first complete the one we consider to be most important. Or we may compartmentalize our lives and “insulate” our various roles. A. role ambiguity B. role alienation C. role performance D. role conflict Answer: D 39. On December 7th, Charles has a final exam at 7:00 p.m., when he is supposed to be working. Meanwhile, Stephanie (his girlfriend) is pressuring him to take her to a movie. To top it off, his mother calls, asking him to fly home because his father is going to have emergency surgery. Sociologists would say that Charles is experiencing __________. A. role performance B. role ambiguity C. role conflict D. role alienation Answer: C 40. Research has found that women who engage in behavior that is gender-typed as “masculine,” such as a female student-athlete, tend to have higher rates of __________, than those who engage in traditional “feminine” behavior. A. role conflict B. status frustration C. role ambiguity D. role performance Answer: A 41. Married women may experience more __________ than married men because of work overload, marital inequality with their spouse, exclusive parenting responsibilities, unclear expectations, and lack of emotional support. A. role conflict B. status inconsistency C. role strain D. status frustration Answer: C 42. Recent social changes may have increased __________ for men. In the family, men’s traditional positions of dominance have eroded as more women have entered the paid labor force and demanded more assistance in child-rearing and homemaking responsibilities. A. status frustration B. role strain C. status inconsistency D. role conflict Answer: B 43. Jack is a freshman at the local college. As a student, he is feeling pressure. He wants to party like the rest of his fraternity brothers, while at the same time, he wants to maintain his 4.0 grade point average. Sociologists would say that Jack is experiencing _________. A. role conflict B. role incompatibility C. role reversal D. role strain Answer: D 44. Becky and Eric are best friends and are taking the same sociology course. They have formed a study group to prepare for the tests. As the course progresses, Becky tends to earn much higher test grades and discovers that Eric has found out that she scores higher on the tests. Becky wants to continue to do well in the class, but she doesn’t want to make Eric look or feel bad. It is likely that Becky is experiencing __________. A. role conflict B. role incompatibility C. role strain D. role reversal Answer: C 45. __________ occurs when people consciously foster the impression of a lack of commitment or attachment to a particular role and merely go through the motions of role performance. A. Role distancing B. Role conflict C. Role ambiguity D. Role strain Answer: A 46. While Ben is working in a fast-food restaurant, he does not want people to think of him as a “loser in a dead-end job.” He wants them to view him as a college student who is working there just to “pick up a few bucks” until he graduates. When customers from the college come in, Ben talks to them about what courses they are taking, what they are majoring in, and what professors they have. He does not discuss whether the bacon cheeseburger is better than the chili burger. In this scenario, Ben is engaging in __________. A. role ambiguity B. role inconsistency C. role distancing D. role exiting Answer: C 47. __________ occurs when people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self-identity. A. Status rejection B. Role ambiguity C. Role exit D. Role rejection Answer: C 48. Sociologist Helen Ebaugh concluded that role exit occurs in four stages. __________ is the first stage, in which people experience frustration or burnout when they reflect on their existing roles. A. A search for alternatives B. The creation of a new identity C. The turning point D. Doubt Answer: D 49. To sociologists, a(n) __________ group consists of two or more people who interact frequently and share a common identity and a feeling of interdependence. A. social B. acting C. primary D. secondary Answer: A 50. __________ include our family, close friends, and school- or work-related peer groups. A. Acting groups B. Secondary groups C. Formal groups D. Primary groups Answer: D 51. To sociologists, a(n) __________ is a larger, more specialized group in which members engage in more impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time. A. informal group B. primary group C. secondary group D. acting group Answer: C 52. Schools, churches, and corporations are examples of __________ groups. A. secondary B. acting C. primary D. informal Answer: A 53. __________, or cohesion, refers to a group's ability to maintain itself in the face of obstacles. It exists when social bonds, attractions, or other forces hold members of a group in interaction over a period of time. A. Social networking B. Social solidarity C. Cultural bonding D. Cultural diffusion Answer: B 54. Many of us build __________ that involve our personal friends in primary groups and our acquaintances in secondary groups. This series of relationships links an individual to others. A. cultural bonds B. cohesive structures C. social networks D. cliques Answer: C 55. A __________ is a highly structured group formed for the purpose of completing certain tasks or achieving specific goals. A. secondary organization B. formal organization C. primary organization D. social organization Answer: B 56. A __________ is a set of organized beliefs and rules that establishes how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs. A. group B. social organization C. social institution D. working group Answer: C 57. All of the following are examples of __________: the family, religion, education, the economy, the government (politics), mass media, sports, science and medicine, and the military. A. social institutions B. working groups C. informal organizations D. social associations Answer: A 58. The __________ theorists do not believe that social institutions work for the common good of everyone in society. For example, the homeless lack the power and resources to promote their own interests when they are opposed by dominant social groups. A. conflict B. symbolic interactionist C. functionalist D. postmodern Answer: A 59. From the __________ perspective, U. S. government policies in urban areas have benefited some people but exacerbated the problems of others. Urban renewal and transportation projects have caused the destruction of low-cost housing and put large numbers of people “on the street.” A. postmodern B. functionalist C. conflict D. symbolic interactionist Answer: C 60. Sociologists Emile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tonnies developed __________ to explain the processes of stability and change in the social structure of societies. These classification schemes contain two or more mutually exclusive categories that are used to compare different kinds of behavior or types of societies. A. mapologies B. trilogies C. typologies D. graphologies Answer: C 61. Based on sociologist Emile Durkheim’s viewpoint, __________ derives from a society’s social structure, which, in turn, is based on the society’s division of labor. This division of labor refers to how the various tasks of a society are divided up and performed. A. social solidarity B. social bonding C. social collection D. social grouping Answer: A 62. From sociologist Emile Durkheim’s perspective, __________ refers to the social cohesion of preindustrial societies, in which there is minimal division of labor and people feel united by shared values and common social bonds. A. organic solidarity B. mechanical solidarity C. specialized solidarity D. collective solidarity Answer: B 63. From sociologist Emile Durkheim’s perspective, __________ refers to the social cohesion found in industrial societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence. A. organic solidarity B. mechanical solidarity C. collective solidarity D. specialized solidarity Answer: A 64. Sociologist Emile Durkheim believed that people in industrial societies come to rely on one another in much the same way that the organs of the human body function interdependently. Social interaction is less personal, more status oriented, and more focused on specific goals and objectives. He referred to this condition as __________. A. mechanical solidarity B. specialized solidarity C. collective solidarity D. organic solidarity Answer: D 65. According to sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies, the __________ is a traditional society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability. A. Gemeinschaft B. Patriarchy C. Gesellschaft D. Matriarchy Answer: A 66. According to sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies, the __________ is a large, urban society in which social bonds are based on impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values. A. Patriarchy B. Gesellschaft C. Matriarchy D. Gemeinschaft Answer: B 67. __________ are based on technology that mechanizes production. New technologies, such as cars, computers, electric lights, stereos, and cell phones have stimulated many changes. A. Agrarian societies B. Industrial societies C. Horticultural and Pastoral societies D. Hunting and Gathering societies Answer: B 68. A(n) __________ is one in which technology supports a service- and information-based economy. A. industrial society B. agrarian society C. horticultural and pastoral society D. post-industrial society Answer: D 69. Sociologist Erving Goffman’s term __________ refers to the ways in which an individual shows awareness that another is present without making this person the object of particular attention. A. civil inattention B. selective attention C. passive rudeness D. reserved rejection Answer: A 70. The fact that people engage in civil inattention demonstrates that interaction does have a pattern, or __________, which regulates the form and processes (but not the content) of social interaction. A. patterned interaction B. interaction order C. socially programmed interaction D. reasonable interaction expectation Answer: B 71. Our perceptions about the meaning of a situation vary widely based on the statuses we occupy and our unique personal experiences. In her study of women's reactions to street encounters, sociologist Carol Brooks Gardner determined that women __________. A. usually perceive such encounters as "routine" rituals B. are generally unafraid during such encounters C. fear for their personal safety and try to avoid comments and propositions that are sexual in nature when they walk down the street D. view street encounters in the same way that men do Answer: C 72. Some symbolic interaction theorists believe that there is very little shared reality beyond that which is socially created. They refer to this as the __________, which is the process by which our perception of reality is largely shaped by the subjective meaning that we give to an experience. A. social construction of reality B. objectification of social reality C. subjective assessment of reality D. recertification analysis of reality Answer: A 73. We act on reality as we see it. Sociologists describe this process as the __________, meaning that we analyse a social context in which we find ourselves, determine what is in our best interest, and adjust our attitudes and actions accordingly. A. reality impression B. definition of the situation C. interactionist dialogue D. self-fulfilling prophecy Answer: B 74. A(n) __________ is a false belief or prediction that produces behavior that makes the originally false belief come true. A. definition of the situation B. interactionist dialogue C. reality impression D. self-fulfilling prophecy Answer: D 75. Suppose that a person is told repeatedly that she or he is not a good student. Eventually, this person might come to believe it to be true, stop studying, and receive failing grades. This scenario exemplifies a __________. A. self-fulfilling prophecy B. false definition of reality C. distorted impression of reality D. false consciousness Answer: A 76. According to _____________, interaction is based on assumptions of shared expectancies. For example, when you are talking with someone, what expectations do you have that you will take turns? A. conflict theorists B. ethnomethodologists C. functionalists D. rational choice theorists Answer: B 77. Based on sociologist Erving Goffman’s perspectives, __________ is the study of social interaction that compares everyday life to a theatrical presentation. A. ethnomethodology B. dramaturgical analysis C. impression management D. presentational analysis Answer: B 78. __________, or presentation of self, refers to people's efforts to present themselves to others in ways that are most favourable to their own interests or image. A. Impression management B. Presentational analysis C. Dramaturgical presentation D. Ethnomethodological introduction Answer: A 79. According to sociologist Erving Goffman, ___________ refers to the strategies we use to rescue our performance when we experience a potential or actual embarrassing situation. A. studied nonobservance B. front and back stage behavior C. face-saving behavior D. social reconstruction Answer: C 80. Sociologist Erving Goffman noted that people consciously participate in __________, a face-saving technique in which one role player ignores the flaws in another’s performance to avoid embarrassment for everyone involved. A. studied nonobservance B. the definition of the situation C. front stage behavior D. back stage behavior Answer: A 81. Sociologist Erving Goffman used the term __________ in referring to the area where a player performs a specific role before an audience. A. front stage B. back stage C. interior stage D. exterior stage Answer: A 82. A football coach plays the "tough guy" role when he is actively performing his job with the members of his team. This illustrates what sociologist Erving Goffman called __________ behavior. A. back stage B. interior stage C. front stage D. exterior front Answer: C 83. A football coach who always plays the "tough guy" role in the presence of the players on his team feels comfortable showing emotional frailties when he is at home. This illustrates what sociologist Erving Goffman called __________ behavior. A. back stage B. interior stage C. front stage D. exterior stage Answer: A 84. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild suggests that we acquire a set of __________ that shape the appropriate emotions for a given role or specific situation, including how, where, when, and with whom an emotion should be expressed. A. emotional labors B. dramaturgical guidelines C. feeling rules D. socioemotional norms Answer: C 85. All jobs place some burden on our feelings; however, __________ occurs only in jobs that require personal contact with the public or the production of a state of mind (such as hope, desire, or fear) in others. A. cognitive labor B. emotional labor C. psychological labor D. sociological labor Answer: B 86. Facebook, the social networking website, originated A. among college students. B. with Bill Gates. C. by a software company. D. with two video game developers. Answer: A 87. The transfer of information between persons without the use of words is referred to as __________. It includes not only visual cues (gestures, appearances) but also vocal features (inflection, volume, pitch) and environmental factors (use of space, position) that affect meanings. A. on-stage dramatization B. nonverbal communication C. emotional interaction D. back-stage implication Answer: B 88. Sociologist Erving Goffman suggested that __________ (how we behave or conduct ourselves) is relative to social power. People in positions of dominance are allowed a wider range of permissible actions than are their subordinates. A. demeanor B. emotional expression C. deference D. structured inequality Answer: A 89. According to sociologist Erving Goffman, __________ is the symbolic means by which subordinates give a required permissive response to those in power. It confirms the existence of inequality and reaffirms each person's relationship to the other. A. demeanor B. facial expression C. deference D. structured inequality Answer: C 90. Many individuals who are homeless are A. children. B. disabled. C. those who don’t earn enough to pay for housing. D. all the above Answer: D 91. One homeless shelter project started by college students is the A. Homeless Project, USA. B. Harvard Square Homeless Shelter. C. Students for Homelessness. D. New York Society for Homeless Assistance. Answer: B TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1. Social interaction is the process by which people act toward or respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society. Answer: True 2. Social structure is essential for the survival of society and for the well-being of individuals because it provides a social web of familial support and social relationships that connects each of us to the larger society. Answer: True 3. Society can be broken down into social institutions, groups, statuses and roles. Answer: True 4. Social structure provides the framework within which we interact with others. At the microlevel, the social structure of a society has several essential elements: social institutions, groups, statuses, roles, and norms. Answer: False Rejoinder: Social structure is looked at from a macrolevel of analysis, whereas social interaction is looked at from a microlevel of analysis. 5. Newly homeless individuals may feel disoriented because they do not know how to function in their new setting. Social interaction helps people make sense out of their environment even when they find themselves on the streets. Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is social structure, which is the complex framework of societal institutions (such as the economy, politics, and religion) and the social practices (such as rules and social roles) that make up a society and that organize and establish limits on people’s behavior. Social interaction is the process by which people act toward or respond to other people and is the foundation for all relationships and groups in society. 6. Conflict theorists maintain that in capitalistic societies, where a few people control the labor of many, the social structure reflects a system of relationships of domination among categories of people (for example, owner-worker and employer-employee). Answer: True 7. An achieved status is a social position conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life based on attributes over which the individual has little or no control (such as race/ethnicity, age, and gender). Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct term is ascribed status; achieved status is a social position that a person assumes involuntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort (such as occupation, education, and income). 8. A CEO occupies various statuses including that of an African American, father, husband, tennis player and CEO. He considers his status as a CEO to be the most important. His status as CEO is considered his master status. Answer: True 9. When people are proud of a particular social status that they occupy, they often choose to use visible means to let others know about their position. Status symbols are material signs that inform others of a person’s specific status. Answer: True 10. A role is a set of behavioral expectations associated with a given status. Role performance always matches role expectations. Answer: False Rejoinder: Role performance does not always match role expectations. Some statuses have role expectations that are highly specific, such as that of surgeon or college professor. Other statuses, such as friend or significant other, have less-structured expectations. Role expectations are typically based on a range of acceptable behaviors rather than on strictly defined standards. 11. Many women experience role strain in the labor force because they hold jobs that are “less satisfying and more stressful than men’s jobs since they involve less money, less prestige, fewer job openings, and more career roadblocks.” Answer: True 12. People use role exiting techniques when they do not want others to take them as the “self” implied in a particular role, especially if they think the role is “beneath them.” Answer: False Rejoinder: The correct response is role distancing which occurs when people consciously foster the impression of a lack of commitment or attachment to a particular role and merely go through the motions of role performance (such as a college student/fast-food restaurant employee), whereas role exiting occurs when people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self-identity (such as an ex-convict or a divorcee). 13. A primary group is a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time. They include our family, close friends, and school or work related peer groups. Answer: True 14. Symbolic interaction theorists emphasize that social institutions exist because they perform five essential tasks: replacing members; teaching new members; producing, distributing, and consuming goods and services; preserving order; and providing and maintaining a sense of purpose. Answer: False Rejoinder: This is actually a functionalist perspective. They are the theorists who emphasize that social institutions (a set of organized beliefs and rules that establishes how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs) exist because they perform the five essential tasks listed. 15. Sociologist Emile Durkheim stated that as societies industrialized and developed more specialized economic activities, social solidarity came to be rooted in the members’ shared dependence on one another. Answer: True 16. Sociologist Emile Durkheim coined the term organic solidarity to refer to the social cohesion found in industrial (and perhaps postindustrial) societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence. Answer: True 17. In Gemeinschaft societies such as the United States, a prevailing core value is that people should be able to take care of themselves. Thus many people view the homeless as “throwaways” – as beyond help or as having already had enough done for them by society. Answer: False Rejoinder: The United States is actually considered a Gesellschaft society according to sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies’ terms. Gemeinschaft is a traditional society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability. By contrast, Gesellschaft is a large, urban society in which social bonds are based on impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values. 18. The symbolic interactionist perspective uses the macro sociological approach to study the homeless. In doing so, it might analyze how social institutions have operated to produce current conditions. Answer: False Rejoinder: The functionalist and conflict perspectives use the macro sociological approach to study the homeless and they might analyse how social institutions have operated to produce current conditions. The symbolic interactionist perspective uses the micro sociological approach to study the homeless. In doing so, it might ask how social institutions affect our daily lives. 19. Conflict theorists believe that there is very little shared reality beyond that which is socially created. They refer to this as the social construction of reality – the process by which our perception of reality is largely shaped by the objective meaning that we give to an experience. Answer: False Rejoinder: The social construction of reality was developed by symbolic interactionists and the process is largely shaped by the subjective meaning that we give to an experience. 20. We act on reality as we see it. Sociologists describe this process as the definition of the situation, meaning that we analyse a social context in which we find ourselves, determine what is in our best interest, and adjust our attitudes and actions accordingly. This can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Answer: True 21. Sociologist Harold Garfinkel developed dramaturgy—the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves. Answer: False Rejoinder: Sociologist Harold Garfinkel developed ethnomethodology—the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves. Sociologist Erving Goffman developed dramaturgical analysis—the study of social interaction that compares everyday life to a theatrical presentation. 22. Although all jobs place some burden on our feelings, emotional labor occurs only in jobs that require personal contact with the public or the production of a state of mind (such as hope, desire, or fear) in others. Answer: True 23. Erving Goffman was very interested in the area of impression management. He defined this as people’s efforts to present themselves to others in ways that are most favourable to their own interests or image. Answer: True 24. Contributions made by Erving Goffman include impression management, face-saving, dramaturgical analysis, and master status. Answer: False Rejoinder: Goffman is noted for the first three. However, Everett Hughes is associated with the concept master status. 25. Facebook was originated by Facebook. Answer: False Rejoinder: Facebook was actually originated by two college students. SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1. State the definition of social structure and explain why it is important for individuals and society. Answer: Social structure is the complex framework of societal institutions (such as the economy, politics, and religion) and the social practices (such as rules and social roles) that make up a society and that organizes and establishes limits on people’s behavior. This structure is essential for the survival of society and for the well-being of individuals because it provides a social web of familial support and social relationships that connects each of us to the larger society. Social structure provides the framework within which we interact with others. This framework is an orderly, fixed arrangement of parts that together make up the whole group or society. At the macrolevel, the social structure of a society has several essential elements: social institutions, groups, statuses, roles, and norms. Social structure is essential because it creates order and predictability in a society. Social structure is also important for our human development. Social structure gives us the ability to interpret the social situations we encounter. In addition to providing a map for our encounters with others, social structure may limit our options and place us in arbitrary categories not of our own choosing. Social structure creates boundaries that define which persons or groups will be the “insiders” and which will be the “outsiders.” The social structure of a society includes its social positions and the relationship among those positions. 2. Provide the definition of status and distinguish between ascribed status and achieved status. Answer: A status is a socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties. Statuses exist independently of the specific people occupying them. Your social identity is derived from the statuses you occupy and is based on your status set. A status set comprises all the statuses that a person occupies at a given time. Statuses are distinguished by the manner in which we acquire them. An ascribed status is a social position conferred at birth or received involuntarily later in life, based on attributes over which the individual has little or no control, such as race/ethnicity, age, and gender. An achieved status is a social position that a person assumes voluntarily as a result of personal choice, merit, or direct effort. Achieved statuses (such as occupation, education, and income) are thought to be gained as a result of personal ability or successful competition. Most occupational positions in modern societies are achieved statuses. Ascribed statuses have a significant influence on the achieved statuses we occupy. Race/ethnicity, gender, and age affect each person’s opportunity to acquire certain achieved statuses. 3. Define roles, role expectations, role performance, role conflict, and role strain, and summarize their relationships. Answer: Role is the dynamic aspect of a status. Whereas we occupy a status, we play a role. A role is a set of behavioral expectations associated with a given status. Role expectation is a group’s or society’s definition of the way that a specific role ought to be played. By contrast, role performance is how a person actually plays the role. Role performance does not always match role expectations. Role expectations are typically based on a range of acceptable behavior rather than on strictly defined standards. Our roles are relational (or complementary); that is, they are defined in the context of roles performed by others. Role ambiguity occurs when the expectations associated with a role are unclear. Most people occupy a number of statuses, each of which has numerous role expectations attached. Role conflict occurs when incompatible role demands are placed on a person by two or more statuses held at the same time. When role conflict occurs, we may feel pulled in different directions. To deal with this problem, we may prioritize our roles and first complete the one we consider to be most important. Or we may compartmentalize our lives and “insulate” our various roles. Role conflict may occur as a result of changing statuses and roles in society. Whereas role conflict occurs between two or more statuses, role strain takes place within one status. Role strain occurs when incompatible demands are built into a single status that a person occupies. Sexual orientation, age, and occupation are frequently associated with role strain. Individuals frequently distance themselves from a role they find extremely stressful or otherwise problematic. Role distancing occurs when people consciously foster the impression of a lack of commitment or attachment to a particular role and merely go through the motions of role performance. 4. Describe the processes of role distancing and role exiting. Answer: Individuals frequently distance themselves from a role they find extremely stressful or otherwise problematic. Role distancing occurs when people consciously foster the impression of a lack of commitment or attachment to a particular role and merely go through the motions of role performance. Role exit occurs when people disengage from social roles that have been central to their self-identity. According to sociologist Helen Ebaugh, (who studied this process by interviewing ex-convicts, ex-nuns, retirees, divorced men and women, and others who had exited voluntarily from significant social roles), role exit occurs in four stages. The first stage is doubt, in which people experience frustration or burnout when they reflect on their existing roles. The second stage involves a search for alternatives; here, people may take a leave of absence from their work or temporarily separate from their marriage partner. The third stage is the turning point, at which people realize that they must take some final action, such as quitting their job or getting a divorce. The fourth and final stage involves the creation of a new identity. 5. Define social group and explain the difference between primary groups and secondary groups. Answer: To sociologists, a social group consists of two or more people who interact frequently and share a common identity and a feeling of interdependence. Primary groups and secondary groups are the two basic types of social groups. A primary group is a small, less specialized group in which members engage in face-to-face, emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time. Primary groups include our family, close friends, and school or work related peer groups. By contrast, a secondary group is a larger, more specialized group in which members engage in more impersonal, goal-oriented relationships for a limited period of time. Schools, churches, and corporations are examples of secondary groups. In secondary groups, people have few, if any emotional ties to one another. Instead, they come together for some specific, practical purpose, such as getting a degree or a pay check. Secondary groups are more specialized than primary groups; individuals relate to one another in terms of specific roles (such as professor and student) and more-limited activities (such as course-related endeavours). 6. State the definition of social institution and name the major institutions found in contemporary society. Discuss the views of functionalist and conflict theorist on social institutions. Answer: A social institution is a set of organized beliefs and rules that establishes how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs. In the past, these needs have centred around five basic social institutions: the family, religion, education, the economy, and the government (or politics). Today, mass media, sports, science and medicine, and the military are also considered to be social institutions. Functional theorists emphasize that social institutions exist because they perform five essential tasks. (1) replacing members, (2) teaching new members, (3) producing, distributing, and consuming goods and services, (4) preserving order, and (5) providing and maintaining a sense of purpose. Conflict theorists do not believe that social institutions work for the common good of everyone in society. From the conflict perspective, social institutions such as the government maintain the privileges of the wealthy and powerful while contributing to the powerlessness of others. 7. Describe sociologist Emile Durkheim’s typology of mechanical and organic solidarity. Answer: Sociologist Emile Durkheim asserted that preindustrial societies are held together by strong traditions and by the members’ shared moral beliefs and values. As societies industrialized and developed more specialized economic activities, social solidarity came to be rooted in the members’ shared dependence on one another. From Durkheim’s perspective, social solidarity derives from a society’s social structure, which, in turn, is based on the society’s division of labor—how the various tasks of a society are divided up and performed. People in diverse societies divide their tasks somewhat differently based on their own history, physical environment, and level of technological development. To explain social change, Durkheim categorized societies as having either mechanical or organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity refers to the social cohesion of preindustrial societies, in which there is minimal division of labor and people feel united by shared values and common social bonds. Durkheim believed that people in such preindustrial societies feel a more or less automatic sense of belonging. Social interaction is characterized by face-to-face, intimate, primary group relationships. Everyone is engaged in similar work, and little specialization is found in the division of labor. By contrast, organic solidarity refers to the social cohesion found in industrial societies, in which people perform very specialized tasks and feel united by their mutual dependence. Durkheim believed that individuals in industrial societies come to rely on one another. Social interaction is less personal, more status oriented, and more focused on specific goals and objectives. People no longer rely on morality or shared values for social solidarity; instead, they are bound together by practical considerations. 8. Discuss sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies theory on the degree of social solidarity and social control found in societies. Answer: Sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies used the terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft to characterize the degree of social solidarity and social control found in societies. The Gemeinschaft is a traditional society in which social relationships are based on personal bonds of friendship and kinship and on intergenerational stability. These relationships are based on ascribed rather than achieved status. In such societies, people have a commitment to the entire group and feel a sense of togetherness. Social solidarity and social control are maintained by the community. Members have a strong sense of belonging, but they also have very limited privacy. By contrast, Gesellschaft is a large, urban society in which social bonds are based on impersonal and specialized relationships, with little long-term commitment to the group or consensus on values. In such societies, most people are “strangers” who perceive that they have very little in common with most other people. Consequently, self-interest dominates, and little consensus exists regarding values. Relationships are based on achieved statuses, and interactions among people are both rational and calculated. 9. Describe what symbolic interactionists mean by the social construction of reality. Answer: Symbolic interactionists believe that there is very little shared reality beyond that which is socially created. They refer to this as the social construction of reality—the process by which our perception of reality is largely shaped by the subjective meaning that we give to an experience. This meaning strongly influences what we “see” and how we respond to situations. Our perceptions and behavior are influenced by how we initially define situations. We act on reality as we see it. Sociologists describe this process as the definition of the situation, meaning that we analyze a social context in which we find ourselves, determine what is in our best interest, and adjust our attitudes and actions accordingly. This can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy—a false belief or prediction that produces behavior that makes the originally false belief come true. 10. Describe ethnomethodology and note its strengths. Answer: Ethnomethodology is the study of the commonsense knowledge that people use to understand the situations in which they find themselves. Sociologist Harold Garfinkel initiated this approach because he was critical of mainstream sociology for not recognizing the ongoing ways in which people create reality and produce their own world. Consequently, ethnomethodologists examine existing patterns of conventional behavior in order to uncover people’s background expectations—that is, their shared interpretations of objects and events—as well as their resulting actions. According to ethnomethodologists, interaction is based on assumptions of shared expectancies. To uncover people’s background expectancies, ethnomethodologists frequently break “rules” or act as though they do not understand some basic rule of social life so that they can observe other people’s responses. The ethnomethodological approach contributes to our knowledge of social interaction by making us aware of subconscious social realities in our daily lives. 11. Describe sociologist Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical analysis and explain what he meant by presentation of self. Answer: Sociologist Erving Goffman suggested that day-to-day interactions have much in common with being on stage or in a dramatic production. Dramaturgical analysis is the study of social interaction that compares everyday life to a theatrical presentation. Consequently, most of us attempt to play our role as well as possible and to control the impressions we give to others. Impression management (presentation of self) refers to people’s efforts to present themselves to others in ways that are most favourable to their own interests or image. In Goffman’s terminology, face-saving behavior refers to the strategies we use to rescue our performance when we experience a potential or actual loss of face. Goffman noted that people consciously participate in studied nonobservance—a face-saving technique in which one role player ignores the flaws in another’s performance to avoid embarrassment for everyone involved. Social interaction, like a theater, has a front stage and a back stage. The front stage is the area where a player performs a specific role before an audience. The back stage is the area where a player is not required to perform a specific role because it is out of view of a given audience. The need for impression management is most intense when role players have widely divergent or devalued statuses. 12. Explain what is meant by the sociology of emotions and describe sociologist Arlie Hochschild’s contribution to this area of study. Answer: Sociologist Arlie Hochschild suggests that we acquire a set of feeling rules that shapes the appropriate emotions for a given role or specific situation. These rules include how, where, when, and with whom an emotion should be expressed. Feeling rules also apply to our occupational roles. Although all jobs place some burden on our feelings, emotional labor occurs only in jobs that require personal contact with the public or the production of a state of mind (such as hope, desire, or fear) in others. Hochschild’s contribution to the sociology of emotions helps us understand the social context of our feelings and the relationship between the roles we play and the emotions we experience. The context in which emotions are studied and the specific emotions examined are important factors in determining the costs and benefits of emotional labor. 13. Define nonverbal communication and explain how this concept relates to our interactions with others. Answer: Nonverbal communication is the transfer of information between persons without the use of words. It includes not only visual cues (gestures, appearances) but also vocal features (inflection, volume, pitch) and environmental factors (use of space, position) that affect meanings. Facial expressions, head movements, body positions, and other gestures carry as much of the total meaning of our communication with others as our spoken words do. Nonverbal communications may be intentional or unintentional. Nonverbal communication often supplements verbal communication. Head and facial movements may provide us with information about other people’s emotional states, and others receive similar information from us. Our social interaction is regulated by nonverbal communication. Through our body posture and eye contact, we signal that we do or do not wish to speak to someone. Nonverbal communication establishes the relationship among people in terms of their responsiveness to and power over one another. Facial expressions, especially smiles, also reflect gender-based patterns of dominance and subordination in society. Eye contact can be a sign of domination or deference. Touching is another form of nonverbal behavior that has many different shades of meaning. Physical space is an important component of nonverbal communication. According to anthropologist Edward Hall, personal space is the immediate area surrounding a person that the person claims as private. 14. Describe some of the stereotypes which exist concerning the homeless along with what college students at Harvard did to help the homeless. Answer: A major stereotype is that some allegedly homeless people abuse the practice of asking for money on the streets and that many are faking injury or poverty so that they can take advantage of generous people. Students from Harvard, along with city and church leaders, created the Harvard Square Homeless Shelter in 1983. This was done in order to address the housing needs of Cambridge’s poorest residents. Originally, it was hoped that it would be just temporary but it is still in existence. 15. What are some of the ways in which you and your school can help the homeless? Answer: Several things have been recommended for college students to do in order to benefit the poor and homeless. These include: (1) understanding who the homeless in order to debunk some of the stereotypes often associated with the homeless; (2) buy the Street News if you live in a community which has this publication since the homeless receive a small amount from every paper sold; (3) give money, clothing, and/or recyclables to groups that help the homeless, (4) volunteer at a shelter in some capacity; and (5) look for campus organizations that work with the homeless. ESSAY SECTION 1. Discuss the significance of status as a component of social structure. Answer: Status is a fundamental component of social structure because it defines the position an individual holds within a society. It shapes interactions, expectations, and the distribution of resources. There are two main types of status: ascribed and achieved. • Ascribed Status: This is a social position assigned at birth or involuntarily later in life, such as race, gender, or family heritage. It significantly influences one's life chances and opportunities. • Example: Being born into a royal family automatically confers a high social status. • Achieved Status: This status is earned through individual effort and accomplishment, such as educational attainment, career, or personal skills. • Example: Becoming a doctor through years of study and training. Significance: • Social Identity: Status contributes to an individual's social identity and influences how they perceive themselves and are perceived by others. • Social Hierarchies: It establishes social hierarchies and stratification, determining who has power, prestige, and access to resources. • Role Expectations: Status comes with certain roles and expectations. For example, a teacher is expected to educate students and maintain discipline. • Social Interaction: Status influences social interactions, as individuals often behave according to the status of those they are interacting with. For instance, people typically show deference to those with higher status. In summary, status is a critical element of social structure as it organizes individuals within a society, guiding interactions, expectations, and the distribution of power and resources. 2. Discuss the various aspects of roles as a component of social structure. Answer: Roles are the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status. They are essential components of social structure, providing guidelines for how individuals should act in specific social positions. Aspects of Roles: • Role Expectations: These are the socially defined behaviors expected of an individual occupying a particular status. They guide how people should act in different situations. • Example: A teacher is expected to educate students, prepare lessons, and maintain classroom discipline. • Role Performance: This refers to how an individual actually behaves in their role, which may vary from societal expectations. Role performance can be influenced by personal traits and circumstances. • Example: A teacher may be expected to be strict, but their performance might be more lenient and supportive. • Role Conflict: This occurs when there are incompatible demands placed upon a person by two or more statuses held simultaneously. It creates tension and difficulty in fulfilling the requirements of each role. • Example: A person who is both a parent and a corporate executive may struggle to balance the demands of both roles. • Role Strain: This occurs when there are incompatible demands within a single role, leading to stress and difficulty in performing the role effectively. • Example: A student may experience role strain when trying to balance studying for exams and participating in extracurricular activities. • Role Exit: This involves disengaging from a role that has been central to one's identity and establishing a new role. • Example: A retiring professional leaving their career and adjusting to the new role of a retiree. Roles are crucial because they structure behavior and provide a framework for social interaction, ensuring that society functions smoothly and predictably. 3. Define and give an example of: role conflict, role strain, and role exit. How do they differ from another? Answer: Role Conflict: • Definition: Role conflict occurs when a person faces competing demands from different statuses they hold simultaneously, leading to tension and difficulty in fulfilling each role effectively. • Example: A person who is both a parent and a manager may have to choose between attending a child's school event and an important work meeting. • Difference: Role conflict involves clashes between multiple roles associated with different statuses. Role Strain: • Definition: Role strain happens when there are conflicting demands within a single role, causing stress and difficulty in performing the role satisfactorily. • Example: A student who needs to balance studying for exams, completing assignments, and participating in school activities may experience role strain. • Difference: Role strain involves tension within one role rather than between different roles. Role Exit: • Definition: Role exit refers to the process of disengaging from a role that has been central to one’s identity and transitioning to a new role. • Example: A military officer retiring from service and adjusting to civilian life. • Difference: Role exit is about leaving a role entirely and transitioning to a new role, rather than managing conflicting demands within or between roles. 4. Describe groups and differentiate between primary and secondary groups as components of social structure. Answer: Groups: Groups are collections of individuals who interact and form relationships. They are essential components of social structure, providing contexts in which social interactions occur and influencing individuals’ behaviors and identities. Primary Groups: • Definition: Primary groups are small, close-knit, and usually involve face-to-face, long-term interactions. They are characterized by strong emotional bonds and significant personal relationships. • Examples: Family, close friends, and intimate relationships. • Functions: Provide emotional support, socialization, and a sense of belonging. Secondary Groups: • Definition: Secondary groups are larger, more impersonal, and often goal-oriented. They involve more temporary and formal relationships based on specific activities or objectives. • Examples: Workplaces, schools, and professional associations. • Functions: Facilitate task completion, achieve specific goals, and provide members with access to resources and networks. Differences: • Size and Duration: Primary groups are smaller and involve long-term relationships, while secondary groups are larger and more temporary. • Nature of Interaction: Primary groups are characterized by intimate, personal interactions, whereas secondary groups are more impersonal and goal-oriented. • Emotional Bonds: Primary groups have strong emotional ties, while secondary groups have weaker emotional connections. Both types of groups are crucial for social structure, providing different types of support, interaction, and socialization. 5. Discuss the functional and conflict views on social institutions. Answer: Functional View on Social Institutions: The functionalist perspective views social institutions as essential components of society that work together to maintain stability and order. Each institution fulfils specific functions that contribute to the overall functioning of society. • Functions of Social Institutions: • Family: Socializes children, provides emotional support, and regulates reproduction. • Education: Transmits knowledge, values, and skills, and promotes social integration. • Economy: Manages the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. • Government: Maintains order, provides protection, and regulates interactions. • Religion: Provides moral guidance, social cohesion, and a sense of purpose. • Example: Education institutions prepare individuals for their roles in the workforce, contributing to economic stability and social cohesion. Conflict View on Social Institutions: The conflict perspective views social institutions as instruments of social control and inequality, perpetuating the dominance of powerful groups over others. Institutions are seen as maintaining the status quo and benefiting those in power. • Functions of Social Institutions: • Family: Reinforces gender roles and patriarchal structures. • Education: Reproduces social inequality by providing different levels of education to different social classes. • Economy: Exploits labor and perpetuates wealth inequality. • Government: Serves the interests of the ruling class and suppresses dissent. • Religion: Justifies the existing social order and discourages social change. • Example: The education system may perpetuate class divisions by providing better resources and opportunities to students from affluent backgrounds, while underfunding schools in poorer areas. Differences: • Functionalists view social institutions as necessary for social stability and cohesion, emphasizing their positive contributions. • Conflict theorists focus on the power dynamics and inequalities perpetuated by social institutions, highlighting their role in maintaining social stratification. Both perspectives offer valuable insights into the role of social institutions, with functionalists emphasizing their contributions to social order and conflict theorists highlighting their role in perpetuating inequality. 6. In relation to stability and change in societies, describe sociologist Emile Durkheim’s mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity approach. Answer: Emile Durkheim, a foundational figure in sociology, explored the dynamics of social solidarity—how societies maintain stability amid change. He distinguished between mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity as two types of social cohesion: • Mechanical Solidarity: • Characteristics: Found in traditional, pre-industrial societies where individuals share similar values, beliefs, and lifestyles. • Basis: Solidarity is based on the similarity of tasks and roles performed by individuals within the society. • Integration: Social cohesion is achieved through collective consciousness and conformity to shared norms and values. • Example: Small agricultural communities where everyone participates in similar activities and adheres to traditional customs. • Organic Solidarity: • Characteristics: Found in modern, industrial societies characterized by division of labor and specialization. • Basis: Solidarity arises from interdependence and cooperation among individuals with diverse roles and functions. • Integration: Social cohesion is achieved through mutual dependence and the functional integration of various specialized roles. • Example: Urban societies where people perform different jobs and rely on each other for goods, services, and expertise. Stability and Change: • Stability: Durkheim viewed both mechanical and organic solidarity as essential for societal stability. Mechanical solidarity ensures cohesion through shared beliefs and practices, while organic solidarity fosters cooperation through interdependence. • Change: He recognized that societies evolve from mechanical to organic solidarity with industrialization and urbanization. This shift reflects adaptation to new economic and social conditions. Durkheim’s concepts illustrate how societies maintain stability through different forms of social cohesion, adapting to changes brought about by industrialization and modernization. 7. In relation to stability and change in societies, describe sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies’ Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft approach. Answer: Ferdinand Tönnies distinguished between Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society) as two ideal types of social organization, highlighting their impact on stability and change in societies: • Gemeinschaft: • Characteristics: Characterized by intimate, face-to-face relationships, shared traditions, and strong social bonds. • Basis: Social cohesion is based on personal ties, mutual trust, and a sense of belonging. • Integration: Individuals are closely interconnected through kinship, neighbourhood, or community ties. • Example: Small rural communities where people know each other personally and share common values and traditions. • Gesellschaft: • Characteristics: Characterized by impersonal, contractual relationships, individualism, and formal institutions. • Basis: Social cohesion is based on rational self-interest, legal rules, and economic transactions. • Integration: Individuals interact based on specialized roles and formal organizations rather than personal connections. • Example: Urbanized societies where people have diverse roles and interact through formal institutions like markets, businesses, and government. Stability and Change: • Stability: Tönnies viewed Gemeinschaft as providing stable social bonds through shared values and personal relationships, fostering social cohesion and solidarity. • Change: He saw societies transitioning from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft with industrialization and urbanization, leading to a shift from community-based to institution-based relationships. Tönnies’ concepts illustrate how changes in social organization—from close-knit communities to complex societies—affect stability, emphasizing the role of interpersonal relationships and institutional frameworks in shaping social cohesion. 8. In relation to social interaction (the microlevel perspective) discuss sociologist Harold Garfinkel’s ethnomethodology approach. Answer: Harold Garfinkel’s ethnomethodology focuses on the study of how individuals make sense of their everyday social interactions through shared understandings and practical reasoning. It challenges conventional sociological approaches by emphasizing the active role individuals play in creating and maintaining social order. • Key Concepts: • Breaching Experiments: Garfinkel conducted experiments where individuals deliberately violated social norms to observe how people react and how norms are reaffirmed or adjusted. • Indexicality: Understanding that meanings and interpretations of social actions are context-dependent and can vary across different situations. • Accounts: Examining how individuals provide justifications or explanations for their actions in social interactions. • Approach: • Ethnomethodology seeks to uncover the hidden assumptions and background knowledge people use to interpret and navigate social interactions. • It highlights the importance of everyday practices and routines in maintaining social order and stability. • Example: Garfinkel’s study of “breaching experiments” involved instructing his students to engage in behaviors that violated common social norms, such as staring silently at people in elevators or speaking in an overly formal manner to friends. These experiments revealed how individuals rely on shared expectations and understandings to interpret and respond to social situations. Garfinkel’s ethnomethodological approach offers insights into the complexities of social interaction at the microlevel, demonstrating how individuals actively construct and negotiate meaning in everyday life. 9. In relation to social interaction (the microlevel perspective), discuss sociologist Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical analysis. Answer: Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical analysis examines social interaction as analogous to actors performing on a stage, where individuals engage in impression management to convey specific images to others. • Key Concepts: • Front Stage vs. Back Stage: Individuals present different selves in different social contexts. The front stage is where people perform and manage their impression, while the back stage is where they prepare and relax away from public scrutiny. • Impression Management: The process of controlling information to influence others’ perceptions. This involves presenting a desired image or role to achieve specific social goals. • Roles and Scripts: People adopt roles and follow scripts (social norms and expectations) to guide their behavior and interactions in various social situations. • Approach: • Goffman analyzed how individuals use symbolic communication, body language, and gestures to convey social meanings and maintain social order. • He emphasized the fluidity and complexity of social interactions, where individuals strategically adjust their performances based on audience reactions and situational demands. • Example: In everyday interactions, individuals may carefully manage their appearance, demeanor, and speech to create favorable impressions. For instance, a job interviewee might dress professionally, maintain eye contact, and speak confidently to convey competence and suitability for the role. Goffman’s dramaturgical analysis provides a nuanced understanding of social interaction, highlighting the theatrical elements involved in everyday life and the strategies individuals employ to navigate social roles and expectations. 10. Discuss the Facebook “revolution.” How does Erving Goffman’s concept of impression management relate to the development of these websites? Are you on Facebook? Why or why not? Do you have any concerns about being on it? Answer: The rise of Facebook and similar social media platforms can be seen as a "revolution" in how individuals manage their social interactions and self-presentation online. Erving Goffman’s concept of impression management offers insights into how these platforms facilitate the construction and maintenance of social identities. • Impression Management on Social Media: • Profile Construction: Users carefully curate their profiles, selecting photos, sharing posts, and listing interests to present a desired image to their online audience. • Interaction Strategies: People engage in interactions, comments, likes, and shares to shape how others perceive them and to manage their online reputation. • Audience Awareness: Users are conscious of their audience and tailor their posts and interactions accordingly, similar to actors performing on a stage. • Relation to Goffman’s Concept: • Goffman’s framework helps understand how social media users engage in impression management to influence perceptions and maintain social roles online. • Users navigate between front-stage performances (public posts and interactions) and back-stage preparations (private messages and settings) to manage their online personas. • Personal Perspective: • Usage: Yes, I am on Facebook. It allows me to stay connected with friends and family, share updates, and participate in interest groups. • Concerns: Privacy, data security, and the potential impact of social media on mental health are significant concerns. Managing digital footprints and navigating online interactions require awareness of the implications of sharing personal information online. Facebook and similar platforms have revolutionized how individuals interact and present themselves online, reflecting Goffman’s insights into impression management and the theatrical elements of social life. Test Bank for Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials Diana Kendall 9781337109659, 9781111305505, 9781305094154
Download
Close
Close
