CH-10-11 Intelligence, Problem Solving, and Creativity – Psychology: Perspectives and Connections : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 10 to 11 Chapter 10: Intelligence, Problem Solving, and Creativity BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE Intelligence Defining Intelligence Theories of Intelligence Traditional Models of Intelligence: Intelligence as a Single, General Ability Challenging Assumptions of Traditional Views of Intelligence: Intelligence as Multiple Abilities Psychology in the Real World: Bringing Multiple Intelligences to School Measuring Intelligence Traditional Measures of Intelligence Modern Measures of Intelligence Reliability and Validity of IQ Tests Are IQ Tests Biased? Extremes of Intelligence Intellectual Disability Giftedness Prodigies Savants The Nature and Nurture of Human Intelligence Group Differences in Intelligence Scores Race-Ethnicity and Intelligence Gender and Intelligence Non-Western Views of Intelligence Problem Solving Types of Problems Solution Strategies Obstacles to Solutions Creativity What Is Creativity? Stages of Creative Problem Solving Creativity and the Brain Creative Insight and Increased Frontal Lobe Activity Creative Insight and the Right Hemisphere Creativity and Balanced Activity Between the Hemispheres Cognitive Processes in Creative Thinking The Creative Personality Bringing It All Together: Making Connections in Intelligence, Problem Solving, and Creativity: Genius, Intelligence, and Creativity What Is Genius? Is Intelligence Necessary and Sufficient for Creativity? Chapter Review EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE INTELLIGENCE • Many people consider intelligence the primary trait that sets humans apart from other animals. • Psychologists agree that there are three capacities that shape how smart people are, and they constitute the central topics of this chapter: intelligence, problem solving, and creativity. Defining Intelligence • Intelligence is a set of cognitive skills that include abstract thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and the ability to acquire knowledge. Other less agreed-upon qualities of intelligence include mathematical ability, general knowledge, and creativity. Theories of Intelligence • There are two views in understanding intelligence: (1) intelligence is a single, general ability, and (2) intelligence consists of multiple abilities. Traditional Models of Intelligence: Intelligence as a Single, General Ability • Charles Spearman was the first theorist in the area of intelligence. He proposed that human intelligence is best thought of as a single general capacity or ability. Spearman came to this conclusion after research consistently showed that specific dimensions or factors of intelligence—namely, spatial, verbal, perceptual, and quantitative factors—correlated strongly with one another. This suggested that they were all measuring much the same thing. • The g-factor theory describes intelligence as a single general factor made up of specific components. This theory strongly influenced intelligence test construction for most of the 20th century. Challenging Assumptions of Traditional Views of Intelligence: Intelligence as Multiple Abilities • The multiple-factor theory of intelligence states that the different aspects of intelligence are distinct enough that multiple abilities must be considered, not just one; that is, “How are you intelligent?” • Critics of the g factor insisted that IQ test scores by themselves ignore important aspects of intelligence that are not measured by traditional IQ tests. • Early on, Cattell believed in fluid and crystallized intelligence. • Fluid intelligence is how one reasons and problem solves. This involves raw mental ability, pattern recognition, abstract reasoning, and is applied to a problem that a person has never confronted before. Fluid intelligence measures are culture-free because they do not depend on culturally acquired experience to solve. • Crystallized intelligence is knowledge that we have gained from experience and learning, education, and practice. This involves book smarts and cultural knowledge. • Carroll extended this model, arguing that intelligence actually consists of three levels, arranged in a hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy is general intelligence, at the middle is broad intelligence, and at the bottom is narrow intelligence. • General intelligence is very similar to Spearman’s concept of “g.” • Broad intelligence includes abilities such as crystallized and fluid intelligence, as well as memory, learning, and processing speed. • Narrow intelligence includes many distinct abilities, such as speed of reasoning and general sequential reasoning for fluid intelligence and reading, spelling, and language comprehension for crystallized intelligence. • Because this model includes Cattell and Horn’s crystallized and fluid intelligences, it has become known as the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of intelligence. • Sternberg argues for a broader view of intelligence than is found in traditional g-factor theories. • According to Sternberg successful intelligence is an integrated set of abilities needed to attain success in life. • Sternberg argues that three interrelated but distinct abilities make up successful intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical skill. This is called the triarchic theory of intelligence: 1. Analytic intelligence involves judging, evaluating, or comparing and contrasting information, as on an IQ test. 2. Creative intelligence involves solving novel problems and coming up with novel and useful ideas for solving them. 3. Practical intelligence is the ability to solve problems of everyday life efficiently. • Gardner argues that intelligence comprises at least eight distinct capacities: linguistic, mathematical-logical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. This is referred to as multiple intelligence. • Scholars are rather strongly divided, however, over Gardner’s theory. Those who have the most problems with it tend to be psychologists. They see little value in calling skills like music, movement, and social skills “intelligence” and argue that Gardner has not provided tests of these intelligences. Further, there have been few direct empirical tests on Gardner’s theory and therefore some argue his ideas are more theory than science. • Educators and some psychologists, however, like Gardner’s theory because it addresses two real problems: o different students learn in different way, and o some students who have demonstrated ability in some areas fail academic subjects and do poorly on traditional intelligence tests. • CONNECTION: As we go from young adulthood to middle adulthood, our experience-based (crystallized) intelligence continues to improve. Abstract and culture-free (fluid) intelligence, however, peaks during our 20s (Chapter 5). PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD: BRINGING MULITPLE INTELLIGENCES TO SCHOOL • An educational principle based on multiple intelligence (MI) theory is that children should have some freedom to choose activities on their own. If they ignore certain kinds of activities, their teachers provide encouragement and “bridges” to try the neglected activities. • Entire schools have been designed to put into practice the development of all of Gardner’s forms of intelligences. There are more than 40 such schools in the United States. • Students in these schools still must take the local school district’s standardized tests; the students do at least as well as students from other schools. Most of the schools reported direct effects of the MI approach on decreasing disciplinary problems and increasing parent participation, and the performance of students with learning disabilities improved markedly when they attended MI schools. Measuring Intelligence • Test of intelligence, often called, IQ tests, are often controversial. • Questions are often raised including: o How does someone interpret a person's score on an IQ test? o How do we know a test is any good? Traditional Measures of Intelligence • The first test was developed in 1905 by the French scholar Alfred Binet (with some help from Theodore Simon) and was based on a child’s mental age. • Mental age is the equivalent chronological age a child has reached based on his or her performance on an IQ test. Mental age is a norm or average because it is based on what most children at a particular age level can do. • A German psychologist, William Stern, introduced the now-famous intelligence ratio, in which mental age (MA) is divided by chronological age (CA) (times 100) to determine an IQ or intelligence quotient. Today, IQ scores are calculated based on how well a child does on tests relative to norms established by testing children of the same age. • Terman, an American psychologist, translated the Binet-Simon test for American students and coined the term IQ for “intelligence quotient.” Because Terman taught at Stanford University, he named the test the Stanford-Binet test. The most significant changes Terman made were to establish national norms and to apply the ratio score of MA ÷ CA to IQ. • In the 1930s, David Wechsler created new intelligence tests in response to the need for a test that measured adult intelligence. Wechsler’s test became known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS). Later he developed a test for children, the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC). At present, these two tests are the ones that are most frequently administered in the United States. Modern Measures of Intelligence • For the first 50 years in which IQ tests were used, they were based on the assumption that intelligence is a single quality. IQ test makers ignored most new theories of how the brain worked or developed. They also ignored much of Piaget’s work on cognitive development and how kids don’t think like adults, even smart ones. • The first shift was the “Kaufman shift,” anchored in theories in psychology and neuroscience about how the brain worked and developed. Their test, known as the Kaufman-Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC), has become one of the more widely used IQ tests. • The K-ABC differs from the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scales in four ways: o It was the first IQ test to be guided by theories of intelligence; o it included fundamentally different kinds of problems for different ages as well as varied levels of difficulty; o it measured several distinct aspects of intelligence; and o it assessed different types of learning styles. • Connection: Working memory is another term for short-term memory. In general people can retain only about seven bits of information in short-term memory (Chapter 7). Reliability and Validity of IQ Tests • Tests are meaningful if they are both reliable and valid. • Reliability is the consistency of a measurement. • Test-retest reliability is the consistency of scores on a test over time. • Internal reliability is characteristic of intelligence tests in which questions on a given subtest tend to correlate very highly with other items on the subtest. • Validity answers the questions “does the test measure what it says it’s measuring and is there predictability associated with the test”? It involves the following: o that the tests really measure intelligence and not something else, and o that IQ scores can predict real-world outcomes. • Two distinct forms of validity are construct validity and predictive validity. o Construct validity is the degree to which a test measures the concept it claims to measure. o Predictive validity is the degree to which intelligence test scores are positively related to real-world outcomes, such as school achievement or job success, and thus have predictive value. • IQ tests do, in fact, predict certain real-world outcomes, first and foremost being academic performance. IQ scores predict students’ grades, school performance, and class rank in high school quite well. Scores on the WAIS predict both one’s academic class rank in high school and one’s college grade point average. • Example: Students often have difficulty here. Try using the example of a scale: If you have a scale that is off by 10 pounds consistently, it would be reliable (that is, test retest would be high). It is not valid. In other words it isn’t accurately measuring your weight. This is also a good time to point out that reliability is thought to be more important. If my scale is off (low validity), does it still have utility (usefulness)? Yes, it can still measure change and I know that it is reliable so that provides utility. Are IQ Tests Biased? • The cultural test bias hypothesis is the notion that group differences in IQ scores are caused by different cultural and educational backgrounds, not by real differences in intelligence. • Scientists, however, distinguish between test bias and test fairness. • Test bias is whether a test predicts outcomes equally well for different groups. A test is biased if it is a more valid measure for one group than for another. Researchers have found, however, very little evidence for the existence of this kind of bias in IQ tests. • Intelligence tests are developed using norms that reflect the makeup of the general population. Just because different groups score differently on a given test does not automatically mean that it is biased. If the test is equally valid for different groups and they still score differently on it, the test is not biased. It may be unfair, but it’s not biased. • Test fairness: reflects values, philosophical differences, and the ways in which test results are applied. IQ test results are designed for application. Remember, their job is to predict school success. Problems arise when people use IQ test results unfairly to deny certain groups access to universities or jobs. Extremes of Intelligence • IQ follows a normal distribution, that is, a bell-shaped distribution with a mean and a standard deviation. Intelligence varies in a very predictable way, which is most easily seen in the frequency of different IQ scores in the population. When one plots the scores on a graph, one sees a very clear bell curve, with most people falling in the middle and a few people at the high and low ends of the curve. This shape is referred to as a bell curve because it is shaped like a bell. • Sixty-eight percent of test-takers will score between 85 and 115; that is, within one standard deviation of the mean. • The percentage of test-takers that will score between 55 and 145 is 99.7%. • It is at the two ends of the curve, or distribution, that we find “extremes of intelligence,” specifically, mental retardation and giftedness. Intellectual Disability • Intellectual disability is the significant limitations in intellectual functioning as well as in everyday adaptive behavior, which start before age 18. • Adaptive behavior is how well a person adjusts to and copes with everyday life. • There are four levels of disability depending on adaptive behavior: mild, moderate, severe, and profound. • There are at least three main causes: (1) chromosomal-genetic abnormalities (e.g., Down syndrome, Fragile X), (2) prenatal abnormalities (e.g., FAS), and (3) environmental deprivation (e.g., neglect, poor nutrition). Giftedness • In most schools, children are admitted to gifted programs if they score 130–140 or above on a standardized IQ test like the WISC or Stanford-Binet. Extreme giftedness takes various forms, two of which are prodigies and savants. • Prodigies are young people who are extremely gifted and precocious in one area, such as math, music, art, or chess, and are at least average in intelligence. • A savant is a person with a very rare condition with a serious mental handicap and also show isolated areas of ability or brilliance. • CONNECTION: Daniel Tammet uses a mnemonic device, a memory tool, to help him remember the value of pi. He traces the shapes, colors, and textures in his head and then just reads the number. How do mnemonic devices aid memory? (Chapter 7) The Nature and Nurture of Human Intelligence • The region most often involved in various IQ tasks is the prefrontal cortex. When a person is working on verbal tasks, only the left prefrontal region of the brain is activated. When an individual is working on spatial tasks, however, the prefrontal cortexes of both the left and right hemispheres, as well as the occipital cortex, are activated. • Moreover, the frontal lobe is more involved when an individual is performing fluid intelligence tasks, such as pattern recognition, than when the person is performing tasks that involve crystallized and learned experiences. • Identical twins reared apart are more similar in their levels of intelligence than fraternal twins reared together. • Similarly, dozens of studies have shown that adopted children’s overall intelligence is more similar to that of their biological parents than to that of their adoptive parents. Yet adoption can also enhance a child’s IQ. Compared to peers who were not adopted, adopted children tend to have higher IQs. • A reaction range is the genetically determined range within which a given trait, such as intelligence, may fall; that trait’s exact value, however, depends on the quality of the individual’s environment. For most people in most environments, the reaction range for IQ is about 25 points. This means that a given person may end up scoring anywhere in a 25-point range on an IQ test, depending on the kind of environment in which he or she is raised. • Environment, however, is a complex thing. Environment is divided into shared (being in the same household and sharing experiences), and nonshared (the individual’s unique environmental experiences). • One example of nonshared is the prenatal environment. For example, teratogenic effects like alcohol, drugs, and viral infections can lower a child’s overall intelligence. • Birth weight is an example of the joint influences of nature and nurture. Group Differences in Intelligence Scores Race-Ethnicity and Intelligence. • In the 1960s and 1970s Arthur Jensen received death threats for publishing research that reported not only differences in IQ between racial groups, but also argued that because IQ is under genetic influence, racial differences in IQ must be at least partly genetic in origin. • In the mid-1990s, a book called The Bell Curve was published. Authors argued that a study of ethnic group differences, social class, and intelligence with 12,000 subjects indicated that racial groups differ on IQ scores; and differences in IQ are a large contributor to differences in education and income. • Some experts argue that racial differences in IQ result from biases in IQ tests that favor people from certain cultural backgrounds over others. Others argue that it is genetic, and others argue they may have misinterpreted the data. • Finally, the conclusion that genetics influence intelligence is often misinterpreted as implying that IQ levels are determined at birth or conception. If this were so, then trying to change IQ levels with intervention programs is not likely to succeed. Gender and Intelligence • Most research on overall intelligence and gender has reported no difference between men and women on average. • The one consistent difference is not in the average, but in the variability: Men are more variable in intelligence than are women. • Males are more likely to score in either end of the range. For example, they more frequently score at the high or low end of the scale on tests of science, math, spatial reasoning, and social studies. Women, however, tend to consistently do better than men in writing, reading comprehension, perceptual speed, and associative memory. Non-Western Views of Intelligence • Sternberg and his colleagues have examined practical intelligence in cultures where academic intelligence is not valued as highly as it is in Western cultures. Children in Kenya and Tanzania, for example, may not do well at solving “bookish” analytic problems but do very well at solving everyday, practical problems. PROBLEM SOLVING Types of Problems • Convergent thinking problems are problems that have known solutions. They can be reached by narrowing down a set of possible answers. • Divergent thinking problems are problems that have no known solutions and require novel solutions. Solution Strategies • An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or formula for solving a problem. • Eureka insights or insight solutions are sudden solutions. • Thinking outside the box requires that you break free of self-imposed conceptual constraints and think about a problem differently in order to solve it. Obstacles to Solutions • Fixation is the inability to break out of a particular mind-set in order to think about a problem from a fresh perspective. • Mental sets are a type of fixation. A mental set is a tendency to continue to use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past, even if better solutions are available. • Functional fixedness is the tendency to be blind to unusual uses of common everyday things or procedures. CREATIVITY • Creative thinking is related to, yet distinct from, both intelligence and problem solving. What Is Creativity? • Creativity is thought or behavior that is both novel and meaningful. • The meaningful criterion requires that someone at some time sees the value and usefulness in the accomplishment. Stages of Creative Problem Solving • Creative problem solving is a process that has distinct stages. Long ago, Graham Wallas identified four such stages of creative problem solving: preparation, incubation, insight, and elaboration-verification. 1. Preparation is discovering and defining the problem and then attempting to solve it. 2. Incubation is putting the problem aside for a while and working on something else. 3. Insight is the Eureka insight experience in which the solution comes immediately to mind. 4. Elaboration-verification is the solution, even if it has the feel of certainty, that still needs to be confirmed. Creativity and the Brain • Research has revealed three consistent findings: (1) creative insights increase frontal lobe activity, (2) insights occur in the right hemisphere, and (3) creative problem solving shows more balanced activity between right and left frontal lobes in creative people. Creative Insight Results in Increased Frontal Lobe Activity • Research has revealed the frontal lobes are active in abstract reasoning, planning, focused working memory, and integrating sensory input. Creativity involves integrating ideas in novel and valuable ways. It is not surprising, therefore, that modern neuroscience supports the conclusion that creative problem solving and insights involve frontal lobe activity. Creative Insight and the Right Hemisphere • Remote associates is a word problem test that has been used in creativity/brain research. In this test three words are displayed at one time to the participant. The participant must then come up with a single word that could be used with all three of the words. Research shows that people often solve these kinds of problems with Eureka insights. • Brain imaging studies have found that sudden insights consistently activated the right hemisphere more than the left and that patients with damage to the frontal region of their right hemisphere are less able to solve problems requiring insight than people without damage to their right hemisphere. Creativity and Balanced Activity Between the Hemispheres • When solving problems, creative people have more balanced brain activity between the hemispheres than less creative people. Research indicates that more left than right frontal lobe activity is seen in less creative participants. Highly creative individuals show a balance in right and left frontal lobe activity. Cognitive Processes in Creative Thinking • Psychologists who study the cognitive aspects of creative thought have focused on visual thinking, fluency, flexibility, and originality. • Visual imagery occurs when we see a solution in our “mind’s eye.” • Ideational fluency is the ability to produce many ideas. Highly creative people usually come up with more ideas for a given problem than less creative people do. • Flexibility of thought is the ability to generate many different categories of ideas and think of other responses besides the obvious one. • Originality is thinking of unusual and novel ideas. • Creative thinking occurs when a person combines all of the cognitive processes at once. The Creative Personality • One important trait is openness to experience. That is the tendency to enjoy and seek out new experiences, new foods, new places, and new ideas. Highly creative people have this quality, which is not surprising given that creativity involves novel thoughts and behavior. • CONNECTION: Is there a connection between mental illness and creativity? The incidence of mental illness is higher in artists, writers, painters, and poets than in the normal population. The same is not true for creative scientists (Chapter 15). BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: MAKING CONNCECTIONS: INTELLIGENCE, PROBLEM SOLIVING, AND CREATIVITY What Is Genius? • Genius is high intelligence combined with creative accomplishments that have a tremendous impact on a given field. Is Intelligence Necessary and Sufficient for Creativity? • Genius, by this definition, and creativity are closely related. As it turns out, however, the relationship between intelligence and creativity is not as simple as it seems. Considerable research has focused on the relationship between intelligence and creativity and found that IQ and creativity are not very strongly related. • Higher intelligence predicts original ideas more than quantity or number of ideas. KEY TERMS adaptive behavior: adjustment to and coping with everyday life. algorithms: formulas that guarantee correct solutions to particular problems. broad intelligence: one of Carroll’s three levels of intelligence; includes abilities such as crystallized and fluid intelligence, as well as memory, learning, and processing speed. construct validity: the degree to which a test measures the concept it claims to measure, such as intelligence. convergent thinking problems: problems that have known solutions and require analytic thinking and the use of learned strategies and knowledge to come up with the correct answer. creativity: characteristic of a person whose thought and/or behavior is both novel-original and useful-adaptive. cultural test bias hypothesis: the notion that group differences in IQ scores are caused by different cultural and educational backgrounds, not by real differences in intelligence. divergent thinking problems: problems that have no known solutions and that require thinking of new approaches (thinking outside of the box) to solve them. Down syndrome: a disorder that results from a condition known as trisomy-21, in which a person has three rather than two number 21 chromosomes. Like retardation in general, it may be characterized by a degree of disability, ranging from mild to profound. eureka insight or insight solutions: sudden solutions that come to mind in a flash. fixation: the inability to break out of a particular mind-set in order to think about a problem from a fresh perspective. flexibility of thought: characteristic of creativity: ability to come up with many different categories of ideas and think of other responses besides the obvious one. functional fixedness: mind-set in which one is blind to unusual uses of common everyday things or procedures. general intelligence: one of Carroll’s three levels of intelligence; very similar to Spearman’s concept of “g.” genius: high intelligence combined with creative accomplishments that have a tremendous impact on a given field. g-factor theory: Charles Spearman’s theory that intelligence is a single general (g) factor made up of specific components. ideational fluency: characteristic of creative thought that involves the ability to produce many ideas. intellectual disability: significant limitations in intellectual functioning as well as in everyday adaptive behavior, which starts before age 18. intelligence: a set of cognitive skills that include abstract thinking, reasoning, problem solving, and the ability to acquire knowledge. internal reliability: a characteristic of intelligence test in which questions on a given subtest tend to correlate very highly with other items on the subtest. mental age: the equivalent chronological age a child has reached based on his or her performance on an IQ test. mental set: a tendency to continue to use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past, even if better solutions are available. multiple-factor theory of intelligence: idea that intelligence consists of distinct dimensions and is not just a single factor. narrow intelligence: one of Carroll’s three levels of intelligence; includes nearly 70 distinct abilities. originality: characteristic of creative thought; ability to come up with unusual and novel ideas. predictive validity: the degree to which intelligence test scores are positively related to real-world outcomes, such as school achievement or job success, and thus have predictive value. prodigy: a young person who is extremely gifted and precocious in one area and at least average in intelligence. reaction range: the genetically determined range within which a given trait may fall; its exact value depends on the quality of the individual’s environment. reliability: consistency of a measurement, such as an intelligence test. savant syndrome: a very rare condition in which people with serious mental handicaps show isolated areas of ability or brilliance. successful intelligence: according to Robert Sternberg, the “use of an integrated set of abilities needed to attain success in life, however an individual defines it, within his or her sociocultural context.” test bias: characteristic of a test that determines whether it predicts outcomes equally well for different groups. test fairness: characteristic of a test that reflects values, philosophical differences, and the ways in which test results are applied to different groups test-retest reliability: the consistency of scores on a test over time. thinking outside the box: approach to problem solving that requires one to break free of self-imposed conceptual constraints and think about a problem differently in order to solve it. triarchic theory of intelligence: Robert Sternberg’s theory that three interrelated but distinct abilities make up successful intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical skill. validity: the degree to which a test accurately measures what it purports to measure, such as intelligence, and not something else; and the degree to which it predicts real-world outcomes. MAKING THE CONNECTIONS (Some of the connections are found in the text. Other connections may be useful for lecture or discussion.) Challenging Assumptions of Traditional Views of Intelligence: Intelligence as Multiple Abilities CONNECTION: The concept of “emotional intelligence” is related to interpersonal intelligence and has blossomed as a compliment to “intelligence” in the traditional sense. People who are emotionally intelligent do well in situations involving people and conflict. To see what emotional intelligence is and how it can positively affect academic performance, see the section on emotional intelligence in Chapter 11. • Discussion: Students love to talk about emotional intelligence, or “eq.” Ask them if they think this is “cog” enough to be part of intelligence. What about Gardner’s bodily kinesthetic component? Inter- and intrapersonal skills? CONNECTION: As we go from young adulthood to middle adulthood, our experience-based (crystallized) intelligence continues to improve. Abstract and culture-free (fluid) intelligence, however, peaks during our 20s (Chapter 5). • Ask students why they think that crystallized intelligence improves with age and fluid intelligence does not. Modern Measures of Intelligence CONNECTION: Working memory is another term for short-term memory. In general, people can retain only about seven bits of information in short-term memory (Chapter 7). o Discussion: You may want to point out that Sternberg’s theory is an information-processing approach. It incorporates speed of processing and automaticity; automatic thinking is faster than slow, purposeful thought. Giftedness CONNECTION: Daniel Tammet used mnemonic devices, a memory tool, to help him remember pi (the circumference of any circle divided by its diameter). How do mnemonic devices aid memory? (Chapter 7) o Discussion: Students are fascinated with mnemonic devices. Ask students to share what devices they have used in the past and for what class. Creative Insight and the Right Hemisphere CONNECTION: People who have had their corpus callosum severed cannot say what they see if the information is presented to their left visual field but can verbally label it if it is presented to their right visual field. Why? (Chapter 3) o Discussion: This is a great time to discuss Gazzaniga’s work on split brain and the problems folks have solving problems. You may want to show a clip of Gazzaniga with his patient talking about split brain: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMLzP1VCANo. Here is a clip of Gazzaniga discussing his early research: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lmfxQ-HK7Y. o Another video on split brain: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZnyQewsB_Y. The Creative Personality CONNECTION: Is there a connection between mental illness and creativity? The incidence of mental illness is higher in artists, writers, painters, and poets than in the normal population. The same is not true for creative scientists (Chapter 15). o Activity: Have students read Biological Basis for Creativity Linked to Mental Illness in Science Daily http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/10/031001061055.htm and then find a scholarly article on this topic and write a brief review of the research. INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTION 1. Intelligence: This is a great time to ask students what they implicitly think about intelligence. Ask students what they think makes someone intelligent. Students are usually happy to share their implicit views and it gives you a good start to get the discussion going. 2. Bell Curve: Show part or the entire interview with Charles Murray https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMCjkfp_9JQ. Discuss with students what the authors were suggesting. What other factors could explain the data? Of course the answer here is SES. Remind students that whether or not they agree with the authors, it was a catalyst for Head Start programs, early neonatal interventions, WIC programs, etc. Discuss with students the kinds of specific things that being poor could have on IQ. 3. Culture Fair: This is also a great time to reiterate to students that IQ tests were designed to do one thing: predict school performance. This, of course, makes the SAT an IQ test. This also will lay the ground for when discussing culturally fair versions of tests and nonverbal tests; if you do poorly on a standardized test of intellect, we would expect you to do poorly in most school-type settings. Why? Because the same thing (e.g., not speaking English, a short attention span, etc.) that makes you test low will also most likely make it difficult for you in school. 4. Reliability and Validity: Students often have difficulty here. Try using the example of a scale. If you have a scale that is off by 10 pounds consistently, it would be reliable (that is, test retest would be high) but not valid; it isn’t accurately measuring your weight. This is also a good time to point out that reliability is thought to be more important. If my scale is off (low validity), does it still have utility (usefulness)? Yes, it can still measure change and I know that it is reliable so that provides utility. 5. Distribution in IQ Scores: You may want to show an overhead of the distribution and discuss how 95% fall within two standard deviations of the mean. You have 2.5% of the population in the two tails: the R tail being “gifted” and the L tail being “mentally retarded.” Remind students that any significant developmental delay will result in testing at a lower IQ because you are being compared to others of the same age. You also may want to stress that because of the distribution, schools are only looking for the top 2.5% and bottom 2.5%, as 95% are within “normal” range. Thus, there is no need to give a long, full IQ test to most folks, as they will be within “normal” range. They only need to give full tests to kids who might fall out of the two standard deviations. 6. MI: Ask students how they feel about the concept of MI. You may want to use the bodily kinetic in your discussion, as that is one of the most controversial aspects of the theory. Yes, it involves spatial cognition, but is that intelligence? 7. Piaget’s Role in IQ Tests: You may want to point out to students that Piaget was instrumental in early IQ test development. Many argue that much of Piaget’s theory comes from the early observation that children about the same age were consistently making similar errors. This not only explains Piaget’s work but also ties in with why he is a general theorist. Ask students how they think this work affected Piaget’s theory. 8. Heritability and IQ: When you talk about IQ heritability and the adoptee data, ask students what they think. Is there any third factor or confounding variables? SES! Remind students that adoption takes money. It also takes motivation. Thus, folks who adopt have money and really want kids. 9. Intelligence Testing: You may want to talk with students about how they feel about standardized testing in general, as well as how they feel about taking portions of IQ tests. This is also a good time to remind them that regardless of the theories, IQ tests should really only be used to do what they were designed for, which is to predict school performance. 10. Nature and Nurture and Intelligence: Ask students what things they think can help or harm a fetus. Remind students that most social programs are based on conception services. Good prenatal care decreases the risk of problems after birth. Avoiding alcohol, for example, reduces the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome, which often leads to low IQ. It is also important not to smoke. Smoking correlates with low birth weight, which correlates with lower levels of cognitive functioning. 11. Nature and Nurture and Intelligence: Early intervention with abused, neglected, and disadvantaged children raises IQ scores. Changes in environment can change brain structures that affect intellectual functioning. Point out to students that Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) programs, Head Start programs, etc., are all based on the idea that IQ can be affected by environmental changes. This is the root of most social intervention programs. One example is prenatal care. Even poor women are now encouraged to take prenatal supplements, as some ingredients have been shown to reduce neural tube defects in babies. 12. Assign students to interview 10 people on what they think makes someone intelligent. Have them write a 3- to 4-page APA-format paper on their “study.” 13. Have students watch Rain Man. Have students write a three-paragraph paper on the movie, savants, and if they think Gardner is right using that as evidence for his theory. 14. Ask students what they think about MI. Do they think that schools should be gearing curriculum based to the few rather than the many? Should colleges start on this path? Have them write a two-paragraph essay, with the first paragraph being “pro”-MI curriculums and the second being “con” on the issue. 15. The concept of reaction range describes how biology and environment work together to produce a person’s overall level of intelligence. Does the concept of reaction range really apply to a broad range of ability or behavior? Ask students to think about a wide range of capabilities and ask if it would apply? Ask them to describe their thoughts. 16. Ask students to think about MI. Which two areas do they believe are their strengths and weaknesses? Ask them to defend their answer. Suggested Media 1. A short clip with Gardner talking about MI: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEFpaY3GI-I&feature=related 2. An interview with Stephen Murdoch on why the traditional approach dismisses Gardner’s work: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=II9Y1mOKDhY 3. An example of a nonverbal IQ test: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sThCoWH03HU&feature=related 4. “DNA and the Brain,” an interview with James Watson: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z6ZfrXHgiVY 5. Rain Man, released in 1988. This is a movie that shows Dustin Hoffman as a savant. 6. The Search for Intelligence (Insight Media) 7. Discovering Psychology: Intelligence and Testing (Annenberg) 8. Battle of the Brains: A Case for Multiple Intelligence (Films for Humanities and Social Science) 9. Good Will Hunting (giftedness) 10. Genes and Intelligence (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg) 11. Savant Syndrome (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg) 12. Intelligence in Animals (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg) 13. Problem Solving in Animals (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg) 14. Howard Gardner briefly describes his work on MI: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEFpaY3GI-I Suggested Websites 1. A great overview of all the theories: http://www.personalityresearch.org/intelligence.html 2. A good overview of the historical and current controversies on intelligence: http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/ 3. An article on the controversy of intelligence tests: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-controversy-of-intelligence-theories-397044.html 4. An overview of intelligence theories: http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/p/intelligence.htm 5. An overview of Sternberg’s triarchic theory: http://tip.psychology.org/stern.html 6. Wall Street Journal article on The Bell Curve: http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB117736979316179649 7. A brief discussion on the integrated theory of intelligence: http://www.supraconsciousnessnetwork.org/ 8. An article on savants: http://rarediseases.about.com/cs/neurodisorders/a/052502.htm 9. Human Intelligence: http://www.intelltheory.com/ Suggested Readings Bouchard, T. J. (1998). Genetic and environmental influences on adult intelligence and special mental abilities. Human Biology, 70, 257–279. Duncan, J., Rüdiger, J. S., Kolodny, J., Bor, D., Herzog, H., Ahmed, A., Newell, F. N., & Emslie, H. (2000). A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 289, 457–460. Fletcher, R. B. (2011). Intelligence and intelligence testing. Routledge. Flynn, J. R. (2012). Are we getting smarter? Rising IQ in the twenty-first century. Cambridge University Press. Galton, F. (1865). Hereditary talent and character. Macmillan’s Magazine, 23, 157–166, 318–327. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Geary, D. C. (1996). Sexual selection and sex differences in mathematical abilities. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 229–284. Jensen, A. R. (1999). The g factor: The science of mental ability. Psychology, 10(23). McClearn, G. E., Johansson, B., Berg, S., Pedersen, N. L., Ahern, F., Petrill, S. A., & Plomin, R. (1997). Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80 or more years old. Science, 276, 1560–1563. Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Jr., Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J., & Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77–101. Plomin, R., & Daniels, D. (1987). Why are children in the same family so different from one another? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 10, 1–60. Spearman, C. (1904). “General intelligence,” objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15, 201–293. Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.) (1999). Handbook of creativity. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J., & Wagner, R. K. (1993). The g-ocentric view of intelligence and job performance is wrong. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 1–4. Sternberg, R. J. (1977). Intelligence, information processing, and analogical reasoning. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Chapter 11: Motivation and Emotion BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE Motivation Models of Motivation The Drive Reduction Model The Optimal Arousal Model The Evolutionary Model The Hierarchical Model Hunger: Survival of the Individual The Biology of When We Eat The Psychology of What We Eat The Motive to Be Thin and the Tendency Toward Obesity Common Myths About Dieting; Challenging Assumptions About Diet Why Dieting Does Not Work—and What Does Eating Disorders Sex: Survival of the Species Human Sexual Response The Biology of Sexual Behavior Culture and Sexual Behavior Gender and the Drive for Casual Sex Sexual Orientation The Needs to Belong and to Excel The Need to Belong: Affiliation The Need to Excel: Achievement Motivation in the Workplace Emotion What Are Emotions? Types of Affect Basic Emotions Emotions as Evolutionary Adaptations Self-Conscious Emotions Emotion as a Process Appraisal in the Emotion Process Regulation of Emotion The Emotional Response Psychology in the Real World: Botox and Emotion Emotion and the Brain How Culture Impacts Emotion Expression Gender and Emotion Emotional Intelligence Bringing It All Together: Making Connections in Motivation and Emotion: Living a Satisfied and Well-Lived Life Chapter Review EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE MOTIVATION • Motivation is the urge to move toward one’s goals and to accomplish tasks. • Needs, drives, and incentives all contribute to motivation. o Needs are inherently biological states of deficiency (cellular or bodily) that compel drives.  Examples of needs include the needs for water, food, and oxygen. o Drives are the perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need. The deficiency creates a drive to alleviate the state (e.g., drink, eat, or breathe).  In this way, needs and drives push us.  Motivated behaviors, therefore, result from needs and drives. • An incentive is any external object or event that motivates behavior. o Drives come from the body, whereas incentives come from the environment. Models of Motivation The Drive Reduction Model o When our physiological systems become out of balance or depleted, we are driven to reduce this depleted state. o We are driven to maintain homeostasis, psychological balance, around an optimal set point (the ideal fixed setting of a particular physiological system). o Sensory detectors tell the brain about the body’s current state and any changes that cause it to deviate from the set point. If our bodily states move too far from the set point, these mechanisms motivate us to take action. The Optimal Arousal Model o We seek out stimulation and function best at an “optimal level of arousal.” The Yerkes-Dodson law states that both low arousal and high arousal lead to poor performance, whereas moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance. o Humans are motivated to be in situations that are optimally arousing. o Flow describes how people perform best and are optimally challenged relative to their abilities. o Psychologists argue that needs such as curiosity, learning, interest, beauty-aesthetics, competence, challenge, flow states, and optimal experiences are motivated by the desire to be optimally aroused. The Evolutionary Model o Evolutionary theory looks at internal drives to explain why people do what they do. o Biologically speaking, the purpose of any living organism is to reproduce. The major motives, then, all involve basic survival and reproduction needs: hunger, thirst, body-temperature regulation, oxygen, and sex. o Generally, we are unaware of the reasons for behavior related to these drives. We know only that we do something because it feels good and that we stop doing something if it feels bad. The Hierarchical Model o The essence of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is that needs range from the most basic physiological necessities to the highest, most psychological need for growth and fulfillment.  At the lowest level are physiological needs (e.g., food, water, oxygen, and adequate body temperature).  The next level is safety needs (e.g., physical security, stability, dependency, protection, and freedom from threats such as war, assault, and terrorism).  At the third level are the love and belongingness needs (e.g., desire for friendship, sex, a mate and children, and to belong to a family or social group).  The fourth level is the need for esteem (e.g., to appreciate oneself and one’s worth and to be appreciated and respected by others).  The top level in the hierarchy is the need for self-actualization (e.g., the full realization of one’s potentials and abilities in life). Hunger: Survival of the Individual • The rate at which we consume energy is our metabolism. When our energy has been depleted, hunger drives us to replenish our store of energy by eating. The Biology of When We Eat o Internal signals from the body control when we have the desire to eat or stop eating. o The drive reduction perspective: being hungry depends on how much food we have consumed recently and how much energy is available for organ function. o There are four biological components including the stomach, the blood, the brain, and hormones and neurochemicals.  Stomach “growling” results from gastric secretions that are activated by the brain when we think of, see, or smell food. Hunger can also cause the stomach to contract. These contractions correspond with hunger pangs but they do not cause hunger.  The most important source of energy for the body is cellular glucose (a simple sugar in the blood that provides energy for cells throughout the body and brain). Our glucose level is monitored by the hypothalamus and, when it drops, the hypothalamus triggers the need to obtain food.  In fact, the hypothalamus regulates all basic physiological needs, including hunger.  Two of the numerous hormones that stimulate appetite are neuropeptide Y (NPY) and ghrelin.  Two of the many hormones that suppress appetite are insulin and leptin.  CONNECTION: Endocannabinoids and its relative, marijuana, are used medically to treat cancer patients who are on chemotherapy, because they stimulate appetite (Chapter 6). The Psychology of What We Eat o What we eat is shaped by nature and nurture. o Food preferences are shaped by evolutionary forces. o Different cultures expose children to different flavors but exposure does not dictate preference. It takes about 8 to 10 exposures to a food before children will begin to like a food they initially disliked. o Culture shapes food preferences while people are young. Once a person develops a preference for a kind of food, she/he is motivated and even driven to eat that kind of food. The Motive to Be Thin and the Tendency Toward Obesity o Fat provides a store of energy for future use. Evolutionarily this was very important because, in hunter-gatherer societies, you never knew where the next meal was coming from. In modern industrialized societies this is not so much a problem. o Compared to earlier times we lead a more sedentary lifestyle so we need less food to be health. o Ideas about beauty have also been changed as a result of having more food available than is needed. o Thinness defines attractiveness in most societies. This obsession with thinness can lead to eating disorders. o Definitions of overweight must consider both height and weight. o Body mass index (BMI) is determined by dividing weight by height to yield a weight-to-height ratio.  The ideal BMI range is between 19 and 24.  Overweight individuals have a BMI between 25 and 29.  People who are obese have a BMI above 30. o Weight is another example of nature and nurture interacting. o Genes appear to be responsible for about 70% of adults.  In some obese people, the gene that produces leptin is not functioning properly.  Genes also control the number of fat cells a person has. This number is set by childhood and adolescence, and does not change much after that  Dieting does not change the number of fat cells we have; it reduces how much fat each cell stores. Common Myths About Dieting: Challenging Assumptions About Diet  There are several widely held myths about weight loss that do not have data to support them.  The biggest myth is that low-fat and low-carb diets are good and high-fat and high-carb diets are bad. o There are different kinds of fats and carbs. o Some of the fats are carbs that are good and others are not. o The best approach is to aim for a low-glycemic diet defined as approximately 40% carbs, 40% fats, and 20% protein.  The second myth is that having smaller but more frequent meals is one way to lose weight. o Evidence for this is mixed and contradictory. Why Dieting Does Not Work—and What Does  Dieting does not generally work in the long term.  Mann et al. (2007)’s meta-analysis found that dieters would have been better off in the long term if they had never dieted at all.  Losing and re-gaining weight is associated with heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and altered immune function.  People typically lose 5 to 10 pounds within the first 6 months of the diet. Within two years they gain that weight back plus some.  Lifestyle change is what is necessary for weight loss.  Eat slowly as it takes 20 minutes after eating before your brain knows you’re full.  Write down what you eat for one month.  Monitor your weight regularly.  Choose a low-glycemic diet as snacks.  Eat what you want but in moderation.  Stop eating when you feel full.  Drink lots of water.  Get moderate physical activity.  Get support from your friends and family.  Get good sleep. Eating Disorders  Some people develop such concern about body and weight issues that they develop an eating disorder.  There are two primary types of eating disorders: anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.  Anorexia nervosa is an extreme fear about being overweight that leads to a severe restriction of food intake.  Bulimia nervosa is when a person is prone to binge eating and feeling a lack of control during the eating session. Purging happens after the person binges.  There is a nature and nurture interaction with eating disorders. Sex: Survival of the Species • At a species level, we have sex to propagate the species. At the individual level, we have sex because it feels good. Human Sexual Response o Sexual behaviors are actions that produce arousal and increase the likelihood of orgasm. o Masters and Johnson (1966) were the first scientists to study the human sexual response systematically and directly.  Men and women go through four phases of sexual arousal but do so somewhat differently.  The four phases are excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. • The major signs of the initial excitement phase are vaginal lubrication in the female and erection in the male. • In the second phase, plateau, excitement level remains high but is pre-orgasmic. In men, the plateau phase might be rather short, but orgasm almost always follows. In women, the plateau phase often lasts longer than in men and is not necessarily followed by orgasm. • An even more striking gender difference is the ability of women to have multiple orgasms. Men always have a refractory period immediately following orgasm, in which erection is lost and orgasm is not possible, but women may go on to have multiple orgasms. o More recent models of female sexual arousal point out that the initial sexual response in women involves more psychological processes than simply arousal and desire.  Desire and arousal do not happen spontaneously in many women, who often require the right balance of thoughts and feelings. These thoughts and feelings play off and feed arousal, which in turn lead to deeper feelings of intimacy and closeness.  Arousal continues to increase and may or may not lead to orgasm, but arousal and excitement are still important and meaningful even without orgasm. The Biology of Sexual Behavior o Many brain regions involved in emotion are required for the earlier stages of sexual arousal, prior to orgasm. o The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in sexual behavior. The part of the hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men than in women. o Brain activity changes during orgasm. In fact, certain brain regions actually shut down.  In women, achieving a real orgasm always involves deactivation of brain regions involved with fear and anxiety in the amygdala and hippocampus, as well as parts of the cortex involved in consciousness.  Men show brain deactivation during orgasm but to the left amygdale (a smaller emotional region of the brain). o Testosterone, the major male sex hormone produced by the adrenal gland, controls sex drive in both men and women. o In women, there is some regular cyclical activity and interest in the course of the 28-day menstrual cycle.  Female-initiated sexual behavior peaks around ovulation and again before and after menstruation.  The strongest cyclical effect for women occurs in relation to their fantasies involving men other than their regular sex partner. As women approach ovulation, the frequency and intensity of their fantasies involving sex with men other than their partner increase. Culture and Sexual Behavior o Three kinds of societies have been identified in terms of sexual attitudes.  Restrictive societies restrict sex before and outside of marriage.  Semi-restrictive societies have formal prohibitions on pre- and extramarital sex that are not strictly enforced.  Permissive societies place few restrictions on sex. Gender and the Drive for Casual Sex o Research consistently shows that men are more willing and interested in casual sex than are women.  Clark and Hatfield (1989, 2003) had student assistants simply approach attractive members of the opposite sex on campus and ask them one of three questions: “Would you go out with me tonight?”; “Would you come back to my apartment tonight?”; and “Would you go to bed with me tonight?” Three-quarters of the men responded that they were willing to have sex with a stranger of the opposite sex, but not one woman was willing to do so! o Parental investment theory argues that the cost of having sex is different for men and women. For men, the only assured contribution to parenthood is the act of sex itself. If a woman becomes pregnant, however, her contribution includes nine months of carrying the fetus, a good portion of which might involve pregnancy sickness; then there is the painful labor and delivery; and finally, there is approximately 18 years of caring for the child. Sexual Orientation o Sexual orientation is our disposition to be attracted to either the opposite sex (heterosexual), the same sex (homosexual), or both sexes (bisexual). o Kinsey, Pomeroy, and Martin (1948) argued that sexual orientation exists on a continuum, from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual. o Approximately 90% of U.S. men and women identify as exclusively heterosexual. o Naturalistic observations of animals suggest that same-sex pairings may be much more common than previously thought. Scientists are at a loss to explain this. o To some extent research has revealed that individuals exposed to relatively high levels of testosterone in the womb are more likely to be attracted to women, whereas those exposed to relatively low levels of testosterone are more likely to be attracted to men. o The hypothalamus is substantially smaller in gay men than in straight men. It’s about the size of a woman’s. This is a correlational study. o The corpus callosum is thicker in homosexual than heterosexual men. This is also a correlational study. o Who we are attracted to is influenced by a complex mix of biological and cultural factors. o Studies of twins indicate that genetics plays a bigger role in determining sexual orientation in men than in women. For women, environmental factors seem to have a strong influence on sexual orientation. o Social-environmental theories argue that sexual orientation is a social construction. For example, child play, early peer relations, differences in how parents treat boys and girls, and gender identity are important factors in the development of sexual orientation. o Environmental theories are consistent with biological ones. Biology could start the development of sexual orientation, which in turn would be strengthened or discouraged by environmental factors. The Needs to Belong and to Excel • Need for affiliation is the need for social contact and belonging. • Need for achievement is the need to excel, achieve, and to be competitive with others. • Both of these needs are universal. The Need to Belong: Affiliation o Humans are inherently social creatures who depend on others (most clearly at the beginning and end of life). o This is a very strong need. o Aspects of our brain are activated by affiliation needs. o This need is one of the big draws of social networking sites. o The opposite of acceptance is rejection. o A lack of belongingness leads to both physical and psychological problems. The Need to Excel: Achievement o Some people compete with other people and others compete more with themselves simply to do the best they can. o McClelland and Atkinson (1985) emphasized that achievement motivation is a desire to do things well and overcome difficulties and obstacles. Those obstacles can only be measured in terms of one’s goals. o Atkinson (1964) argued that the tendency to achieve success is a function of three things.  Motivation to succeed is the extent to which you really want to be successful.  Expectation of success is an individual’s evaluation of the likelihood of succeeding at a task.  Incentive value of the success. This stems from two factors: • success at the task has to be important to you; and • the more difficult the task and the lower the odds of succeeding at it, the more it will mean to you if you do succeed. Motivation in the Workplace • Industrial/Organizational (I/O) psychologists study motivation and behavior in work context. Three Models of Employee Motivation • Interesting work, good wages, and job security are the top priorities among employees. • From a behavioral perspective, the bottom line for business is productivity. More recently some companies have emphasized supportive and pleasant work environment, autonomy, enjoyment, and challenge in their workers. • There are at least three competing models of how to motivate workers and make them more productive: extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, or organizational support for the well-being of its employees. o Extrinsic Motivation:  Extrinsic motivation comes from outside the person (extrinsic) and usually involves rewards and praises.  They are used to get people to do things they themselves wouldn’t normally do or perhaps even don’t like doing.  Reward cannot only increase a particular behavior but it can also increase performance and feelings of competency.  Drawbacks include that the reward be constant and consistent. The reward can also narrow focus so that people are no longer as creative. The reward can also reduce a person’s own desire to perform a task for the pure enjoyment of it. o Intrinsic Motivation:  Intrinsic motivation happens when you want to do something simply because you enjoy doing it.  There are four components of intrinsic motivation: (1) challenge, (2) enjoyment, (3) mastery, and (4) autonomy and self-determination.  Intrinsic motivation changes as life circumstances change. The need for challenge increases in ones 20s and 30s and then drops at the end of one’s career. Enjoyment drops only a little over the course of one’s career. o Perceived Support by Supervisors and Organizations:  How much employees believe the organization appreciates and supports their contributions and well-being, known as perceived organizational support, plays a big role in keeping them motivated and committed to working at that company.  When employees work at companies that support and care about their well-being then they are happier at their jobs, experience less stress, and are more motivated to stay at their jobs. In addition, they are less likely to miss workdays, be late for work, or take long lunch breaks. EMOTION • Basic drives differ from emotions in important ways. o Drives are linked with very specific needs; emotions are not. o Emotions can override biological drives. What Are Emotions? • Emotions are triggered by situations that are relevant to our personal goals, physical safety, or well-being. Types of Affect o Affect refers to a variety of emotional phenomena, including emotions, moods, and affective traits.  Emotions are brief, acute changes to experience and physiology that result from a response to a meaningful situation in the person’s environment.  Moods are transient changes in affect that fluctuate throughout the day or over several days. They are experienced physiologically and psychologically and they tend to last longer than most emotions.  Affective traits are enduring aspects of our personalities, which set the threshold for the occurrence of particular emotional states.  CONNECTION: Emotional events are remembered better than non-emotional events, almost like they are seared into our brains (Chapter 7). Basic Emotions o Basic emotions are emotions common to all humans. They are anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, and surprise. o Basic emotions are categories or groups of related emotions (they are an emotion family). Emotions as Evolutionary Adaptations o From an evolutionary perspective, emotions are adaptations. o Emotions bring our physiological systems together to help us deal efficiently with critical situations. o The broaden and build model is Fredrickson's model for positive emotions, which posits that emotions widen our cognitive perspective and help us acquire useful life skills.  When people are in positive moods they perform poorly on tasks of selective attention that require a narrow focus compared to people in sad or neutral moods, and they perform better on tasks that require a broader attentional focus. Self-Conscious Emotions o Self-conscious emotions are types of emotion that require a sense of self and the ability to reflect on actions. They occur as a function of meeting expectations, or not, by society's rules. o These emotions include shame, guilt, humiliation, embarrassment, and pride. o Pride  The expression of pride involves body movements, a low intensity smile, and head tilted upward with slightly expanded chest.  This emotion is associated with superiority over others and a higher social status. o Embarrassment  Embarrassment involves an unintentional revelation about our self.  There is a distinct self-consciousness to embarrassment, as if people have violated some social rule and been caught in the act.  People often get giggly when embarrassed, and act as if they want to make amends for some sort of social transgression.  The facial expression of embarrassment serves to appease and placate those who have seen one’s mistake. Emotion as a Process • Emotions create changes in experience, thought, physiology, and behavior. • An emotion begins with an antecedent event, a situation that may lead to an emotional response. • The person evaluates the event to determine whether it is potentially harmful or beneficial. Depending on the results of that appraisal, he or she may experience an emotional response. • The emotional response, in turn, produces changes in physiology, behavior and expressions, and subjective experience of the event. • Once we generate emotions, we sometimes attempt to modify them, regulate them, or make them go away, which in turn involves new appraisals and new responses. Appraisal in the Emotion Process o Appraisal is the evaluation of a situation with respect to how relevant it is to one’s own welfare. It drives the process by which emotions are elicited. Most of the time it occurs outside of awareness. o Emotions occur only in response to events that have relevance to us at that moment. o Examples of appraisal dimensions include: control, agency, pleasantness, and fairness. o The type of appraisal determines the type of emotion generated. Regulation of Emotion o Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral efforts people use to modify their emotions. o One example of emotion regulation is reappraisal, in which people reevaluate their views of an event so that a different emotion results. o Expressive-suppression is the deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward manifestation of an emotion. The Emotional Response o Emotional responses include physiological, behavioral/expressive, and subjective changes.  Physiological Changes • Emotions create physiological changes (e.g., increases in heart rate and rate of respiration). • Once elicited, emotions engage the ANS almost immediately. o For emotions that are concerned with survival and protection from harm, such as fear, the sympathetic branch of the ANS is activated. o Positive emotions engage the parasympathetic branch of the ANS. They apparently serve to return the body to a more relaxed, responsive state.  Behavioral-Expressive Changes in Emotion • Emotions create expressive changes, such as facial expressions and changes in vocal intonation and volume, as well as behavioral tendencies toward particular types of action. • People show emotions both verbally and nonverbally.  Facial Expression of Emotion • Humans are predisposed to respond to faces. o Newborn babies mimic the facial expressions of adults. o At 5 months, babies can discriminate between different types of facial expressions of emotion. o By 1 year of age, infants rely on the faces of their caregivers to convey important information about how they might act. • The facial action coding system (FACS) is a widely used method by which coders score all observable muscular movements that are possible in the human face. • The most recognizable facial expression of emotion is the smile of genuine happiness. o A smile that both pulls up the lip corners diagonally and contracts the band of muscles that circle the eye to create crow’s feet and raise the cheeks is known as a Duchenne smile. A Duchenne smile is a genuine smile that expresses true enjoyment. • Vocal Expression of Emotions o The voice is very sensitive to emotional fluctuations because ANS has projections to the vocal cords. o The recognition of emotion from speech appears to be a basic human social skill. o Laughter is a well-known vocal expression of emotion. Voiced-laughs (those that involve vibration of the vocal fold and typically involve expelling air out of the mouth) generate more positive ratings from people on features such as likeability, sexiness, and friendliness. o Vocal and facial response systems can work together in emotion expression. • Subjective Experience of Emotion o Subjective experience of emotion is the quality of our conscious experience during an emotional response. o This is what we refer to when we talk about how an emotion “feels.” It draws from the experience of body changes as well as the numerous effects of emotions on cognitions, as emotions can activate associations with images and memories of significant events. o The James-Lange theory of emotion says that it is our perception of the physiological changes that accompany emotions that creates the subjective emotional experience. o Cannon, on the other hand, argued feedback from body organs is not specific enough to account for the variety of emotion. o The facial feedback hypothesis supports the idea that feedback from body sensations creates emotional experience. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD: BOTOX AND EMOTION • Botox is the trade name of a neurotoxin called botulism toxin. • Botulism toxin causes muscular paralysis by blocking the release of acetylcholine. • Botox injections are the most popular cosmetic procedure in the general population. It is used to diminish wrinkles. • Botox is commonly injected into the area between the eyebrows where vertical wrinkles called “glabellar frown lines” appear. • Emotional expression of anger, fear, and sadness is reduced. • With these muscles not working facial feedback is reduced which may hurt emotional experience. • Beyond affecting the facial expression and the experience of emotion, Botox injections can also affect the ability to read emotions. • The bottom line is that Botox can play a role in emotional expression, experience, and the ability to read emotion. Emotion and the Brain • Affective neuroscience studies which structures and systems are involved in the emotion process. It is a growing field. • There is no main emotion center in the brain, but there are some key areas for emotion processing, most notably, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. • The amygdala has connections with the hypothalamus (controls the ANS), the hippocampus (plays a crucial role in memory), the thalamus (which contains nuclei that receive information from the sense organs), and the cerebral cortex. The amygdala has a specialized function for noticing fear-relevant information. o People with damage to the amygdala do not show normal physiological reactions under fear conditioning. They tend to trust faces that most people find to be untrustworthy, and have trouble recognizing facial expressions of fear, especially in the eyes. o Other regions of the amygdala are more involved in anger and rage. In fact, tumors of the amygdala have been found in violent criminals, such as Charles Whitman, who climbed the tower at the University of Texas in 1966 and, in a 90-minute shooting spree, killed 19 people and wounded 38. o The prefrontal cortex is involved in determining options for response or reappraisal. The prefrontal cortex plays a role in the appraisal and reappraisal of emotion, and damage to the left prefrontal cortex results in depression. o CONNECTION: The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in working memory by evaluating sensory information and designating it for storage or disposal (Chapter 7). o Other Brain Regions in Emotion: o The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is active when people either recall or imagine emotional experiences. o The left prefrontal cortex is more involved in positive emotions than the right. o Nerve fibers that run through the hypothalamus to a nearby brain region appear to be a pleasure or reward center. o Oxytocin makes people better at recognizing facial expressions of happiness. o The insula is the brain structure most involved in interoception, the perception of sensations arising within the body. How Culture Impacts Emotion Expression • Ekman (1972) proposed the neuro-cultural theory of emotion. The neurocultural theory of emotion is Ekman’s explanation that some aspects of emotion, such as facial expressions and physiological changes associated with emotions, are universal and others, such as emotional regulation, are culturally derived. • Display rules are learned norms or rules, often taught very early, about when it is appropriate to show certain expressions of emotion and to whom one should show them. • Ekman (1972) and Friesen’s (1972) empirical support for display rules came from a study comparing disgust expressions in American and Japanese students. • Both groups viewed a film showing a very graphic medical procedure, but in two different conditions: one in the presence of an authority figure and the other alone. When alone, both groups felt perfectly comfortable expressing the obvious response: disgust. When in the presence of an authority figure, however, the Japanese students did not show disgust, and they masked their responses with non-Duchenne (fake) smiles. American students, however, showed about the same level of disgust in both conditions. The expressive differences between groups emerged in a situation in which the cultures had very different norms about expression, but not in the solo viewing condition • People posing with fear faces actually see better in terms of tests of peripheral vision and quickness of eye movements. • There are some universals in vocalization of emotions as well. • Motherese is the sing-songy manner with which mothers speak to their babies is consistent worldwide. • Nonverbal vocalizations of emotions also seem to be recognized cross-culturally. Gender and Emotion • An overwhelming amount of data finds no gender differences in emotion. • Women talk more about emotion than men. • Women do outperform men in accurately recognizing facial expressions of emotion. • Studies of facial behavior during emotional experiences find no consistent differences between men and women, except that women generally smile more often than men. • The similarities between the sexes in terms of emotion and the brain are far more impressive than the differences. Exposure to pictures of animal or human attacks does, however, provoke greater amygdala activation in men than in women. Emotional Intelligence • Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize emotions in oneself and others, the development of empathic understanding, and skills for regulating emotions in oneself and others. • Researchers have taught children strategies for regulating emotion in order to reduce maladaptive behavior and improve academic performance. These strategies are called socioemotional learning (SEL). Training in emotional skills improves emotional behavior and functioning and enhances cognitive performance and school performance. • PATHS (Providing Alternative Thinking Strategies) is a program that gives teachers a detailed curriculum for improving children’s emotional awareness and regulation skills and enhancing their social competence. o PATHS leads to improvements in social and emotional skills in high-risk children, reduction of aggressive behaviors in both normal and special-needs children, fewer depressive symptoms in special-needs kids, and improvements in classroom. • A large-scale meta-analysis of more than 500 studies shows that SEL programs significantly improve children’s academic performance. Specifically, children who participate in these programs have better attendance, less disruptive classroom behavior, like school more, and have higher GPAs. • Emotional intelligence may be an enduring characteristic or skill, like other forms of intelligence. There are two measuring instruments used today. These are the EQ-I and Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). • Trait measures of emotional intelligence correlate with higher GPA in adolescents, less job burnout in teachers, better coping with stress, and improvements in mental and physical health. BRINGING IT ALL TOGETHER: MAKING CONNECTIONS IN MOTIVATION & EMOTION: LIVING A SATISFIED AND WELL-LIVED LIFE • Life satisfaction is the overall evaluation we have of our lives. It is an aspect of subjective well-being. • Subjective well-being includes satisfaction in different domains, such as career and social networks and the balance between positive and negative affect in life. Motivation and Happiness • Referring back to Maslow’s hierarchical model of motivation, both basic needs and the higher-level needs contribute to life satisfaction. o Basic Needs and Happiness  Basic needs must be met for a person to be relatively satisfied with life, but more money does not lead to greater happiness. • Industrialized countries have higher levels of well-being than non-industrialized countries. • At a national level, in the early stages of a country’s development out of poverty, increased income makes people a bit happier with their lives. After a relatively modest level of income, however, money makes little difference and may even be a hindrance to happiness. • At the individual level, having more money does make people slightly happier, but this is only true for those driven by money.  Diet and weight also relate to overall happiness in various ways. • First, having a healthy diet is associated with high life satisfaction, but being overweight is associated with low life satisfaction. • Long-term weight loss is related to increases in life satisfaction.  Having a satisfying sex life can be a source of overall happiness and well-being for people, just as problems in one’s sex life can lead to overall problems in one’s well-being. • Subjective well-being and sexual satisfaction were highest in European and European-based cultures. o Higher Needs and Happiness  Once a person or a country crosses the $12,000/per person/year GNP, close relationships and valuing family, friends, and people matter most for overall levels of happiness. • People who value non-competitive goals, such as spending time with a spouse, children, and friends tend to become happier and more satisfied with life over time. • People who most value competitive achievement goals, such as career advancement and material gains, actually decrease in happiness over time. • People who are curious and interested in exploring novel and challenging situations tend to be happier than people who would rather stick with what they know and not challenge themselves with new tasks and experiences. o The Well-Lived Life and Intrinsic Motivation • Living the well-lived life is most often driven by intrinsic goals and motives. • People who live a well-lived life are also characterized by finding meaning in life. o The Well-Lived Life, Affiliation, and Positive Emotions • People who live a well-lived life strongly experience a need for relationships and affiliation. These individual experiences depend on empathy and compassion. • They are also more likely to experience positive emotional states and satisfaction. KEY TERMS achievement motivation: a desire to do things well and overcome difficulties and obstacles. affective traits: stable predispositions toward certain types of emotional responses; they are enduring aspects of our personalities that set the threshold for the occurrence of particular emotional states. anorexia nervosa: an extreme fear about being overweight that leads to a severe restriction of food intake. appraisal: the evaluation of a situation with respect to how relevant it is to one’s own welfare; it drives the process by which emotions are elicited. basic emotions: a set of emotions that are common to all humans; includes anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, and surprise. broaden and build model: Fredrickson’s model for positive emotions, which posits that they widen our cognitive perspective and help us acquire useful life skills. bulimia nervosa: prone to binge eating and feeling a lack of control during the eating session. display rules: learned norms or rules, often taught very early, about when it is appropriate to show certain expressions of emotion and to whom one should show them. drives: the perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need. Duchenne smile: a smile that expresses true enjoyment. These smiles involve both the muscles that pull up the lip corners diagonally and those that contract the band of muscles encircling the eye to create crow’s feet and raise the cheeks. emotion regulation: the cognitive and behavioral efforts people use to modify their emotions. emotional intelligence: the ability to recognize emotions in oneself and others, the development of empathic understanding, and skills for regulating emotions in oneself and others. emotional response: includes the physiological, behavioral/expressive, and subjective changes that occur when emotions are generated. emotions: brief, multifaceted changes to experience and physiology that result from a response to a meaningful situation in the person’s environment. expressive-suppression: an example of a response-focused strategy for regulating emotion involving the deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward manifestation of an emotion. extrinsic motivation: motivation that comes from outside the person (extrinsic) and usually involves rewards and praises. Facial Action Coding System (FACS): a widely used method for measuring all observable muscular movements that are possible and observable in the human face. facial feedback hypothesis: sensory feedback from the facial musculature during expression affects emotional experience. glucose: a simple sugar in the blood that provides energy for cells throughout the body, including the brain. homeostasis: the process by which all organisms work to maintain physiological equilibrium or balance around an optimal set point. incentive: simply any external object or event that motivates behavior. intrinsic motivation: motivation that happens when you want to do something simply because you enjoy doing it. James-Lange theory of emotion: says that our perception of the physiological changes that accompany emotions create the subjective emotional experience. life satisfaction: the overall evaluation we have of our lives; it is an aspect of subjective well-being. moods: affective states that operate in the background of consciousness, which tend to last longer than most emotions. motivation: the urge to move toward one’s goals; it gives us an energetic push toward accomplishing tasks. needs: states of cellular or bodily deficiency that compel drives. neuro-cultural theory of emotion: Ekman’s theory that accounts for the fact that certain aspects of emotion, such as the facial expressions and physiological changes, are similar in all humans, whereas others, such as how people appraise situations and regulate their emotional expressions in front of others, vary from one culture to another. perceived organizational support: belief in how much employees believe the organization appreciates and supports their contributions and well-being. reappraisal: an antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategy, in which one reevaluates how one has viewed an event so that a different emotion results. self-actualization: the full realization of one’s potentials and abilities in life. According to Maslow, this motive sits atop the hierarchy of needs. self-conscious emotions: occur as a function of how well we live up to our expectations, the expectations of others, or the rules set by society. set point: the ideal fixed setting of a particular physiological system, such as internal body temperature. sexual behavior: actions that produce arousal and increase the likelihood of orgasm. sexual orientation: our disposition to be attracted to either the opposite sex (heterosexual), the same sex (homosexual) or both sexes (bisexual). subjective experience of emotion: the changes in the quality of our conscious experience that occur during emotional responses. subjective well-being: consists of life satisfaction, domain satisfactions, and positive and negative affect. universal: we use this term to refer to a behavior that is common to all human beings and can be seen in cultures all over the world. Yerkes-Dodson law: the idea that both low arousal and high arousal lead to poor performance, whereas moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance, depicted visually as a graph between performance (y-axis) and arousal (x-axis) that has an inverted-U shape. MAKING THE CONNECTIONS (Some of the connections are found in the text. Other connections may be useful for lecture or discussion.) MOTIVATION CONNECTION: What motivates people to want the most out of life and to live life to its fullest? Learn about the qualities of self-actualizing people (Chapter 15). • Suggested Site: This site on Maslow’s theory outlines some of Maslow’s concepts of self-actualizers: http://www.abraham-maslow.com/amIndex.asp. Have students come up with their own list and use the information on this site to help guide the discussion. You can then ask them which people throughout history would likely be labeled as “self-actualized.” Common examples are Abraham Lincoln, Mother Teresa, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., etc. CONNECTION: Endocannabinoids and its relative, marijuana, are used medically to treat cancer patients who are on chemotherapy, because they stimulate appetite (Chapter 6). • Discussion: Ask students their opinion on whether marijuana should be legalized. Direct the conversation around the medical pros and cons of the drug (see http://medicalmarijuana.procon.org/ for help). CONNECTION: Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the most common eating disorders in more affluent nations (Chapter 12). • Suggested Site: Culture and Eating Disorders: http://www.healthyplace.com/Communities/Eating_Disorders/minorities_1.asp CONNECTION: Alienation with others is so important that social exclusion physically hurts and activates pain regions in the brain involved with physical pain (Chapter 14). • Suggested Article: BBC news article on these findings: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3178242.stm EMOTION CONNECTION: The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in working memory by evaluating sensory information and designating it for storage or disposal (Chapter 7). • Discussion: Remind students about the case of Phineas Gage and his change in behavior following his accident with a tampering rod. CONNECTION: When you see another person you care about get hurt physically, it creates activity in the insula similar to what you experience with feelings of your own physical pain (Chapter 14). • Suggested Article: Mirror Neurons and Empathy: http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn10108-spectrum-of-empathy-found-in-the-brain.html INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTION 1. Ask students what motivates them. Is it food? (It usually is!) Sex? Understanding? Love? Ask them what motivates them most. If they are having a hard time getting started, talk to them about how clubs and organizations draw new membership. They have events that advertise free food! How do apartments draw in new tenants? They offer cuts in rent or a month free. How do commercials get you to buy products? They promise sex and love. In other words, these organizations appeal to our basic needs. 2. One argument against Maslow’s hierarchy is that the same behavior could serve to fulfill different needs for different people. For example you might use sex. Sex is clearly a physiological need but for some it can serve other functions: love, safety, and esteem. Have students think of other behaviors that may fulfill multiple needs on the hierarchy. 3. Ask students to think about how mood affects daily behaviors, like helpfulness. If they are in a good mood and someone is trying to merge into their lane, what do they do? What about if someone yells for them to hold the elevator? Generally, if you’re in a good mood, you are more helpful (you let people into your lane and frantically press the “open door” button or put your foot in the doorway to keep the elevator open). If you’re in a bad mood, though, you are less helpful (speeding up to prevent the merge and actively pushing the “close door” button). 4. Ask students how they would go about applying concepts of emotional regulation to schools of different socioeconomical statuses. 5. Ask students what would make them happy. Winning the lottery? Finding true love? Getting straight As? Talk to them about the predictors of happiness outlined in the “Motivation and Happiness” section of the book. 6. Ask students if they think men and women are different when it comes to emotion. Do women feel more than men or just differently, or is there a difference at all? 7. Ask students why the United States has obesity issues. You can lead them by asking if they think fatty foods are hard to find, how portion sizes have changed in recent times, about the cost of fatty foods in comparison to healthy alternatives (even at local fast-food stops), and about lifestyle changes between “then” and “now.” 8. Humans need to connect. Infant attachment with a caregiver is crucial to healthy development (Chapter 5). Remind students about Harlow’s research on attachment (you can use this video clip as a refresher: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsA5Sec6dAI) and ask students how people with different attachment patterns might vary in their need to belong. 9. Students may have a hard time differentiating the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Tell them to imagine that they are driving down the road in a rain storm when they suddenly see break lights from the car in front of them. Ask them to explain their reaction. Typically, their hear rate increases, they hold their breath, their mouth gets dry. These are all the result of their sympathetic nervous system. Their body is having “sympathy” for their situation and preparing them to react (slam on the breaks, brace for impact, etc.). Now, have them imagine how they would feel when they are able to avoid the accident. Their heart rate slows, their breathing returns to normal, etc. This is the parasympathetic nervous system. Like a “parachute,” it calms the free fall and returns you to a normal state. 10. Hunger involves internal biological processes interacting with external, environmental ones. Ask students about their experiences with their parents taking them to dinner. Mom and Dad take them out and, chances are, they order vast quantities of food so that they can take home the leftovers. After dinner, when they are very full, they go home and what is the first thing they do? They look in the refrigerator to see if the “food fairy” (or their roommate) has delivered anything new. Why does this happen? It happens because that is their social, environmental cue. They come home. They look in the refrigerator. 11. Ask students about their favorite foods. When did they first try them? How many times did they try them before the food became a favorite? Ask if there are any foods that they hated when they initially tried them but now they love. 12. Ask students to imagine they are walking down a street late at night by themselves. Suddenly, they hear footsteps behind them. The steps grow louder and faster. How do they feel? If they appraise the event as dangerous, this will lead to the emotional experience of fear, which might lead them to run away or scream. If they then realize that it is a jogger out for a run, they may feel relief and slow their pace. 13. When and how we express emotion is a function of both biological and cultural forces. Ask students how these research findings might be related to emotIcons used when IM’ing, blogging, etc. See http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070404162321.htm for more details. 14. Have students keep a journal for a day on their different needs as they relate to Maslow’s hierarchy. Have them document which needs are most fulfilled at various times of the day (maybe every three hours from when they wake up to when they go to sleep). Which needs are different behaviors aiming to fulfill? Have them make a note of what happens when lower-level needs demand their attention (e.g., if they are studying and working on their esteem needs, what happens when they get hungry or tired?). 15. In addition to talking about the Rorschach Inkblot test, discuss the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Next, show students the following TAT image: http://www.fanpop.com/clubs/psychology/images/1310980/title/example-thematic-apperception-test-photo . Have them write down a story about the image. Ask them to share their stories with the class. Explain that using TAT images like this one measures achievement motivation. 16. Ask half of the class to suck on their pencil/pen for one minute. Ask the other half to bite on their pen (held horizontally) for one minute. After the minute has passed, ask them to indicate their mood on a scale of 1 (highly depressed) to 10 (ecstatic). Discuss the difference. 17. Show students the following image: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/blogs/morris/posts/27morris_ekman_cd.jpg and ask them which person is showing a Duchenne smile. 18. Show students the following site: http://www.jaschahoffman.com/ekmanLight.jpg. This is from the South Fore of New Guinea. Ask them to identify the emotions in each face. 19. You may want to place students in groups. Have students discuss what is attractive in today’s society vs. in the 1920, 1960s, and 1980s. What is similar? What is different? If students have internet access ask them to provide some images from each era. Suggested Media 1. Floatation tanks and sensory deprivation: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f5oRl99BEDA 2. Charles Whitman: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HTU5lPzKvjI 3. Good Will Hunting (1997) is a good example of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. 4. Anger Management (2003) 5. Anorexia help commercial: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=94c43AlwLKo 6. NOVA, Dying to be Thin: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/thin/program.html 7. Daniel Goleman talking about emotional and social intelligence: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZskNGdP_zM&feature=related 8. A one-hour interview with Daniel Goleman: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-hoo_dIOP8k&feature=related 9. Emotional IQ (ABC News) 10. Emotional Intelligence in the Classroom (VEA) 11. The Marshmallow Test (emotional intelligence) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4L-n8Z7G0ic 12. Eating Disorders: The Inner Voice (Cambridge Educational) 13. Battling Eating Disorders (Meridian Education) 14. Hunger and Nutrients (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg) 15. Gay and Lesbian Teens (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg) 16. Expressing Emotions Across Cultures (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg) 17. Anorexia's Living Face http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTIjRxT_Y9g 18. All About Happiness (ABC News) 19. How Happy Are You? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qv6xYmh4Y-w 20. Dan Gilbert on Happiness: http://www.ted.com/talks/dan_gilbert_asks_why_are_we_happy Concept Clip (McGraw-Hill Connect for Feist and Rosenberg, 3rd ed.) 1. Motivation Suggested Websites 1. National Institute of Mental Health – Eating Disorders: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eating-disorders/complete-publication.shtml 2. Emotional IQ test: http://www.queendom.com/tests/access_page/index.htm?idRegTest=3037 3. Eating Disorders.com: http://www.eating-disorder.com/ 4. Mayo Clinic—Eating Disorders: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/eating-disorders/DS00294 5. Example of a pro-ana website: http://community.livejournal.com/proanorexia 6. Phineas Gage: http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2014/05/phineas_gage_neuroscience_case_true_story_of_famous_frontal_lobe_patient.html 7. Time Magazine: Masters and Johnson: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924383,00.html 8. Paul Ekman’s home page: http://www.paulekman.com/ 9. Test Your Emotional Intelligence: http://kgajos.eecs.harvard.edu/mite/ 10. Exercises in Creativity (including the Remote Associates Test): http://99u.com/articles/7160/test-your-creativity-5-classic-creative-challenges Suggested Readings Atkinson, J. W. (1981). Studying personality in the context of an advanced motivational psychology. American Psychologist, 36, 117–128. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper Custers, K., & Van den Bulck, J. (2009). Viewership of pro-anorexia websites in seventh, ninth and eleventh graders. European Eating Disorders Review, 17, 214–219. Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218–232. Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions? Psychological Review, 99, 550–553. Fridlund, A. J. (1991). Evolution and facial action in reflex, social motive, and paralanguage. Biological Psychology, 32, 3–100. Furnham, A., Kirkaldy, B. D., & Lynn, R. (1996). Attitudinal correlates of national wealth. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 345–353. Gilbert, D. (2007). Stumbling on happiness. Vintage. Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships. Bantam. Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Carter, S. M., Lehto, A. T., & Elliot, A. J. (1997). Predictors and consequences of achievement goals in the college classroom: Maintaining interest and making the grade. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1284–1295. Izard, C. E. (1992). Basic emotions, relations among emotions, and emotion-cognition relations. Psychological Review, 99, 561–565. Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). The how of happiness: A new approach to getting the life you want. Penguin. Maclim, G. L. (2007). Practitioner’s guide to emotional regulation in school-aged children. New York: Springer. Masters, W. H., Johnson, V. E., & Kolodny, R. C. (1986). Masters and Johnson on sex and human loving. Boston: Little & Brown. McClelland, D. C. (1985). How motives, skills, and values determine what people do. American Psychologist, 40, 812–825. Strack, F., Martin, L. L., & Stepper, S. (1988). Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: A nonobtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 545(5), 768–777. Tuerlinckx, F., De Boeck, P., & Lens, W. (2002). Measuring needs with the Thematic Apperception Test: A psychometric study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 448–461. Wansink, B. (2010). Mindless eating: Why we eat more than we think. Bantam. Instructor Manual for Psychology: Perspectives and Connections Gregory J. Feist, Erika Rosenberg 9780077861872, 9781260397031