CH-9 Stratification and Social Mobility in the United States – Sociology : Book Guide

CHAPTER 9 STRATIFICATION AND SOCIAL MOBILITY IN THE UNITED STATES ESSAY QUESTIONS 1. Distinguish between wealth and income. Answer: To distinguish between wealth and income, it is essential to understand their definitions and implications in the context of economic status and social stratification. Income refers to the flow of money received by an individual or household over a certain period, typically in the form of wages, salaries, investments, rent, and other sources. It is a measure of the financial resources available to meet daily living expenses, pay bills, and save for future needs. Income is generally categorized as either earned or unearned. Earned income comes from employment or business activities, while unearned income comes from investments, pensions, and other sources not related to direct labor. Wealth, on the other hand, represents the total value of all assets owned by an individual or household, minus any debts or liabilities. These assets can include real estate, stocks, bonds, savings accounts, personal property, and other valuable possessions. Wealth is often seen as a more comprehensive indicator of economic stability and long-term financial security because it encompasses accumulated resources that can provide financial support over time, even in the absence of current income. The key difference between wealth and income lies in their nature and how they affect an individual's or household's financial situation. While income is a flow of money received regularly, wealth is a stock of accumulated resources. Income can be transient and subject to fluctuations due to job changes, economic conditions, or other factors. Wealth, however, tends to be more stable and enduring, providing a cushion against financial hardships and enabling opportunities for investment, education, and other long-term benefits. In terms of social stratification, wealth often plays a more significant role than income. Wealth can perpetuate social inequalities across generations, as those with substantial wealth can pass on financial advantages to their descendants, enhancing their social mobility and access to opportunities. In contrast, those with limited wealth may struggle to break out of cycles of poverty or lower economic status, even if their income levels improve temporarily. Overall, understanding the distinction between wealth and income is crucial for analyzing economic disparities, social mobility, and the broader dynamics of social stratification in the United States. 2. Briefly summarize the four systems of stratification presented in the text. Answer: In the context of sociology, stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups within a society. The four systems of stratification presented in the text are slavery, caste, estate, and class systems. Each system is characterized by different principles of social organization and mechanisms of social mobility. 1. Slavery: Slavery is a system in which individuals are owned as property and are forced to work for their owners. Slaves have no personal freedom or rights and are considered the lowest social class. Historically, slavery has been based on racial or ethnic distinctions, with slaves often being captured or born into slavery. 2. Caste System: The caste system is a social hierarchy based on hereditary, rigid, and immobile social classes. Individuals are born into a specific caste and remain in that caste for life. Caste systems are often associated with religious beliefs and practices, with each caste having its own rights, duties, and social status. 3. Estate System: The estate system, also known as feudalism, is a system of stratification based on the ownership and control of land. Society is divided into three main estates: the nobility (those who own land), the clergy (those who serve the religious needs of society), and the commoners (those who work the land). The estate system is characterized by hierarchical relationships and limited social mobility. 4. Class System: The class system is based on the distribution of economic resources, particularly wealth and income. Social classes are fluid and individuals can move between classes based on factors such as education, occupation, and economic success. Class systems are often associated with capitalism, where the means of production are privately owned and economic competition drives social mobility. In summary, the four systems of stratification differ in their principles of social organization and mechanisms of social mobility. Slavery and caste systems are characterized by rigid social hierarchies and limited mobility, while the estate system is based on land ownership and hierarchical relationships. The class system, on the other hand, is more fluid, with individuals able to move between social classes based on economic factors. 3. To what degree is slavery present in the world in the new century? Answer: In the new century, slavery still exists around the world, albeit in different forms from historical chattel slavery. Contemporary forms of slavery include forced labor, debt bondage, human trafficking, and child labor. These practices are often hidden and can be difficult to detect, but they continue to exploit vulnerable populations, particularly in developing countries. Forced labor involves individuals being compelled to work through coercion or threat of violence. This can occur in various industries, such as agriculture, construction, manufacturing, and domestic work. Debt bondage is a form of forced labor in which individuals are forced to work to repay a debt, often under exploitative conditions with little or no pay. Human trafficking is another form of modern slavery, involving the recruitment, transportation, or harboring of people for the purpose of exploitation. This can include sexual exploitation, forced labor, or removal of organs. Human trafficking is a lucrative criminal enterprise that affects millions of people worldwide, with women and children being particularly vulnerable. Child labor is also a significant issue, with millions of children around the world engaged in work that is harmful to their health and development. Children are often forced to work in dangerous conditions for little or no pay, depriving them of their right to education and a childhood. While slavery is illegal in every country, it persists due to factors such as poverty, lack of education, social inequality, and ineffective law enforcement. Addressing modern slavery requires a multi-faceted approach that includes enforcing existing laws, improving access to education and economic opportunities, and raising awareness about the issue. Overall, while slavery may not be as overt or institutionalized as it was in the past, it remains a significant problem that requires global attention and action to eradicate. 4. Slavery was not limited to plantation life in the United States, because it still exists in the world today. Explain. Answer: Slavery in the United States was not limited to plantation life but was a pervasive institution that affected all aspects of society. Similarly, modern forms of slavery exist around the world today, impacting various industries and sectors. Historically, slavery in the United States extended beyond plantations to include domestic servitude, where enslaved individuals worked in households, performing duties such as cooking, cleaning, and childcare. Slavery also existed in urban areas, where enslaved individuals worked in factories, construction sites, and other industries. Today, slavery continues to exist in various forms and industries worldwide. In addition to traditional sectors such as agriculture and domestic work, modern slavery is prevalent in industries such as manufacturing, construction, mining, and fishing. It is estimated that millions of people are trapped in forced labor situations, where they are coerced to work under exploitative conditions. Furthermore, slavery in the United States had a lasting impact on generations of enslaved individuals and their descendants. Similarly, modern slavery perpetuates cycles of poverty and exploitation, affecting individuals and communities for years to come. In conclusion, slavery in the United States was not limited to plantation life but had far-reaching effects on society. Similarly, modern slavery exists in various forms and industries around the world, highlighting the need for continued efforts to combat this egregious violation of human rights. 5. Summarize Daniel Rossides’s description of the class system in the United States. Answer: Daniel Rossides describes the class system in the United States as a hierarchical arrangement based primarily on socioeconomic factors such as income, wealth, education, and occupation. He emphasizes the fluidity of the class system, suggesting that individuals can move up or down the social ladder based on their achievements and circumstances. Rossides identifies three main classes in the American class system: the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class. The upper class is characterized by significant wealth, often inherited, and includes individuals who hold positions of power and influence in society. The middle class is defined by a comfortable standard of living, typically achieved through education and professional careers. The lower class comprises individuals who struggle financially, often working in low-paying jobs with limited opportunities for advancement. Rossides also acknowledges the existence of a working class, which he distinguishes from the lower class based on factors such as job stability and access to benefits. He notes that the working class often includes individuals employed in manual labor or service industries, with varying levels of economic security. Overall, Rossides's description highlights the complexity of the class system in the United States and the various factors that contribute to individuals' social standing. He emphasizes the importance of understanding class dynamics in sociological analysis and acknowledges the role of social mobility in shaping individuals' life chances and opportunities. 6. Discuss capitalism from a Marxist perspective. Answer: From a Marxist perspective, capitalism is a socio-economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, such as factories, land, and machinery, where the goal is to generate profit. Karl Marx, the founder of Marxism, viewed capitalism as inherently exploitative and unsustainable, leading to class conflict and ultimately the overthrow of the capitalist system. One key concept in Marxist analysis of capitalism is the notion of class struggle. Marx argued that capitalist societies are divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie, or the capitalist class who own the means of production, and the proletariat, or the working class who sell their labor for wages. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat by extracting surplus value from their labor, leading to alienation and exploitation of the working class. Another key aspect of Marxist analysis is the idea of commodity fetishism, which refers to the way in which commodities under capitalism are imbued with value beyond their material worth. Marx argued that under capitalism, the value of goods is determined by the amount of labor required to produce them, but this is obscured by the capitalist mode of production, which treats goods as commodities to be bought and sold for profit. Marx also critiqued capitalism for its tendency toward crisis and instability. He argued that capitalism is inherently prone to overproduction and underconsumption, leading to economic crises and recessions. Marx believed that these crises are symptomatic of the fundamental contradictions within capitalism, which he believed would eventually lead to its downfall. In conclusion, from a Marxist perspective, capitalism is seen as a system based on exploitation and inequality, characterized by class conflict and instability. Marx believed that capitalism would ultimately be replaced by socialism, where the means of production are owned collectively and production is organized to meet human needs rather than generate profit for a few. 7. Distinguish between class consciousness and false consciousness and give examples of both. Answer: Class consciousness and false consciousness are concepts used in Marxist theory to describe the awareness or lack thereof that individuals have about their social class and the implications of their class position in society. Class Consciousness: Class consciousness refers to the awareness and understanding that individuals have about their social class and their shared interests and struggles with others in the same class. It involves recognizing the structural inequalities and exploitation inherent in the capitalist system. For example, workers who are aware of their common interests and the need for collective action to challenge the capitalist system and improve their conditions exhibit class consciousness. Labor unions and socialist movements often aim to foster class consciousness among workers. False Consciousness: False consciousness, on the other hand, refers to a lack of awareness or a distorted understanding of one's own class position and interests. It occurs when individuals are misled or manipulated to believe that the interests of the ruling class are synonymous with their own interests. For example, a worker who believes that the success of their employer will benefit them personally, even though it may come at the expense of their own wages or working conditions, is experiencing false consciousness. Advertisements and propaganda that promote consumerism and individualism can contribute to false consciousness by diverting attention away from class-based issues. In summary, class consciousness involves a critical understanding of one's own class position and the broader social structures that perpetuate inequality, while false consciousness involves a misunderstanding or distortion of these realities, often to the advantage of the ruling class. 8. To what extent have Karl Marx’s theories been useful in understanding contemporary industrial societies? To what extent have they been misleading? Answer: Karl Marx's theories have been both useful and somewhat misleading in understanding contemporary industrial societies. Marx's analysis of capitalism as a system based on exploitation, class struggle, and the concentration of wealth and power has provided valuable insights into the dynamics of contemporary societies. His emphasis on the importance of economic factors in shaping social relations and his critique of inequality and alienation remain relevant in understanding many aspects of modern industrial societies. One area where Marx's theories have been particularly useful is in highlighting the structural inequalities inherent in capitalist societies. Marx's concept of class struggle continues to be relevant in analyzing the tensions and conflicts that arise between different social classes, such as the working class and the capitalist class. His emphasis on the economic base of society as driving social change has also been influential in shaping theories of economic and social development. However, Marx's theories have also been criticized for their determinism and oversimplification of social relations. Marx's prediction of the inevitable collapse of capitalism and the emergence of a socialist society has not been realized in the way he envisioned. Critics argue that Marx underestimated the ability of capitalism to adapt and evolve, as well as the role of other factors, such as culture, politics, and ideology, in shaping society. Additionally, Marx's focus on economic factors as the primary driver of social change has been criticized for neglecting other important aspects of society, such as gender, race, and ethnicity. Marx's theories also do not fully account for the complexity and diversity of contemporary industrial societies, which encompass a wide range of social, cultural, and political dynamics. In conclusion, while Karl Marx's theories have been useful in understanding many aspects of contemporary industrial societies, they have also been somewhat misleading in their oversimplification of social relations and their deterministic view of social change. Marx's theories remain a valuable tool for analyzing capitalism and its effects on society, but they should be used in conjunction with other theoretical perspectives to provide a more comprehensive understanding of modern societies. 9. Distinguish among Weber’s use of the terms class, status group, and power. Answer: Max Weber, a prominent sociologist, used the terms class, status group, and power to analyze different dimensions of social stratification and inequality. Each of these concepts represents a distinct aspect of social hierarchy and influence. 1. Class: Weber defined class primarily in terms of economic factors, specifically individuals' relationship to the means of production. Class is based on the distribution of wealth, income, and economic opportunities in society. According to Weber, class is characterized by similar life chances, or the likelihood of achieving certain economic outcomes. Unlike Marx, who viewed class primarily in terms of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, Weber identified multiple classes based on different economic criteria. 2. Status Group: Status group refers to a group of people who share a common social status or prestige in society. Status is based on non-economic factors such as honor, respect, and lifestyle. Status groups often have distinct social norms, values, and cultural practices that set them apart from other groups. Status can be independent of class, as individuals in different economic classes can belong to the same status group. 3. Power: Power, according to Weber, is the ability of individuals or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others. Power can be based on various factors, including wealth, status, knowledge, and organizational abilities. Weber distinguished between different types of power, including economic power (based on control of economic resources), social power (based on social status and influence), and political power (based on control of political institutions). In summary, Weber's concepts of class, status group, and power offer a multidimensional view of social stratification, emphasizing not only economic factors but also social status and power dynamics. Unlike Marx, who focused primarily on economic class struggle, Weber's framework provides a more nuanced understanding of how various factors contribute to social inequality and hierarchy. 10. Contrast Max Weber’s and Karl Marx’s views of social class. Answer: Max Weber and Karl Marx both contributed significantly to the sociological understanding of social class, but they had distinct perspectives on the nature and dynamics of class in society. Karl Marx's View: • Marx viewed social class primarily in economic terms, based on individuals' relationship to the means of production. He identified two main classes in capitalist societies: the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labor to the bourgeoisie. • According to Marx, class conflict is inherent in capitalist societies, as the bourgeoisie exploit the proletariat to maximize profits. This exploitation leads to a fundamental conflict of interest between the two classes, which Marx believed would ultimately result in the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a socialist society. • Marx emphasized the importance of class consciousness, or the awareness among the proletariat of their shared interests and the need for collective action to challenge the capitalist system. Max Weber's View: • Weber's approach to social class was more multidimensional than Marx's. While he acknowledged the importance of economic factors in shaping class relations, Weber also emphasized the role of status and power in determining an individual's social class. • Weber identified multiple dimensions of stratification, including class (based on economic factors), status (based on social prestige), and power (based on the ability to achieve goals despite opposition). He argued that these dimensions interact to create a more complex system of social inequality. • Unlike Marx, Weber did not see class conflict as the central driving force of social change. Instead, he believed that social stratification was a more nuanced and multifaceted phenomenon, influenced by a variety of factors beyond just economic relations. In summary, while Marx focused on the economic aspects of social class and the conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, Weber took a broader view that incorporated economic, social, and political factors into his analysis of social stratification. Both perspectives offer valuable insights into the dynamics of social class, but they differ in their emphasis and theoretical approach. 11. How do functionalists view the issue of the universality of stratification? Answer: Functionalists view the issue of the universality of stratification as a natural and necessary aspect of society. According to functionalist theory, social stratification serves several important functions that contribute to the overall stability and functioning of society. One key function of social stratification, according to functionalists, is that it motivates individuals to work hard and strive for success. The promise of higher social status and material rewards serves as an incentive for individuals to acquire education, develop skills, and contribute to the economy. This, in turn, benefits society as a whole by ensuring that necessary roles are filled and that productivity is maximized. Another function of social stratification, as seen by functionalists, is that it helps to ensure the proper allocation of individuals into roles that best suit their abilities and talents. By sorting individuals into different social positions based on their skills and qualifications, society can ensure that the most qualified individuals occupy positions that are most critical to its functioning. Functionalists also argue that social stratification helps to maintain social order by providing a sense of stability and predictability. By establishing clear hierarchies and expectations for behavior, stratification helps to reduce conflict and promote cooperation among members of society. Overall, functionalists view social stratification as a necessary and beneficial feature of society that serves important functions in ensuring its stability and functioning. While they acknowledge that stratification can lead to inequalities, they argue that these inequalities are justified by the benefits they bring to society as a whole. 12. How do conflict theorists view the issue of the inevitability of stratification? Answer: Conflict theorists view the issue of the inevitability of stratification as a result of the inherent inequalities and power dynamics present in society. Unlike functionalists, who see social stratification as necessary for the functioning of society, conflict theorists argue that stratification is a product of social conflict and exploitation. According to conflict theorists, social stratification is not natural or inevitable but is rather the result of a struggle for power and resources between different social groups. They argue that those in power use their influence to maintain their position at the top of the social hierarchy, often at the expense of those lower down. Conflict theorists also emphasize the role of social institutions, such as the economy, politics, and education, in perpetuating and reinforcing stratification. They argue that these institutions are structured in a way that benefits the dominant social groups and maintains the status quo. Furthermore, conflict theorists highlight the role of ideology in justifying and legitimizing stratification. They argue that dominant groups use ideology to convince others that stratification is natural and fair, even when it is not. This can lead to false consciousness among subordinate groups, where they accept and internalize their lower status in society. In summary, conflict theorists view the issue of the inevitability of stratification as a result of social conflict and exploitation. They argue that stratification is not natural or necessary but is rather a product of the unequal distribution of power and resources in society. 13. Explain how Gerhard Lenski’s approach to stratification represents a synthesis of the functionalist and conflict approaches. Answer: Gerhard Lenski's approach to stratification represents a synthesis of the functionalist and conflict approaches by combining elements of both perspectives to provide a comprehensive understanding of social stratification. Lenski, unlike traditional functionalists, acknowledges the existence of conflict and inequality in society. He recognizes that social stratification can lead to social conflict, as seen in the struggle between different social classes for resources and power. However, Lenski also incorporates functionalist ideas by highlighting the ways in which social stratification can serve important functions for society as a whole. One key aspect of Lenski's approach is his emphasis on the role of technology and the economy in shaping social stratification. He argues that technological advancements and economic systems play a significant role in determining the distribution of wealth, power, and prestige in society. This aligns with conflict theory, which emphasizes the role of power dynamics in shaping social inequality. At the same time, Lenski also recognizes the functional aspects of social stratification. He argues that stratification can provide incentives for individuals to develop new technologies and contribute to economic growth. Lenski also suggests that stratification can help to maintain social order by providing a sense of stability and predictability. Overall, Lenski's approach to stratification represents a synthesis of functionalist and conflict perspectives by recognizing both the conflictual and functional aspects of social stratification. He acknowledges the role of conflict and inequality in shaping stratification systems, while also highlighting the ways in which stratification can serve important functions for society as a whole. 14. Describe the objective method of measuring social class. Answer: The objective method of measuring social class focuses on using specific criteria, such as income, education, and occupation, to categorize individuals into different social classes. Unlike subjective methods, which rely on individuals' self-perceptions of their class status, the objective method emphasizes measurable and externally observable indicators of social class. 1. Income: Income is a key factor in determining social class in the objective method. It refers to the amount of money earned by an individual or household over a period of time, typically a year. Higher income levels are generally associated with higher social class status, as they indicate greater access to resources and opportunities. 2. Occupation: Occupation is another important indicator of social class. Certain occupations are associated with higher levels of education, income, and prestige, placing individuals in higher social classes. For example, professionals such as doctors, lawyers, and engineers are often considered to be in higher social classes than blue-collar workers. 3. Education: Education level is also used to measure social class objectively. Higher levels of education are typically associated with higher social class status, as they often lead to better job opportunities and higher income levels. Individuals with advanced degrees are often considered to be in higher social classes than those with only a high school diploma or less. 4. Wealth: Wealth, or net worth, is another important factor in measuring social class objectively. Wealth includes assets such as property, investments, and savings, minus debts. Individuals with higher levels of wealth are generally considered to be in higher social classes, as they have greater financial security and resources. By using these objective criteria, researchers can categorize individuals into different social classes based on measurable indicators of income, education, occupation, and wealth. This approach allows for a more standardized and quantifiable assessment of social class, which can be useful for research purposes and policy planning. 15. What efforts are being made to measure the contribution that women are making to the economy? Answer: Efforts to measure the contribution that women are making to the economy involve various methods and approaches aimed at capturing the economic activities and impact of women in the workforce. These efforts are important for understanding gender disparities in economic participation and for informing policies and initiatives to promote gender equality. Some key efforts include: 1. Labor Force Participation Rate: One of the primary indicators used to measure women's economic contribution is the labor force participation rate, which measures the proportion of women (and men) who are employed or actively seeking employment. This indicator provides an overall picture of women's involvement in the labor market. 2. Earnings and Income: Another important aspect of measuring women's economic contribution is assessing their earnings and income relative to men. Studies often analyze the gender wage gap, which compares the median earnings of women and men working full-time. This helps to understand the extent of pay disparities between genders. 3. Occupational Segregation: Analyzing occupational segregation, which refers to the concentration of women in certain types of jobs and industries, is crucial for understanding women's economic roles. This helps identify barriers to women's advancement in the workforce and informs efforts to promote gender diversity and equality in various sectors. 4. Unpaid Work: Recognizing and measuring the value of unpaid work, such as caregiving, household chores, and volunteer work, is essential for understanding the full extent of women's economic contributions. The United Nations System of National Accounts (SNA) has developed guidelines for valuing unpaid work to include it in economic indicators. 5. Entrepreneurship and Business Ownership: Assessing women's involvement in entrepreneurship and business ownership is also important. Studies often analyze the number of women-owned businesses, their contribution to the economy, and the challenges faced by women entrepreneurs. 6. Policy Impact Analysis: Evaluating the impact of policies and initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality in the economy is another important aspect. This involves assessing the effectiveness of measures such as equal pay laws, parental leave policies, and childcare support in improving women's economic participation and outcomes. Overall, measuring women's contribution to the economy requires a comprehensive approach that considers various aspects of economic participation and impact, including labor force participation, earnings, occupational segregation, unpaid work, entrepreneurship, and policy impact. These efforts are essential for addressing gender disparities and promoting women's economic empowerment. 16. How are wealth and income distributed in the United States? Answer: Wealth and income distribution in the United States is characterized by significant disparities, with wealth and income concentrated among a relatively small proportion of the population. Several key factors contribute to this unequal distribution: 1. Income Distribution: • The distribution of income in the United States is highly unequal. According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau, the top 20% of households earn more than half of all income, while the bottom 20% earn less than 4%. • Factors contributing to income inequality include disparities in wages and salaries, with higher earners often benefiting from higher-paying jobs and greater access to education and skills training. 2. Wealth Distribution: • Wealth distribution in the United States is even more unequal than income distribution. The top 1% of households hold more wealth than the bottom 90% combined. • Wealth disparities are driven by various factors, including differences in asset ownership (such as stocks, real estate, and business ownership) and inheritance. 3. Racial and Ethnic Disparities: • There are significant racial and ethnic disparities in wealth and income distribution. For example, African American and Hispanic households typically have lower incomes and less wealth than White households. • These disparities are influenced by historical and systemic factors, including discrimination in employment and housing markets, as well as disparities in access to education and other opportunities. 4. Gender Disparities: • Gender also plays a role in wealth and income distribution, with women generally earning less than men and having lower levels of wealth. • Factors such as the gender wage gap, occupational segregation, and disparities in caregiving responsibilities contribute to these disparities. 5. Policy and Taxation: • Tax policies and social welfare programs can also influence wealth and income distribution. For example, progressive taxation and social safety net programs can help redistribute wealth and reduce inequality. In summary, wealth and income distribution in the United States are characterized by significant disparities, with wealth and income concentrated among a small proportion of the population. These disparities are influenced by a range of factors, including disparities in wages, asset ownership, inheritance, racial and ethnic discrimination, gender disparities, and tax policies. Addressing these disparities requires comprehensive policies that address the root causes of inequality. 17. Explain the utility of the terms absolute poverty and relative poverty. Answer: The terms absolute poverty and relative poverty are used to describe different aspects of poverty and provide different perspectives on measuring and understanding poverty. 1. Absolute Poverty: • Absolute poverty refers to a level of poverty that is defined by a specific income threshold below which individuals or families are considered to be lacking the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. • The utility of the term absolute poverty lies in its clear and objective measure, which allows for comparisons across different countries and regions. For example, the World Bank defines absolute poverty as living on less than $1.90 per day. • Absolute poverty provides a straightforward way to assess the most severe forms of poverty and to track progress in reducing poverty over time. 2. Relative Poverty: • Relative poverty, on the other hand, is a measure of poverty that is relative to the standards of living in a particular society or group. It is often defined as living below a certain percentage of the median income in a given society. • The utility of the term relative poverty lies in its ability to capture the social and economic context in which poverty exists. Relative poverty takes into account the fact that what is considered poverty in one society may not be considered poverty in another, depending on the overall standard of living. • Relative poverty highlights the disparities in income and wealth within a society and helps to identify groups that may be disadvantaged relative to others. In summary, absolute poverty provides a measure of poverty based on a specific income threshold, while relative poverty provides a measure of poverty relative to the standards of living in a particular society or group. Both terms are useful in understanding and addressing different aspects of poverty and can help policymakers and researchers develop targeted strategies to alleviate poverty. 18. Who are the poor in the United States today and what is meant by the feminization of poverty? Answer: The poor in the United States today are a diverse group that includes individuals from various racial and ethnic backgrounds, ages, and family structures. However, certain groups are more likely to experience poverty than others. These include: 1. Children: Children are disproportionately affected by poverty in the United States, with around 14% living below the poverty line. Poverty during childhood can have long-lasting effects on health, education, and future economic opportunities. 2. Women: Women are more likely than men to experience poverty, a phenomenon known as the feminization of poverty. This is due to factors such as the gender wage gap, higher rates of single motherhood, and the impact of caregiving responsibilities on women's ability to work and earn a living. 3. Minorities: African Americans and Hispanics are more likely to experience poverty than White Americans. This disparity is partly due to historical and systemic factors such as discrimination, unequal access to education and employment opportunities, and disparities in wealth accumulation. 4. Elderly: While poverty rates among the elderly have declined in recent decades due to programs like Social Security, older Americans still experience poverty at higher rates than the general population. This is partly due to limited access to retirement savings and the rising cost of healthcare. The feminization of poverty refers to the trend where women are disproportionately represented among the poor. This is partly due to the gender wage gap, which results in women earning less than men for the same work. Additionally, women are more likely to be single parents, which can make it harder to escape poverty due to the added responsibilities of childcare and household management. Discrimination and systemic barriers also contribute to the feminization of poverty, as women face greater challenges in accessing education, employment, and other opportunities that could lift them out of poverty. Overall, the poor in the United States today are a diverse group, but certain populations, such as children, women, minorities, and the elderly, are more likely to experience poverty due to a variety of social, economic, and systemic factors. 19. Discuss the feminization of poverty and explain its growing significance. Answer: The feminization of poverty refers to the phenomenon where women are disproportionately represented among the poor. This trend has been growing in significance due to several factors: 1. Gender Wage Gap: Women continue to earn less than men for the same work, contributing to their higher likelihood of living in poverty. This wage gap is influenced by factors such as occupational segregation, discrimination, and lack of access to higher-paying jobs. 2. Single Motherhood: The rise in single motherhood has contributed to the feminization of poverty. Single mothers often face challenges such as limited access to childcare, inadequate social support, and difficulties balancing work and family responsibilities, making it harder for them to escape poverty. 3. Caregiving Responsibilities: Women are more likely than men to take on caregiving responsibilities for children, elderly parents, or other family members. These responsibilities can limit women's ability to work full-time or pursue higher education, leading to lower incomes and a higher risk of poverty. 4. Education and Employment Opportunities: Women may face barriers to accessing education and employment opportunities, particularly in male-dominated fields. This can limit their earning potential and increase their likelihood of living in poverty. 5. Policies and Social Safety Nets: Some policies and social safety nets may not adequately address the needs of women living in poverty. For example, welfare programs may have eligibility criteria that disadvantage single mothers, or they may not provide sufficient support for childcare or healthcare costs. Overall, the feminization of poverty is a complex issue that is influenced by a range of factors, including the gender wage gap, single motherhood, caregiving responsibilities, limited education and employment opportunities, and inadequate social policies. Addressing this phenomenon requires comprehensive efforts to address these underlying causes and create more equitable opportunities for women. 20. How is the underclass different from the poor? Answer: The underclass and the poor are often used interchangeably, but there are distinctions between the two groups: 1. Definition: • The poor generally refer to individuals or families who fall below a certain income threshold and lack the resources to meet their basic needs. • The underclass, on the other hand, refers to a segment of the poor population who are characterized by long-term poverty, social isolation, and a lack of access to mainstream society. 2. Duration of Poverty: • The poor may experience poverty temporarily due to factors such as job loss, illness, or other life events. • The underclass, however, is often trapped in a cycle of poverty that persists over generations. They may face multiple barriers to escaping poverty, such as limited education, lack of job opportunities, and social exclusion. 3. Social Isolation: • The underclass is often characterized by social isolation and marginalization from mainstream society. They may live in segregated neighborhoods with high levels of poverty and crime. • While the poor may also face social challenges, such as stigma or discrimination, they may have more access to social networks and resources to help them cope with poverty. 4. Dependency on Welfare: • The underclass is often more dependent on welfare programs and social assistance due to their long-term poverty and lack of access to stable employment. • While some poor individuals may also rely on welfare programs, they may be more likely to transition out of poverty with access to education, job training, and other resources. 5. Cultural Factors: • The underclass is sometimes associated with cultural factors such as a lack of motivation or values that perpetuate poverty. • While culture can play a role in poverty, it is not unique to the underclass and may be a stereotype that oversimplifies the complexities of poverty. In summary, while both the underclass and the poor experience poverty, the underclass is often characterized by long-term poverty, social isolation, and a lack of access to mainstream society. Understanding these distinctions is important for developing effective strategies to address the needs of both groups. 21. How did Herbert Gans apply a functionalist analysis to the existence of poverty? Answer: Herbert Gans applied a functionalist analysis to the existence of poverty by suggesting that poverty serves several functions within society, despite being seen as a social problem. Gans argued that poverty performs the following functions: 1. Labor Market Function: Poverty helps to maintain a supply of low-wage labor for jobs that require little skill or education. This benefits employers who rely on cheap labor to keep production costs low. 2. Socializing Function: Poverty can socialize individuals into accepting their place in society and conforming to social norms. It can teach values such as hard work, thrift, and deference to authority, which are seen as beneficial for the functioning of society. 3. Economic Growth Function: Poverty can stimulate economic growth by creating demand for goods and services targeted at low-income individuals. This can drive innovation and create new markets. 4. Political Function: Poverty can also serve a political function by providing a marginalized group that can be used to rally support for political causes or to justify certain policies. Overall, Gans argued that while poverty is often viewed as a problem to be solved, it also serves important functions within society. This functionalist perspective highlights the complexity of poverty and suggests that it is not solely a result of individual shortcomings but is also shaped by social structures and institutions. 22. Describe the ways in which stratification influences a person’s life chances. Answer: Stratification, or the division of society into different strata or layers based on factors such as wealth, income, education, and social status, has a profound impact on a person's life chances. Life chances refer to the opportunities and outcomes that individuals face in life, including access to education, employment, healthcare, and overall well-being. Here are some ways in which stratification influences a person's life chances: 1. Access to Education: Individuals from higher social classes often have greater access to quality education, including better-funded schools, more resources, and opportunities for advanced education. This can lead to higher educational attainment and better career prospects. 2. Employment Opportunities: Social stratification can influence the types of job opportunities available to individuals. Those from higher social classes may have access to more prestigious and higher-paying jobs, while those from lower classes may be limited to lower-paying and less secure employment. 3. Healthcare Access: Social class can affect access to healthcare services and health outcomes. Individuals from higher social classes may have better access to healthcare facilities, preventive care, and health insurance, leading to better health outcomes compared to those from lower social classes. 4. Standard of Living: Social stratification can impact a person's standard of living, including access to housing, nutrition, and other basic needs. Individuals from higher social classes are more likely to afford a comfortable standard of living, while those from lower classes may struggle to meet their basic needs. 5. Social Mobility: Stratification can also influence a person's ability to move up or down the social ladder. Individuals from higher social classes may have more opportunities for upward social mobility, while those from lower classes may face barriers that limit their mobility. 6. Psychological Effects: Social stratification can also have psychological effects, such as feelings of inferiority or superiority based on one's social status. This can impact a person's self-esteem, mental health, and overall well-being. In conclusion, social stratification has a significant impact on a person's life chances, influencing their access to education, employment, healthcare, standard of living, social mobility, and psychological well-being. Recognizing and addressing the effects of stratification is crucial for promoting equality of opportunity and improving overall societal well-being. 23. What does the discussion of the motion picture Titanic illustrate about the concept of life chances? Answer: The discussion of the motion picture Titanic illustrates several aspects of the concept of life chances, which refers to the opportunities and outcomes that individuals face in life. The film depicts the lives of two characters, Jack and Rose, who come from different social classes and have vastly different life chances. 1. Social Class and Access to Resources: Jack, a lower-class passenger, has limited access to resources and opportunities compared to Rose, who comes from a wealthy family. This is evident in their living conditions aboard the ship and the types of activities they engage in. Jack's lower social class limits his life chances in terms of education, employment, and overall standard of living. 2. Education and Skills: Rose, as a wealthy passenger, has likely received a higher level of education and has developed skills that are valued in her social class. This gives her an advantage in terms of career opportunities and social mobility. Jack, on the other hand, lacks formal education and skills that would enable him to access higher-paying jobs. 3. Social Networks: Rose's social class affords her access to influential social networks and connections that can benefit her in various aspects of life, such as finding employment or advancing in society. Jack, as a lower-class passenger, lacks access to such networks, which limits his ability to improve his life chances. 4. Opportunities for Social Mobility: The film also illustrates the limited opportunities for social mobility faced by individuals from lower social classes. Despite Jack's intelligence, resourcefulness, and strong work ethic, his social class ultimately determines his fate. Rose, on the other hand, is able to overcome obstacles and improve her life chances due to her privileged background. 5. Intersectionality: The film also highlights the intersectionality of social stratification, as both Jack and Rose face additional challenges and opportunities based on their gender and other intersecting identities. Rose's gender, for example, impacts her life chances in terms of the societal expectations placed on her and the limitations on her freedom and autonomy. In summary, the discussion of the motion picture Titanic illustrates how social class and other social factors can significantly impact an individual's life chances, shaping their opportunities and outcomes in life. The film serves as a poignant reminder of the inequalities that exist in society and the ways in which social stratification can impact the lives of individuals from different backgrounds. 24. How does the Internet revolution exacerbate the difference in life chances between rich and poor in the United States? Answer: The Internet revolution has had a significant impact on society, including exacerbating the differences in life chances between the rich and the poor in the United States. Here are several ways in which this has occurred: 1. Access to Information and Resources: The Internet has become a crucial tool for accessing information and resources. However, individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may lack access to high-speed internet or the necessary devices, such as computers or smartphones, to fully utilize online resources. This lack of access can limit their ability to access educational materials, job opportunities, healthcare information, and other resources that can improve their life chances. 2. Education and Skill Development: The Internet has transformed the way education is delivered, with many educational institutions offering online courses and resources. However, individuals from lower-income backgrounds may not have the same access to these educational opportunities, limiting their ability to acquire new skills and qualifications that can improve their employment prospects and overall life chances. 3. Job Opportunities: The Internet has also changed the way people search for jobs and apply for positions. Many job listings are now exclusively posted online, and companies often use online platforms to recruit and screen candidates. Individuals who are not proficient in using the Internet or who lack access to online job boards may miss out on valuable job opportunities, further widening the gap between the rich and the poor. 4. Access to Services: The Internet has made it easier to access a wide range of services, such as banking, shopping, and healthcare, online. However, individuals from lower-income backgrounds may face barriers to accessing these services online, either due to lack of access to the Internet or lack of knowledge about how to use online services. This can further limit their ability to improve their quality of life and access essential services. 5. Digital Literacy Divide: The Internet revolution has also highlighted a digital literacy divide between the rich and the poor. Individuals from higher-income backgrounds are more likely to have the skills and knowledge to navigate the online world effectively, while those from lower-income backgrounds may struggle to keep up with rapidly evolving technology. This divide can further limit the ability of the poor to take advantage of the opportunities offered by the Internet revolution. Overall, while the Internet revolution has brought many benefits and opportunities, it has also exacerbated the differences in life chances between the rich and the poor in the United States. Addressing these disparities will require efforts to ensure equitable access to the Internet and digital resources, as well as programs to improve digital literacy and skills among disadvantaged populations. 25. Distinguish between an open system and a closed system. Answer: An open system and a closed system refer to two different types of social systems based on the degree of mobility and opportunities for individuals within that system: 1. Open System: • An open system is characterized by a high degree of social mobility, allowing individuals to move between social strata based on factors such as education, skills, and merit. • In an open system, there are fewer barriers to social mobility, and individuals have the opportunity to improve their social status through their own efforts. • Examples of open systems include modern capitalist societies where individuals can move up or down the social ladder based on their achievements and circumstances. 2. Closed System: • A closed system is characterized by limited social mobility, with rigid boundaries between social strata that are difficult to cross. • In a closed system, social status is largely determined by factors such as birth, family background, and inherited wealth. • Examples of closed systems include traditional caste systems where social status is predetermined and individuals have little opportunity to change their social position. In summary, an open system allows for greater social mobility and opportunities for individuals to improve their social status, while a closed system has limited social mobility and rigid boundaries between social strata. 26. Distinguish between horizontal mobility and vertical mobility. Answer: Horizontal mobility and vertical mobility are two types of social mobility that describe different ways in which individuals can change their social position within a society: 1. Horizontal Mobility: • Horizontal mobility refers to a change in a person's position within the same social stratum. • This type of mobility does not involve a change in social status but rather a change in the type of job or role within the same level of society. • For example, if a factory worker becomes a teacher, or a nurse switches to a different hospital, it is considered horizontal mobility because the individual is moving within the same social level. 2. Vertical Mobility: • Vertical mobility, on the other hand, refers to a change in a person's social position from one level of society to another. • This type of mobility can be either upward or downward. Upward mobility occurs when an individual moves to a higher social stratum, such as from a lower-income to a higher-income bracket. Downward mobility occurs when an individual moves to a lower social stratum. • For example, if a person born into a lower-income family becomes a successful entrepreneur and moves into a higher-income bracket, it is considered upward vertical mobility. Conversely, if a person loses their job and falls into poverty, it is considered downward vertical mobility. In summary, horizontal mobility refers to movement within the same social stratum, while vertical mobility refers to movement between different social strata. 27. How does the impact of intergenerational mobility on an individual differ from that of intragenerational mobility? Answer: Intergenerational mobility and intragenerational mobility are two concepts that describe different aspects of social mobility and how they impact individuals: 1. Intergenerational Mobility: • Intergenerational mobility refers to the change in social status between different generations within a family. • This type of mobility looks at how a person's social status compares to that of their parents or ancestors. It considers whether individuals are able to improve their social standing compared to their parents (upward mobility), remain in the same social class (stable mobility), or decline in social status (downward mobility). • Intergenerational mobility reflects the long-term effects of social mobility and can have a lasting impact on an individual's life chances and opportunities. 2. Intragenerational Mobility: • Intragenerational mobility, on the other hand, refers to changes in an individual's social status over the course of their own lifetime. • This type of mobility looks at how a person's social status changes throughout their life, such as moving from a lower-income job to a higher-income job or experiencing a decline in social status due to factors like job loss or illness. • Intragenerational mobility reflects the short-term effects of social mobility and can impact an individual's standard of living and quality of life. The impact of intergenerational mobility on an individual differs from that of intragenerational mobility in several ways: • Timing: Intergenerational mobility occurs over generations and reflects the overall trajectory of social mobility within a family. Intragenerational mobility, on the other hand, occurs within a single individual's lifetime and reflects more immediate changes in social status. • Longevity: Intergenerational mobility has long-lasting effects that can influence an individual's opportunities and life chances for generations to come. Intragenerational mobility, while still impactful, may have more immediate and short-term effects on an individual's life. • Scope: Intergenerational mobility considers the broader context of social mobility within a family lineage, while intragenerational mobility focuses on the individual's own experiences of social mobility during their lifetime. In summary, while both intergenerational and intragenerational mobility impact an individual's social status, they differ in terms of timing, longevity, and scope, with intergenerational mobility reflecting broader, long-term effects and intragenerational mobility reflecting more immediate, individual-level changes. 28. What is the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, and what impact has it had on welfare and social services in the United States? Answer: The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) is a landmark piece of legislation passed by the United States Congress in 1996. The act fundamentally changed the nation's welfare system by implementing several key reforms, including: 1. Work Requirements: PRWORA introduced work requirements for welfare recipients, mandating that able-bodied recipients must engage in work or work-related activities in order to receive benefits. This was aimed at promoting self-sufficiency and reducing long-term dependency on welfare. 2. Time Limits: The act imposed time limits on the receipt of welfare benefits, typically limiting assistance to a maximum of five years over a recipient's lifetime. This was intended to encourage recipients to find employment and become self-sufficient within a specified timeframe. 3. Block Grants: PRWORA replaced the previous welfare system, which provided federal funds to states based on the number of people enrolled in welfare programs, with block grants. Block grants gave states more flexibility in how they spent welfare funds, allowing them to design and implement their own welfare programs within federal guidelines. 4. Child Support Enforcement: The act included provisions to strengthen child support enforcement, requiring states to implement measures to increase the collection of child support from noncustodial parents. The impact of PRWORA on welfare and social services in the United States has been significant: • Reduced Welfare Caseloads: One of the primary goals of PRWORA was to reduce the number of individuals receiving welfare benefits. The act succeeded in this regard, leading to a significant decline in welfare caseloads nationwide. • Increased Employment: PRWORA's emphasis on work requirements and time limits has led to an increase in employment among welfare recipients. Many individuals who were previously dependent on welfare have entered the workforce and become self-sufficient. • Controversy and Criticism: PRWORA has been controversial, with critics arguing that it has led to increased poverty and hardship for some families, particularly those with barriers to employment such as lack of education or job skills, as well as those facing other challenges such as domestic violence or substance abuse. • Impact on States: The block grant structure of PRWORA has given states more control over their welfare programs, leading to variation in how welfare is administered across the country. Some states have implemented more generous welfare policies, while others have enacted stricter measures. In conclusion, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act has had a significant impact on welfare and social services in the United States, leading to changes in how welfare is administered, increased emphasis on work and self-sufficiency, and controversy over its effects on low-income families. 29. Compare the commitment to social service programs in other countries with the commitment in the United States. Answer: The commitment to social service programs varies significantly among countries, including when compared to the United States. Here are some key points of comparison: 1. Scope and Coverage: Some countries, particularly in Europe, have more comprehensive social service programs that provide a wider range of benefits to a larger portion of the population. These programs often include universal healthcare, generous unemployment benefits, and extensive social welfare programs. In contrast, the United States has a more limited social safety net, with programs such as Medicaid, Medicare, and Social Security providing targeted assistance to specific groups of people. 2. Funding and Resources: Countries with strong commitments to social service programs typically allocate a larger portion of their GDP to social welfare spending. For example, Nordic countries like Sweden and Denmark spend a significant percentage of their GDP on social welfare, providing extensive benefits to their citizens. In comparison, the United States spends a smaller percentage of its GDP on social welfare, leading to more limited benefits and coverage. 3. Public Attitudes and Political Ideologies: The level of commitment to social service programs is often influenced by public attitudes and political ideologies. In some countries, there is a strong belief in the importance of social solidarity and collective welfare, leading to broad support for social service programs. In contrast, the United States has a more individualistic culture and a political climate that is often skeptical of government intervention, leading to a more limited commitment to social service programs. 4. Effectiveness and Outcomes: The effectiveness of social service programs can vary widely among countries. Some countries have been successful in reducing poverty, improving healthcare outcomes, and promoting social mobility through their social service programs. In comparison, the United States has struggled with issues such as high poverty rates, lack of universal healthcare coverage, and income inequality, which some attribute in part to the limited scope of its social service programs. In conclusion, the commitment to social service programs varies among countries, with some countries having more extensive and generous programs than others. The United States, while providing some social services, has a more limited commitment compared to many other developed countries, which can impact the well-being and social mobility of its citizens. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS 1. Discuss why patriotism could be considered a form of false consciousness when viewed from the conflict perspective. Give some examples to support your answer. Answer: From a conflict perspective, patriotism can be seen as a form of false consciousness because it can distract people from recognizing and challenging the underlying inequalities and injustices in society. Here's how patriotism can be viewed through this lens: 1. Diversion of Attention: Patriotism often emphasizes love and loyalty to one's country, which can divert attention away from issues such as social inequality, poverty, and discrimination. Instead of questioning the social and economic structures that create these problems, individuals may focus on symbols of national pride, such as flags or anthems. 2. Maintaining the Status Quo: Patriotism can reinforce the status quo by promoting a sense of unity and cohesion among citizens. This can prevent people from questioning or challenging the existing social order, including the distribution of wealth and power. For example, in times of war or conflict, appeals to patriotism can be used to rally support for government actions that may not be in the best interests of all citizens. 3. Justification of Inequality: Patriotism can also be used to justify or rationalize social inequalities. For example, the idea of the "American Dream" suggests that anyone can succeed through hard work and determination, regardless of their background. While this may inspire people to strive for success, it can also obscure the structural barriers that prevent many individuals from achieving upward mobility. 4. Examples: • In the United States, patriotism is often associated with support for the military and defense spending. Critics argue that this focus on military strength can lead to overspending on defense while neglecting social programs that could benefit citizens. • Patriotism can also be used to justify xenophobia and discrimination against marginalized groups. For example, policies that restrict immigration may be framed as necessary to protect the nation's identity and security, but they can also perpetuate harmful stereotypes and exclusionary practices. In conclusion, from a conflict perspective, patriotism can be considered a form of false consciousness because it can obscure underlying social inequalities and injustices, maintaining support for the status quo rather than challenging it. 2. Explain why the upper classes may allow persons in the lower classes to attain prestige without granting them power or wealth. Give examples to support your answer. Answer: The upper classes may allow individuals in the lower classes to attain prestige without granting them power or wealth as a means of maintaining social stability and preserving their own privileged position. This strategy can be seen as a form of social control that allows the upper classes to maintain their dominance while giving the appearance of social mobility and meritocracy. Here's how this dynamic can play out: 1. Preservation of Status Hierarchies: Allowing individuals from lower classes to attain prestige through education, talent, or cultural achievements can create the illusion of social mobility. However, this prestige is often limited to certain fields or industries that do not threaten the existing power structures. For example, a talented musician or athlete from a lower-class background may achieve fame and prestige, but their success does not challenge the economic or political dominance of the upper classes. 2. Tokenism: The upper classes may also engage in tokenism, where they promote a few individuals from lower classes to positions of influence or visibility, but these individuals are the exception rather than the rule. This can create the impression of inclusivity and meritocracy while preserving the overall status quo. For example, a corporation may appoint a person from a disadvantaged background to a high-profile position to demonstrate their commitment to diversity, but this individual may not have real decision-making power within the organization. 3. Examples: Celebrity Culture: In the entertainment industry, individuals from lower-class backgrounds can achieve celebrity status and immense wealth. However, their success is often contingent on their ability to entertain or attract audiences, rather than challenging the economic or social structures that perpetuate inequality. Political Representation: Some lower-class individuals may attain political office, but their ability to enact meaningful change may be limited by the influence of wealthier, more established political elites. In conclusion, allowing individuals from lower classes to attain prestige without granting them power or wealth can serve as a mechanism for maintaining social order and preserving the privileges of the upper classes. While it may create the appearance of social mobility, this dynamic often reinforces existing inequalities and does little to address the structural barriers that prevent genuine upward mobility for the majority of lower-class individuals. 3. Assuming that we could equally divide all the world’s wealth and assets among everyone, why would stratification soon be evident among societies again? Use one or more of the various sociological perspectives to support your answer. Answer: If all the world's wealth and assets were equally divided among everyone, stratification would likely soon be evident again due to several sociological factors. Each perspective offers insights into why this might occur: 1. Functionalism: From a functionalist perspective, social stratification serves a purpose in society by ensuring that individuals with the most talent, skills, and motivation are in positions where they can contribute most effectively to the functioning of society. Even if wealth were initially evenly distributed, differences in individual abilities and efforts would lead to variations in wealth accumulation over time, recreating a stratified society. 2. Conflict Theory: Conflict theorists argue that social stratification is a result of the competition for resources and power between different social groups. Even with equal distribution initially, groups with more power and resources would likely find ways to accumulate more wealth and influence, leading to the emergence of new forms of stratification. 3. Symbolic Interactionism: From a symbolic interactionist perspective, stratification is maintained through the everyday interactions and perceptions of individuals. Even with an equal distribution of wealth, people would likely form social hierarchies based on factors such as intelligence, attractiveness, or charisma, leading to the emergence of new forms of stratification based on these attributes. In conclusion, while an equal distribution of wealth and assets might temporarily reduce stratification, sociological perspectives suggest that differences in individual abilities, power dynamics, and social interactions would likely lead to the reemergence of stratification over time. 4. Discuss why college education may not benefit all sectors of a society in terms of social mobility. Do most college students expect to experience upward vertical mobility after attaining a college degree? Why or why not? Answer: College education may not benefit all sectors of society equally in terms of social mobility due to several factors: 1. Access and Opportunity: Not all individuals have equal access to college education due to financial constraints, lack of educational resources, or social barriers. This unequal access limits the potential for social mobility among disadvantaged groups. 2. Relevance of Education: The skills and knowledge gained through college education may not always align with the needs of the job market or the aspirations of individuals. Some degrees may not lead to higher-paying or more prestigious jobs, limiting the potential for upward mobility. 3. Credential Inflation: As more people attain college degrees, the value of a degree in terms of social mobility may decrease. This is known as credential inflation, where a degree becomes a basic requirement rather than a guarantee of upward mobility. 4. Social Capital: College education often provides opportunities for networking and building social capital, which can be crucial for career advancement. However, individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds may not have access to the same social networks, limiting their ability to leverage their education for upward mobility. Most college students do expect to experience upward vertical mobility after attaining a college degree. This expectation is often based on the belief that a college education will lead to better job opportunities, higher income, and a higher social status. Additionally, societal norms and cultural beliefs often emphasize the importance of education as a pathway to success and social mobility. However, the reality is more complex, and the extent to which college education translates into upward mobility can vary based on individual circumstances and structural factors within society. 5. Discuss how multinational corporations may provide both functions and dysfunctions within the United States. Give examples to support you answer. Answer: Multinational corporations (MNCs) can provide both functions and dysfunctions within the United States, impacting various aspects of society, economy, and culture. Here's how: 1. Functions: • Economic Growth: MNCs often contribute to economic growth by creating jobs, investing in infrastructure, and stimulating innovation. For example, companies like Apple and Microsoft have created thousands of jobs in the U.S. and have led to the development of new technologies. • Global Competitiveness: MNCs help maintain the competitiveness of the U.S. economy in the global market. They bring in foreign investment, expand market reach, and promote trade, benefiting both the company and the country. • Technology Transfer: MNCs can facilitate the transfer of technology and knowledge to the U.S., leading to advancements in various industries and enhancing the country's technological capabilities. 2. Dysfunctions: • Economic Inequality: MNCs can exacerbate economic inequality by paying low wages, outsourcing jobs, and avoiding taxes. This can lead to a concentration of wealth in the hands of a few, widening the wealth gap in society. • Environmental Degradation: Some MNCs may engage in practices that harm the environment, such as pollution and deforestation, leading to environmental degradation and health risks for communities. • Cultural Homogenization: MNCs can contribute to cultural homogenization by promoting Western values and consumerism, leading to the erosion of local cultures and traditions. 3. Examples: • Function: Amazon has created thousands of jobs in the U.S. and has revolutionized the retail industry with its innovative technologies and services. • Dysfunction: ExxonMobil has been criticized for its environmental practices, including oil spills and emissions, which have had negative impacts on the environment and local communities. • Function: Google's parent company, Alphabet Inc., has invested in renewable energy projects and has made efforts to reduce its carbon footprint, contributing to environmental sustainability. In conclusion, while multinational corporations can bring about positive impacts such as economic growth and technological advancement, they also have the potential to create negative effects such as economic inequality and environmental degradation. It is essential to balance the benefits and drawbacks of MNCs to ensure that their operations are beneficial for both the country and its citizens. TOPICS AND SOURCES FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND ASSIGNMENTS 1. Lorenz Curve: The Lorenz curve is a means of depicting income or wealth inequality often used by economists. Proposed by a statistician, M.O. Lorenz, the graph and the formula on which the curve is based compare and analyze inequalities among different nations. Consult any basic economics textbook for references and pictorial representations, such as Paul A. Samuelson and William D. Nordhaus. Economics (17th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. For applications of the Lorenz curve and its Gini coefficient, see Elia Kacapyr, “Are You Middle Class?” American Demographics (October 1996): 30–33. 2. Elite: Economist Robert Reich argues that the elite in the United States have retreated into their own private utopia and forsaken charitable efforts. See Reich, “Secession of the Successful,” New York Times Magazine (January 20, 1991): 16–17, 42–45. 3. Wealth Inequality: See Carol Shammas, “A New Look at Long-Term Trends in Wealth Inequality in the United States,” American Historical Review 98 (April 1993): 412–431. 4. Low-Wage Workers: For an examination of the large number of laborers who still have very low incomes, see Paul Ryscavage, “A Perspective on Low-Wage Workers,” Current Population Reports, Ser. P-70, no. 57. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1996. 5. Welfare Reform: For remarks justifying recent changes in the welfare system, see Donna E. Shalala, “Welfare Reform: We Must All Assume Responsibility,” Chronicle of Higher Education 43 (October 4, 1996): B5–B6. 6. Rent: Typically, rent is not considered in models of social inequality. For consideration of this important factor, see Aage B. Sorenson, “The Structural Basis of Social Inequality,” American Journal of Sociology 101 (March 1996): 1333–1365. 7. Divorce and Social Mobility: Does family disruption during childhood affect men’s odds of moving up or down the social ladder? See Timothy J. Biblary and Adrian E. Raftery, “The Effects of Family Disruption on Social Mobility,” American Sociological Review 58 (February 1993): 97–109. 8. Role of Class: Terry R. Kandal, “Gender, Race and Ethnicity: Let’s Not Forget Class,” Race, Gender and Class 4(1) (1996): 143–165. 9. Segregation: What are the patterns of segregation, not only in the United States but also in the rest of the world? A good place to begin is with Eric Fong, “A Comparative Perspective on Race Residential Segregation: American and Canadian Experiences,” Sociological Quarterly 37 (Spring 1996): 199–226. VIDEO RESOURCE SECTION Affirmative Action: The History of an Idea (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 58m). This video features interviews with an array of academic scholars discussing the historical roots of affirmative action and the current debate over its utility. Caste at Birth (Filmakers Library, 1991, 52m). This film examines the caste system in India, and in particular the 150 million Indians relegated to the “untouchable” caste. It addresses the reasons why the Indian caste system is so resistant to change. Class Photo: Portrait of a Lost Generation? (McGraw-Hill, 43m). This NBC program celebrates the success of several young people who have beaten the odds against growing up successfully in inner-city America. It’s a muted celebration, however, for their achievements—high school graduation, college, a steady job—would be taken for granted in most of America. The program tracks what happened to the 1981 class of fourth graders who graduated from PS 309, amidst the violence, poverty, and broken families of the tough Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn, New York. On the Edge: America’s Working Poor (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2004, 22m). Millions of employed Americans are living on the edge of poverty—a precipice where one unexpected expense, sudden illness, or missed payment could mean financial ruin. This program follows three working-poor households and shows the difficulties of their lives. People Like Us (Insight Media, 2002, 120m). This is a documentary about the stark differences in lifestyle and outlook among classes in the United States. It consists of extended interview segments with people from very different walks of life. These segments may be viewed independently of one another. Pygmalion (Timeless Video, 1938, black & white, 90m). The attempt of a professor of linguistics to turn a lower-class woman into an upper-class lady. This feature film stars Leslie Howard and Wendy Hiller. Social Class (Insight Media, 2002, 30m). This video provides an in-depth examination of social class in the United States. It illuminates the relationships among wealth, power, and prestige. Social Stratification (Insight Media, 2002, 30m) This video examines different types of social systems around the world and how people are ranked in a hierarchy. It also discusses social mobility and resources that determine life chances. Stuck on Welfare (1990, color, 48m). This 48 Hours segment debunks some of the common misconceptions concerning welfare. To Be Old, Black, and Poor (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 52m). This is a gritty and painfully real exposition of what it means to be black, poor, and elderly in the United States. ADDITIONAL READINGS Bales, Kevin. 1999. Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press. Considers the more than 27 million people around the world who are victims of coerced labor. Offers case studies of Brazil, India, Mauritania, Thailand, the United States, and parts of Europe. Bluestone, Barry, and Bennett Harrison. 1999. Growing Prosperity: The Battle for Growth with Equity in the 21st Century. Boston: Harrison Century Foundation/Houghton Mifflin. A critical look at the impact of the red-hot U.S. economy on the entire population. Bonacich, Edna, and Richard Appelbaum. 2000. Behind the Label: Inequality in the Los Angeles Apparel Industry. Berkeley: University of California Press. Examines the new wave of sweatshops that has made Los Angeles the largest center of clothing production in the United States. Herman, Andrew. 1999. The “Better Angels” of Capitalism: Rhetoric, Narrative, and Moral Identity among Men of the American Upper Class. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. An ethnographic study of wealthy men in the United States, which notes how they are able to persuade themselves and others of the legitimacy of their power and privilege. Oliver, Melvin L., and Thomas M. Shapiro. 1995. Black Wealth/White Wealth: New Perspectives on Racial Inequality. New York: Routledge. A detailed examination of the massive differences in wealth between African Americans and Whites, regardless of education and occupation. Silverstein, Michael J., and Neil Fiske. 2003. Trading Up: The New American Luxury. New York: Portfolio. The authors describe the new American fixation with luxury goods, and how Americans manage their discretionary spending in order to afford them. Summer, Lauralee. 2003. Learning Joy from Dogs without Collars. New York: Simon and Schuster. An autobiographical account of a woman who spent much of her childhood homeless or in foster care, but who ended up attending Harvard. Waring, Marilyn. 1988. If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics. San Francisco: Harper and Row. Waring, a social scientist from New Zealand, considers how women’s labor is overlooked in the global economy. JOURNALS Among the journals that focus on issues of stratification, social class, and social mobility are American Journal of Economics and Sociology (founded in 1941), Humanity and Society (1977), Journal of Poverty (1997), and Review of Black Political Economy (1970). See also the Current Population Reports series published by the Bureau of the Census (available at www.census.gov). Solution Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669