CH-9-12 Stage Costumes – Theatre: The Lively Art : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 9 to 12 Chapter 9 Stage Costumes OVERVIEW AND OUTLINE Because they are actually worn by the performers, costumes are the most personal aspect of the visual elements in theatre. In everyday life, people wear clothing not only for comfort but for the information they want to give others about themselves. Such information includes position and status, sex, occupation, relative flamboyance or modesty, degree of independence or regimentation, and a sense of occasion. Stage costumes convey the same information about the characters, but onstage this information is magnified because every element in theatre is in the spotlight. The objectives of costume design are to set the tone and style of a production, indicate time and place, characterize individuals and groups, underline personal relationships, create symbolic outfits when appropriate, meet the practical needs of the performers, and coordinate with the total production. The designer works with line, shape, color, fabric, and accessories in fulfilling these objectives. As in the scenic area, there are a number of technical specialists that help bring the design to life in a complex design/construction process. Makeup, hairstyles and wigs, and, on occasion, masks, all fall under the direction and/or approval of the costume designer as well. I. COSTUMES FOR THE STAGE a. Objectives of Costume Design b. The Process of Costume Design i. Setting Tone and Style ii. Indicating Time and Place iii. Identifying Status and Personality iv. Showing Relationships among Characters v. Creating Symbolic and Nonhuman Characters vi. Meeting Performers’ Needs vii. Maintaining Consistency c. The Costume Designer at Work i. The Costume Designer’s Responsibilities ii. The Costume Designer’s Resources 1. Line 2. Color 3. Fabric iii. The Costume Designer’s Collaborators II. RELATED ELEMENTS OF COSTUME DESIGN a. Makeup b. Hairstyles and Wigs c. Masks d. Millenary, Accessories, and Crafts III. COORDINATION OF THE WHOLE IV. PHOTO ESSAY: Stage Costumes Make a Strong Visual Statement V. PHOTO ESSAY: The Costume Designer at Work VI. PHOTO ESSAY: Masks VII. SUMMARY IDENTIFY OR DEFINE 1. Pulled costume 2. Built costume 3. Line, shape, or silhouette 4. Color 5. Fabric 6. Accessories 7. Makeup 8. Mask 9. Dress form 10. Period corsets 11. Prosthetic makeup 12. Pompadour 13. Susan Hilferty 14. Japanese kabuki 15. Stitchers 16. Drapers 17. Distressing 18. William Ivey Long QUESTIONS FOR STUDENT ESSAYS OR DISCUSSION 1. Compile a list of costumes seen in daily life, explaining the function and effect of each. Do they have symbolic value? For instance, why is a doctor’s coat usually white? Daily Life Costumes Compile a list of costumes seen in daily life (e.g., police uniforms, business suits, sports jerseys, doctor's scrubs). Explain the function and symbolic value of each. For example, a doctor’s white coat symbolizes cleanliness, professionalism, and authority. A police officer’s uniform suggests law, order, and protection. This exercise helps students explore how clothing serves both practical and symbolic purposes in different settings. 2. Certain special events require special clothes. Discuss the “costumes” worn for a wedding, prom, or funeral. What are such clothes trying to convey? What considerations might someone weigh in choosing clothes for these events? Special Event Clothing Discuss the significance of clothing for special events like weddings, proms, and funerals. For instance, wedding dresses are often white to symbolize purity in some cultures, while black is worn at funerals to symbolize mourning and respect. Students should consider the social, cultural, and personal factors influencing clothing choices for these events (e.g., traditions, societal expectations, personal taste). 3. It is often said that “clothes make the man” (and the woman). What is meant by this? To what extent do we make value judgments about people on the basis of their physical appearance, and especially their clothes? For instance, following the shootings at Columbine High School, many students across the nation were attacked for wearing black trench coats, or were forbidden to do so. Discuss this in relation to the concept of stereotypes. "Clothes Make the Man" and Stereotypes Explore the saying “clothes make the man/woman” by discussing how we make value judgments based on appearance and clothing. For example, professional attire conveys authority, while casual clothing might suggest a laid-back personality. Discuss how stereotypes form from clothing choices (e.g., black trench coats after Columbine) and how this ties into broader concepts of identity, appearance, and societal judgments. 4. Select a play read during the semester, and describe the most appropriate costume for each of the major characters. Costuming Characters from Plays Select a play read during the semester and describe the appropriate costume for each major character. Consider the character’s personality, social status, and emotional arc. For example, in The Crucible, John Proctor might wear simple, rugged colonial clothing that reflects his hardworking, honest nature. The exercise encourages students to think critically about how costumes convey character traits and themes. 5. Often, an occupation is associated with certain clothing. Make a list of such occupations. Why is a particular type of clothing used in each? Occupational Clothing Create a list of occupations associated with specific clothing (e.g., firefighter, chef, judge, athlete). Discuss why these types of clothing are used. For example, a firefighter’s gear is designed for protection against heat and flames, while a chef’s uniform signifies professionalism and hygiene. This list helps students understand the practical and symbolic reasons behind occupational costumes. 6. A costume must meet a performer’s needs onstage. For instance, it must be flexible and durable if the performer has a sword fight during the course of the play. List other activities performers may be required to do that would affect the way costumes are designed. Performance Requirements for Costumes Identify activities performers might need to do onstage that affect costume design. For instance, sword fights require durable, flexible clothing that allows for movement, while dancing requires lightweight, breathable fabrics. Other activities include quick costume changes, singing, or climbing. This teaches students how performance requirements shape costume design, balancing function with aesthetic appeal. 7. Discuss the elements of costumes as they relate to characterization onstage. For instance, if you wanted to give the impression of an intensely evil character, what colors might you use? Line? Fabric? To what extent are these choices based on stereotype? Is it acceptable to use stereotypes for artistic purposes? Costume Elements for Characterization Discuss how costumes create character impressions onstage. For example, dark, angular clothing might suggest an evil character, while flowing, soft fabrics could suggest innocence or vulnerability. Discuss the extent to which these choices are based on stereotypes. Is it acceptable to use stereotypes for artistic purposes? For instance, villainous characters often wear black, but is this too cliché, or is it effective storytelling? 8. Color can indicate relationships between groups of characters. For example, differing color palettes often identify Montague and Capulet family members from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. What instances in life use this technique? Color and Group Relationships Examine how color can signify relationships between groups of characters. For instance, in Romeo and Juliet, the Montagues and Capulets may be distinguished by different color schemes (e.g., blue vs. red). Discuss how color divides groups in life (e.g., team uniforms in sports, school colors, military units). This exercise explores how color functions in both life and art to convey identity, alliance, and opposition. 9. Accessories can effectively reveal personality. Discuss examples of accessories that make a definite statement about the person who wears or carries them. Accessories and Personality Accessories can reveal personality traits, like a flamboyant hat, elegant jewelry, or a quirky handbag. Discuss how accessories in daily life and onstage (e.g., glasses, a watch, a cane) convey details about a character’s status, profession, or personality. For instance, a character with a designer handbag might be seen as wealthy or fashion-conscious, while a worn-out briefcase might suggest hard work or struggle. 10. Why do men wear ties? What do ties suggest? What do different kinds of ties for various occasions suggest? What relationship might a tie play when performing gender? The Role of Ties Discuss the symbolism of men’s ties. Ties are often associated with formality, professionalism, or authority. Different ties suggest different occasions—e.g., a silk tie for a formal event versus a novelty tie for a casual setting. Discuss how ties might play a role in performing gender, as traditionally masculine attire, and explore how tie patterns, colors, and styles reflect personal identity or conform to societal expectations. These exercises allow students to explore the power of clothing in everyday life and in theatrical performance, focusing on how costumes convey meaning, create atmosphere, and shape perceptions. EXERCISES AND DEMONSTRATIONS 1. Collect a wide variety of stage costumes and historical portraits from the Internet, including the major historical periods of theatre and a variety of styles. Collect Stage Costumes and Historical Portraits Have students compile images of stage costumes and historical portraits from various eras, such as Ancient Greece, the Renaissance, Elizabethan England, and the 20th century. They can compare these costumes, discussing how each reflects the values, technologies, and materials available during that period. This research will give students a deeper understanding of the evolution of theatre costumes and their social and artistic significance. 2. Have the students make or bring masks to class and improvise scenes while wearing them. Play the same scene with and without masks. When people wear masks, what happens to the wearer? What happens to the observer? Masks and Improvised Scenes Students can make or bring masks to class and improvise scenes with and without the masks. Afterward, discuss how masks affect the performer and the observer. Do masks free the wearer, allowing them to adopt a new persona? Does the observer see the character differently with a mask on? This exercise explores how physical barriers like masks can shift dynamics in performance and perception, introducing students to mask work in theatre traditions like Commedia dell’arte. 3. Explore the different kinds of fabrics students are wearing in your classroom. Do they have fabric or color preferences? Have the students bring various fabrics to class and discuss the differences that result from varying textures. What sort of people might wear certain kinds of fabric? Fabric and Color Preferences Explore the fabrics students are wearing, discussing texture, color, and type. Have students bring in different fabrics and consider what kinds of people might wear each type (e.g., velvet for royalty, denim for casual workers). This exercise encourages students to think critically about how clothing materials are tied to identity, status, and personal expression, both in daily life and onstage. 4. Have your students write a description of one outfit of clothing they wear. They should describe it as specifically as possible. What type of information does the outfit convey? Describe an Outfit Ask students to write a detailed description of an outfit they regularly wear. This description should include fabric, color, fit, and overall style. Afterward, discuss what this outfit communicates about them—what assumptions might others make based on appearance? This will deepen students' awareness of how costumes (even in daily life) convey identity and mood. 5. Have the students draw or describe a costume they might design for a nonhuman character, such as an animal. Nonhuman Character Costume Design Have students draw or describe a costume they would design for a nonhuman character, such as an animal, mythological creature, or robot. What kinds of fabrics, shapes, and colors would be used to represent the character's qualities? This creative exercise pushes students to think beyond realism and explore imaginative costume design. 6. Have the students research the clothing of an era other than our own. What was worn? What was it made from? What were the social and aesthetic reasons for this style? The information can be presented orally to the class or written as a paper. Research Historical Clothing Students should choose an era other than the present and research the clothing of that time. They can focus on materials, aesthetics, and social norms that shaped the style. For example, in the 18th century, powdered wigs and corsets were fashion staples due to ideals of refinement and class. This research can be presented as a paper or oral report, helping students grasp the link between fashion and societal values in different historical contexts. 7. Cut out pictures of people in magazines and discuss what the students believe the person’s personality to be from the information their clothing conveys. Analyze Magazine Images Using magazine cutouts, students analyze the personalities conveyed by the people’s clothing. What can be inferred about their social status, profession, or personality? For instance, a person in a business suit may be seen as authoritative or professional, while someone in casual wear might appear relaxed or approachable. This activity sharpens students’ ability to "read" costumes as part of character interpretation. 8. Take the students to a used clothing store and have them put together clothing they think might express the personality of a character from a play they have read for class. This can be particularly interesting if the play is from a period different from our own: What contemporary clothing might express the same thing as the clothing of the period would? Used Clothing Store Field Trip Take students to a thrift store, and ask them to assemble outfits that express the personality of a character from a play. If the play is from a different era, students must find contemporary clothes that convey the same themes as the original costume would have. This activity allows students to connect modern fashion choices with historical costume design, sparking creativity in character interpretation. 9. Watch a contemporary melodramatic film—any of the films made from comic book characters will do—and discuss how color, line, silhouette, and fabric are used to establish relationships and influence audience feelings for each character. Analyze Film Costumes Watch a contemporary melodramatic film (e.g., a superhero film) and discuss how costume design (color, line, silhouette, and fabric) influences audience perceptions of the characters. For instance, bright colors and sleek fabrics may suggest a heroic figure, while dark, jagged costumes may evoke a villain. This exercise emphasizes the role of costume design in shaping audience emotions and character relationships. 10. Assign a few students to shadow a costume shop. Familiarize them with the various tools of the craft. Have students observe early fittings for actors. How has the costume changed for the performance. What does the costume tell you about the character? Does the costume look different under the lights? How? What is the relationship between the costume design and the scene design? Shadow a Costume Shop Assign students to shadow a local theatre’s costume shop. They can observe fittings, explore tools of the craft (sewing machines, fabrics, patterns), and see how costumes evolve during production. Students should consider how costumes change under stage lighting and what story they tell about the character. They can also investigate how costumes interact with set design to create a cohesive visual narrative. 11. Provide blank face makeup handouts to your class and have them design makeup for characters in either Shakespeare’s The Tempest or A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Design Makeup for Shakespeare Characters Provide students with blank face makeup handouts and have them design makeup for characters from The Tempest or A Midsummer Night’s Dream. How would they visually represent Ariel’s ethereal nature or Puck’s mischievous personality through makeup? This exercise blends design with character interpretation, encouraging students to think creatively about makeup as an extension of costume. 12. Create a power point morgue of makeup and one for costumes of either a particular era. PowerPoint Morgue of Makeup and Costumes Have students create a PowerPoint presentation or morgue (a collection of reference images) focused on makeup and costumes from a particular era (e.g., Victorian, 1920s, or Ancient Rome). This will help students build a visual vocabulary of period styles, understanding how both makeup and costume reflect broader cultural aesthetics. 13. Research a particular designer such as Edith Head (film) Vera Wang, Isaac Mizrahi, or Tom Ford (contemporary fashion), or Cecil Beaton (Broadway; note his hats!) and create a power point that articulates their style, and don’t forget their accessories. Have your students present them to class. Do your students have a favorite designer, and why? Research a Designer Assign students to research a famous designer such as Edith Head (film), Vera Wang (fashion), Isaac Mizrahi (fashion), or Cecil Beaton (theatre). Students should create a PowerPoint presentation highlighting the designer’s signature style and notable works. They should also discuss how accessories (e.g., hats by Beaton) contribute to the overall design. This research exercise connects students to the world of professional costume and fashion design, sparking inspiration for their own work. These exercises help students explore the interdisciplinary nature of costume design, connecting it to character interpretation, history, societal norms, and creative expression. SUGGESTED PLAYS Jean Genet’s The Balcony William Wycherley’s The Country Wife Henrik Ibsen’s Peer Gynt Eugene O’Neill’s Mourning Becomes Electra or The Great God Brown Cats (musical) La Cage aux Folles (musical) Douglas Turner Ward’s Day of Absence A kabuki play Richard Brinsley Sheridan’s The Rivals Peter Shaffer’s Amadeus 1776 (musical) William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream Chapter 10 The Designers: Lighting and Sound Overview and Outline Lighting—historically the last of the visual elements of theatre to be fully developed—is today the most technically sophisticated of all. Once the incandescent electric lamp was introduced, it was possible to achieve almost total control of the color, intensity, and timing of lights. Lighting controls have also benefited from computerization; extensive light shifts can now be hooked up to computer boards and controlled by an operator at a console. Lighting design is intended to provide illumination onstage, to establish time and place, to help set the mood and style of a production, to focus the action, and to establish a rhythm of visual movement. Lighting should be consistent with all other elements. The lighting designer uses a variety of lighting instruments and controls to achieve effects and works closely with a group of collaborators to place lighting instruments in the theatre and to see that lighting changes are carried out effectively during a performance. Another design element in theatre is sound. In today’s theatre, sound is reproduced and reinforced by various means, many of them technologically advanced. For example, sound effects can be created by primitive mechanical means—such as pieces of wood slapped together to simulate a closing door—or by sophisticated computer and digital technology. These techniques are continually improving and affect the way sound is created, reproduced, and conveyed throughout a theatre auditorium. Special effects in lighting and sound include ultraviolet light, strobe lights, echo effects, and computerized synthesizers. I. Stage Lighting A. Lighting in Theatre History B. Objectives of Lighting Design 1. Providing Visibility 2. Establishing Time and Place 3. Creating Mood 4. Reinforcing Style 5. Providing Focus and Composition 6. Establishing Rhythm C. Elements of Stage Lighting 1. Intensity 2. Color
3. Direction 4. Form 5. Movement D. The Lighting Designer’s Resources 1. Types of Stage Lights a. Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight b. Soft Edged Spotlights c. Floodlights, Strip Lights, and Border Lights d. Automated or Moving Light 2. Lighting Controls E. The Lighting Designer’s Collaborators II. Sound in the Theatre A. Sound Reproduction: Advantages and Disadvantages 1. Amplification 2. Sound Effects B. The Sound Designer C. Understanding Sound Reproduction and Sound Reinforcement D. Sound Technology 1. Microphones and Loudspeakers 2. Sound Recordings 3. New Technologies in Sound III. Special Effects in Lighting and Sound Terms
automated lights (moving lights) backlighting barn doors blackout body mike chargers/scrollers color composition cross-fade cue dimmer downlighting editing ellipsoidal reflector spotlight environmental sounds fade floodlights focus follow spot form or shape Fresnel gel or gelatin general mike gobo intensity light plot lighting designer magnetic amplifiers mixing motivated sounds parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR) shotgun mike silicon-controlled rectifiers soft-edged spotlights sound reinforcement sound reproduction split cross-fade strobe light
Topics for Discussion 1. Discuss the various forms and sources of light in real life (e.g., lamps, the sun and moon, automobile headlights, streetlights, candles). What are their qualities? Mood? Color? Intensity? Forms and Sources of Light in Real Life Different light sources each have unique qualities: • Sun: Natural, bright, warm during the day, cooler at dawn and dusk; it sets a neutral or lively mood and can indicate time of day. • Moon: Soft, cool, and often creates a mysterious or tranquil mood; its intensity is much lower than sunlight and it can evoke feelings of calmness or solitude. • Lamps: Typically warm, soft lighting used in homes; evokes coziness and intimacy. • Automobile Headlights: Bright, focused, and often stark; they can create a sense of urgency or danger in the dark. • Streetlights: Dimmer and sometimes harsh; they provide practical illumination but can give a scene an eerie or lonely atmosphere. • Candles: Soft, flickering light that is warm and intimate; often used in romantic or somber settings. Each light source has a different mood and intensity that can dramatically affect how a scene is perceived. Color temperature (warm vs. cool), brightness, and the way light is diffused or focused all contribute to the emotional tone of the scene. 2. Discuss the ways that different types of light can be used to set mood. Ask the students what kind of light they would use in particular situations, such as a romantic dinner, a child’s birthday party, a nightclub dance floor, etc. Examine how the use of color, intensity, and other elements contributes to the effect. Using Light to Set Mood Different types of lighting can evoke specific moods: • Romantic Dinner: Dim, warm light (e.g., candles or low-wattage lamps) would create an intimate, cozy atmosphere. Soft shadows would enhance the feeling of privacy and connection. • Child’s Birthday Party: Bright, colorful, and lively lighting, like string lights or daylight streaming in. It would create an energetic, joyful atmosphere. • Nightclub Dance Floor: Vibrant, flashing colored lights with high intensity and movement to match the energy of the music. Darker ambient light with focused, moving beams can create an exciting, dynamic mood. In each case, the color (warm vs. cool), intensity (bright vs. dim), and diffusion (focused vs. scattered) of the light play crucial roles in crafting the atmosphere. Students can explore how these elements combine to create different emotional environments. 3. Discuss the use of music to set a mood in the situations mentioned in item 2 above. Use of Music to Set Mood Music, like lighting, plays a key role in setting the tone for various situations: • Romantic Dinner: Soft, melodic music (e.g., jazz, classical, or acoustic) with a slow tempo can create a relaxed and intimate ambiance. • Child’s Birthday Party: Upbeat, cheerful music with lively rhythms (e.g., pop, kids' songs) fosters excitement and playfulness. • Nightclub Dance Floor: Fast-paced, rhythmic music (e.g., electronic, hip-hop) with heavy beats and bass energizes the space and invites people to dance. Music can enhance the lighting by reinforcing the emotional tone. For instance, soft candlelight paired with gentle music intensifies intimacy, while flashing lights combined with loud, pulsating music heightens energy and excitement. 4. In Chapter 5, the text discusses the fact that actors must be trained to project their lines so as to be heard by everyone in the theatre. If this is the case, why would it be necessary to use sound reinforcement? Discuss how changes in audience expectations, perhaps as a result of film, have changed. Sound Reinforcement in Theatre Though actors are trained to project their voices, modern sound reinforcement (microphones and speakers) is often necessary due to changing audience expectations: • Projection Skills: Traditionally, actors are trained to use their diaphragm and project their voices to reach the back of the auditorium without amplification. This is especially crucial in large theatres or outdoor spaces. • Changing Expectations: With the rise of film and television, audiences have grown accustomed to subtle, nuanced performances where microphones pick up even the slightest sounds. In a theatre setting, this can necessitate the use of sound reinforcement to ensure clarity, especially when performers use more intimate, quiet dialogue. • Technological Advantages: Sound systems also allow for more complex soundscapes (ambient noises, effects) and provide consistency across performances, ensuring all audience members, regardless of seating, can hear clearly. Sound reinforcement has evolved to balance traditional theatrical projection techniques with modern expectations of clarity and subtlety in performance. 5. Prior to the advent of controllable lighting, the light levels could not be lowered in order to signal the start of the play. Discuss other ways that audiences might be alerted that the play has begun. Also, discuss how the plays might be structured to assist in this. Signaling the Start of a Play Before Controllable Lighting Before the advent of modern lighting controls, theatre productions used other methods to signal the beginning of a play: • Bells or Gongs: A bell or gong could be rung to signal that the performance was about to begin, similar to how church bells indicate a call to worship. • Music: An overture or specific musical cue would signal the start of the performance. The music could slowly rise in volume, alerting the audience to pay attention. • Actors on Stage: The play could begin with actors already on stage, engaging in an action or dialogue that gradually draws the audience in. This “pre-action” could serve as a soft introduction to the play before the formal start of the script. Play Structure: Without controllable lighting to signal transitions, plays could be structured with clear visual or auditory cues (e.g., loud sound effects, changes in costume or scenery) to mark scene changes. In Shakespeare's time, for instance, actors would directly address the audience or use asides to transition between scenes. Moreover, daylight and outdoor performances meant relying on natural visual cues rather than artificial light. Each method helped engage the audience and ensure they understood when to shift their focus as the play progressed. Exercises and Demonstrations 1. Display a copy of a lighting plot, and explain what the symbols mean and how it is used by the technicians to place and focus the lights. Display and Explanation of a Lighting Plot A lighting plot is a technical drawing used by lighting designers and technicians to show where each light should be placed in the theatre and how it should be focused. • Symbols: Various symbols represent different types of lights (e.g., ellipsoidals, Fresnels, PAR cans) and their positions. Other symbols indicate direction, color, and any additional equipment such as gobos or gels. • Usage: Technicians use the lighting plot to position lights accurately on the grid and ensure that the lighting for each scene is aligned with the director's vision. It helps in creating consistent lighting effects, whether for highlighting actors, setting the scene’s mood, or adding special effects. 2. Ask the students to sit in a room with a window in their dorm/apartment at night with no shades drawn. They should identify 6 to 10 objects that are in the room. There must be two other sources of light in the room other than the light coming in through the window. With only the light from the window, the students should describe what those objects look like (color-shape-definition [highlight & shadow]). Add one source of light in the room and describe what the objects look like now. The same should be done for the second source of light that is added to the light from the window and first source. Observation of Light and Shadow in a Room at Night Students can observe how lighting affects object appearance by following these steps: • Step 1 (Light from the Window Only): Students describe the color, shape, and definition of objects with just moonlight or streetlights coming through the window. Objects may appear more muted or have indistinct outlines with soft shadows due to low-intensity, cool-colored light. • Step 2 (First Light Source Added): When the first artificial light is added (such as a lamp), objects may appear more defined with sharper shadows and colors depending on the light’s intensity and direction. • Step 3 (Second Light Source Added): Adding a second light may fill in the shadows created by the first source, creating a more balanced and natural look. Objects become fully visible, with fewer dramatic shadows. This exercise teaches students how light intensity, direction, and type (natural or artificial) alter perception. 3. Using a (powerful) flashlight in a darkened room, demonstrate the effects of direction in lighting the human face. Place the flashlight immediately below, above, and on each side of your own face or a student’s face, and ask the students to note the effects of shadow and highlighting. If possible, add a second flashlight from a complementary angle in order to demonstrate how multiple instruments are used to light the face evenly. Using a Flashlight to Demonstrate Directional Lighting on a Face In a darkened room, students can use a flashlight to explore how different light directions affect facial appearance: • Below the Face: This creates eerie, unnatural shadows, often used in horror or suspense to make a face look sinister or distorted. • Above the Face: Shadows will form under the eyes, nose, and chin, giving a harsher or more dramatic appearance. • From the Sides: Light from the sides creates stark contrasts between the lit and shadowed parts of the face, producing a dramatic, sometimes mysterious look. • Adding a Second Flashlight: Demonstrates how lighting designers use multiple light sources to soften shadows and create even lighting across the face, enhancing the actor’s appearance without extreme contrasts. 4. Separate the class into groups. Using a play they have already read for class, ask them to make a list of possible sound elements that might be incorporated into a production. They should go beyond the obvious effects called for directly by the script and think of other sounds that might add to the mood of the play or create a vivid sense of place. An advanced class might take a less realistic play and create a “score” for several scenes, using music, sound effects, and other elements. Sound Elements for a Play Students could create soundscapes beyond the script to enhance the mood and place: • Example Sounds: • For a forest setting, they could add sounds like distant birds, wind rustling through leaves, or soft flowing water, even if not explicitly called for in the script. • For an urban setting, sounds like traffic, muffled conversations, or background noise could immerse the audience in the environment. An advanced class could create a “score” for non-realistic plays, incorporating abstract sound elements (such as ambient music, mechanical noises, or layered voices) to evoke emotional responses or thematic elements. 5. Gather a variety of fabric samples and old costumes. Using a Fresnel and a collection of gels in a darkened room, demonstrate how the color of light can affect the appearance of each fabric’s color. The same concept holds true for light on scenery as well. This illustrates the importance of collaboration among the various designers, whose work can be either helped or ruined by other elements within a production. Color of Light on Fabric and Scenery Using a Fresnel and gels in a darkened room: • Demonstration: Shine different colored lights onto fabrics and note how the colors of the fabric change. A red gel over the light can make a white costume appear pink, while a blue gel can make it look cold and pale. The same principle applies to scenery: warm or cool lighting can dramatically change the look and feel of the set. • Collaboration: This shows the importance of collaboration between lighting designers, costume designers, and scenic designers. A misalignment in lighting can dull vibrant colors or highlight unintended areas of the stage, affecting the overall mood. 6. Visit a few different locations around campus, both inside and outside, and ask the students to listen carefully to the world around them. Have them listen to the environmental sounds they hear, and make a list of them. Discuss which of these sounds, if any, they would include in a sound design for a play set in these various locations. Why would or wouldn’t they include particular sounds? Listening to Environmental Sounds on Campus Students can visit locations such as: • Indoor Spaces: Cafeterias, libraries, or dorms have unique sounds like clinking dishes, murmured conversations, or the hum of air conditioning. • Outdoor Spaces: Parks, courtyards, or busy streets may have sounds of nature (wind, birds, rustling leaves) or human activity (footsteps, distant car horns). After compiling a list, students can discuss which sounds would be suitable for sound design in a play set in these locations. For instance, nature sounds could enhance the realism of a forest setting, while omitting them might convey a more sterile or detached environment. 7. Examine the lighting in classic black and white films such as Citizen Kane. How is light used to create mood? Lighting in Classic Black-and-White Films like Citizen Kane In classic films, especially black-and-white, light is used to create stark contrasts between light and dark (chiaroscuro): • Mood Creation: In Citizen Kane, strong directional lighting creates a sense of mystery, isolation, and drama. High contrast shadows highlight themes of power, conflict, and moral ambiguity. • Emotional Tension: The use of deep shadows in faces and set pieces heightens tension and emotional complexity, guiding the audience’s attention to specific elements of the scene. • Light and Power: In scenes depicting powerful characters, harsh, bright lighting can emphasize authority, while softer, lower lighting creates vulnerability or mystery. Chapter 11 Early Theatres: Greek, Roman, and Medieval Overview and Outline The impulse to create theatre is universal. Two elements of theatre are storytelling and imitation. Other elements of theatre exist in rituals and ceremonies in Africa, in Asia, in Europe, and wherever else human society develops. On the European continent, Greek theatre set the stage for all Western theatre to follow. The tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides and the dramatic form known as climactic structure were performed at the City Dionysia, a religious festival to honor the god Dionysus. The chorus was key element in Greek drama. With Aristophanes’ Old Comedies, the Greeks were leaders in comedy as well. Aristotle’s Poetics marked the development of serious criticism of drama and theatre. Classical Greek theatre buildings were large outdoor spaces built into hillsides, which accommodated audiences attending religious festivals. At the base of the hill was a circular playing space called the orchestra. All the performers were male, and the chorus was an integral element of all classical Greek drama and theatre. During the later Hellenistic period in Greece, New Comedy, which was concerned with domestic and romantic situations, prepared the way for almost all subsequent popular comedy. The Romans borrowed many Greek conventions, including the introduction of theatre into religious and civic festivals such as the Ludi Romani. In particular they were influenced by Greek New Comedy which emphasized domestic and romantic comedies, as in the plays of Plautus and Terence. The tragedies of Seneca are noteworthy because of their influence on later playwrights. Roman theatres were usually huge outdoor buildings. In Roman playhouses (unlike Greek theatres), all the structural elements, the seating area, the orchestra, and the stage house or scaena, were connected, and the most significant element was a large raised stage with an ornate facade called the scaena frons. After the decline of the Roman Empire, in the period from 500 to 1000 C.E.—the early Middle Ages—touring minstrels kept the theatrical tradition alive. Later in the Middle Ages, theatre was reborn, primarily in the Roman Catholic church. Dramatic interpolations that had been added to religious services grew into liturgical dramas—written in Latin and dramatizing biblical events—which were staged in churches by the clergy. In the fourteenth century, plays in the everyday language of the people, or vernacular plays, developed. Mystery or cycle plays, which depicted a series of biblical tales—and which established the basis for extensive plot structure—were staged and acted outdoors by amateurs. These large-scale productions were staged in the town square in front of individual scenic units referred to as mansions or on portable pageant wagons. I. Origins of Theatre II. Greece A. Background: The Golden Age B. Theatre and Culture: Greek Theatre Emerges 1. Theatre and Religion 2. Theatre and Myth C. Greek Tragedy 1. Tragic Dramatists: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides 2. Tragic Structure a. Pattern and Plot in Greek Tragedy b. The Plot of King Oedipus D. Greek Comedy E. Dramatic Criticism in Greece: Aristotle F. Theatre Production in Greece G. Later Greek Theatre Timeline: Greece III. Rome A. Background: Rome and Its Civilization B. Theatre and Culture in Rome C. Popular Entertainment in Rome D. Roman Comedy: Plautus and Terence E. Roman Tragedy: Seneca F. Dramatic Criticism in Rome: Horace G. Theatre Production in Rome H. Decline of Roman Theatre Timeline: Rome IV. The Middle Ages A. Background: Medieval Europe B. Theatre and Culture in the Middle Ages C. Medieval Drama: Mystery and Morality Plays D. Medieval Theatre Production Timeline: Middle Ages Features: Experiencing Theatre History: Antigone Experiencing Theatre History: The Menaechmi In Focus: Greek and Roman Popular Arts Experiencing Theatre History: Noah’s Ark Playing Your Part: Thinking About Theatre Terms
agon amphitheatres choregus chorus City Dionysia classical period or Golden Age of Greece dominus Hellenistic Age liturgical drama Ludi Romani mansions morality play mystery or cycle play myth New Comedy Old Comedy orchestra pageant master pantomime parabasis parodos platform stage satyr play scaena scaena frons skene theatron thespian trilogy vernacular drama wagon stage
Topics for Discussion 1. Discuss various rituals that one might encounter in everyday life. In what ways are they similar to theatre ritual? Everyday Rituals and Their Similarity to Theatre Ritual Everyday rituals include events such as weddings, religious ceremonies, graduation ceremonies, and even daily routines like greeting others, mealtimes, or commuting. These rituals are similar to theatre in that they follow a set sequence, involve specific roles, and often have symbolic meaning. Both rituals and theatre involve a sense of performance, repetition, and audience, with actions often having deeper significance beyond their surface appearance. • Theatre Rituals: Theatre rituals like warm-ups, rehearsals, and the curtain call are formal, symbolic practices that prepare participants and audiences for the theatrical experience. • Comparison: Both everyday and theatre rituals serve to mark a transformation, whether it's from a single to married life or from reality to the world of a play. They often involve prescribed movements, speech patterns, and attire, creating an ordered framework for the participants. 2. Consider the ramifications of Thespis stepping out from the chorus to assume an individual role in the play. How would plays change to take advantage of this new development? What are the ramifications for the actor, who previously was a storyteller but now actually “pretends” to be someone else? Compare the ancient storyteller with the contemporary stand-up comedian. How are both of these people theatrical? Ramifications of Thespis Stepping Out from the Chorus Thespis’ decision to step out from the chorus to assume an individual role marks the birth of acting as a distinct form of theatre. This development transformed plays by introducing individual characters, allowing for dialogue between actors and more complex storytelling. • Impact on Plays: The separation of actor from chorus allowed for more dynamic conflict, character development, and interpersonal interactions. Plays evolved to focus on individual narratives rather than a collective voice. • Ramifications for Actors: Actors moved from being narrators of a shared story to becoming characters in their own right, embodying and "pretending" to be someone else. This required new skills like emotional expression and character immersion. • Comparison with Storytellers and Stand-up Comedians: Ancient storytellers, like contemporary stand-up comedians, engage directly with the audience, often drawing on personal anecdotes or universal experiences to connect. Both rely on timing, presence, and narrative, though comedians today often take on different personas, much like Thespis. 3. The chorus in a Greek tragedy served many purposes. Consider the effects of the chorus on the play’s rhythm (particularly in relation to ritualistic elements) or the audience’s understanding of the story, and other aspects. Chorus in Greek Tragedy The chorus played several crucial roles in Greek tragedy: • Rhythm: The chorus’s speeches, songs, and movements punctuated the action and provided a rhythmic structure to the play, helping to emphasize the ritualistic elements. The chorus acted almost as a metronome, slowing down or speeding up the action. • Audience Understanding: The chorus often represented the voice of society or morality, helping the audience interpret the unfolding events and providing commentary. It also posed questions or highlighted themes, guiding the audience's emotional response. 4. Compare and contrast the characteristics of Greek and Roman audiences. How might their differences have affected the subject matter and style of the plays? Comparison of Greek and Roman Audiences Greek and Roman audiences differed in both their cultural contexts and expectations from theatre: • Greek Audiences: Greek audiences were more focused on the religious and civic aspects of theatre, attending plays during festivals in honor of gods like Dionysus. They appreciated plays with moral and philosophical undertones, involving larger-than-life heroes. • Roman Audiences: Roman theatre-goers were more interested in spectacle and entertainment, often attending shows alongside other forms of public amusements like gladiator fights or chariot races. • Impact on Plays: Greek plays were often more serious, focused on fate and moral dilemmas, while Roman plays, particularly comedies, leaned toward entertainment and the use of stock characters, focusing on more accessible themes like romance and domestic issues. 5. In the Roman theatre, plays had to compete with other entertainments, such as chariot races, for the attention of the audience. How might this have affected the plays? Roman Theatre and Competing Entertainments In the Roman theatre, competition with other forms of entertainment (such as gladiatorial games and chariot races) influenced the types of plays that were popular: • Impact on Play Content: Roman plays likely became more fast-paced, visually engaging, and entertaining to hold the attention of a diverse audience. This could mean more slapstick humor, violence, or spectacle to compete with the action-packed nature of other entertainment. • Spectacle: Playwrights might have written plays that incorporated more physicality or larger-than-life moments to create an immersive, competitive experience. 6. The comedies of Plautus deal exclusively with domestic situations, particularly the trials and tribulations of romance, and use recognizable stock types. Discuss similarities between Plautus’s comedies and contemporary film and television comedies. How are they similar? How are they different? Comparison of Plautus’s Comedies with Contemporary Comedy Plautus’s comedies are known for their domestic focus, stock characters (e.g., the clever servant, the braggart soldier), and humorous, often farcical situations. • Similarities with Contemporary Comedy: Both Plautus’s comedies and contemporary sitcoms use recognizable character types and exaggerated situations (e.g., romantic misunderstandings, family squabbles). The humor often comes from situational comedy, where characters face common domestic challenges. • Differences: Modern comedies may address more diverse themes, including social or political issues, whereas Plautus’s works focused on straightforward, comedic representations of everyday Roman life. Modern comedies also rely heavily on quick editing, visual gags, and sometimes darker humor. 7. A myth is a story or legend handed down from generation to generation that attempts to explain human and natural phenomena, or examine extreme family situations. Discuss modern examples of myths, and how they relate to ancient myths. Modern Myths and Their Relation to Ancient Myths Modern myths often manifest in superhero stories, urban legends, or even celebrity culture. These myths explore similar themes as ancient myths, such as human nature, morality, and extraordinary individuals. • Examples: • Superheroes: Characters like Superman or Wonder Woman reflect mythic heroes of old, with powers that transcend normal human abilities and stories that often address moral and societal dilemmas. • Celebrity Myths: The way certain celebrities are mythologized can echo the stories of ancient gods and heroes, with narratives of rise, fall, and redemption. • Relation to Ancient Myths: Like ancient myths, these modern stories serve to explain the human condition, offer lessons, or explore idealized figures. They may not explain natural phenomena as ancient myths did, but they reflect cultural aspirations or anxieties. 8. Discuss the medieval tradition of the neutral, non-localized platform stage. Why might this convention develop in a theatre devoted to staging scenes from the Bible? What advantages are there? If the platform stage is non-localized, what information must be communicated to the audience each time the scene shifts? Medieval Neutral Platform Stage The neutral, non-localized platform stage used in medieval theatre allowed scenes from the Bible to be staged without needing a specific setting. • Advantages: The platform's neutrality meant it could represent any location (Heaven, Earth, or Hell) simply by adding symbolic elements. It also allowed for flexibility and efficiency in performing multiple scenes in one space. • Communicating Information: As the stage was non-localized, actors and staging elements (like props or costumes) had to provide clear context for the audience. Dialogue and movement often indicated the time or place of the action. 9. Examine the similarities between processional staging of medieval pageant wagons and contemporary parades, particularly parades with a unifying theme. Processional Staging and Modern Parades The processional staging of medieval pageant wagons, where scenes were performed on moving wagons in different locations, can be compared to contemporary parades: • Similarities: Both involve moving through an audience and presenting themed content. Parades often use floats and costumed performers to represent specific ideas or characters, much like pageant wagons depicted biblical scenes. • Unified Theme: Like a parade with a central theme (e.g., holidays, political events), the pageant wagons presented scenes with a unifying religious narrative, with each wagon contributing a part of the larger story. 10. Horace believed that theatre should both instruct and entertain. Discuss whether medieval mystery and morality plays conform to this idea. Use The Second Shepherds’ Play or Noah’s Ark as an example. Horace’s Idea of Theatre as Instruction and Entertainment Horace believed that theatre should both instruct and entertain, a principle that medieval mystery and morality plays embodied well. • Example - The Second Shepherds’ Play: This play entertained with its comedic elements and familiar rural characters but also delivered a moral lesson tied to the Nativity story. • Instruction and Entertainment in Noah’s Ark: The story of Noah’s Ark, though dramatized with humor and recognizable human traits, also provided religious instruction about faith, obedience to God, and divine justice, making it a clear example of Horace's ideal. Exercises and Demonstrations 1. Separate the class into small groups and ask each group to create its own ritual using such props as are necessary. The ritual can relate to any contemporary event. What does the ritual reflect in our culture? Creating a Contemporary Ritual Divide the class into groups, and have them design a ritual using everyday objects. The ritual could center on modern activities like social media posting, graduation, or attending a sports event. Once the ritual is performed, ask the groups to reflect on what cultural values or behaviors it reflects. • Cultural Reflection: The rituals created might reveal modern priorities such as technology, community, celebration of individual milestones, or the importance of competition. They could demonstrate how rituals mark transitions in life, celebrate success, or maintain social connections. 2. Research the appearance of masks used during the Greek era. Research Greek Masks Greek masks were integral to ancient Greek theatre, especially during the tragedies and comedies performed at festivals in honor of Dionysus. • Appearance: Greek masks were often large, exaggerated in expression, and made from lightweight materials such as wood, leather, or linen. They featured open mouths to project the actor’s voice and often depicted exaggerated expressions—sadness, joy, or anger—to be easily seen from afar in large amphitheaters. • Purpose: Masks helped define character types, distinguish gender (since all actors were male), and express intense emotions. They also allowed one actor to play multiple roles. 3. Research background stories surrounding the god Dionysus. Why would this be an appropriate god to worship at a festival of plays? Research Dionysus and the Festival of Plays Dionysus, the god of wine, fertility, and revelry, had close ties to theatre and performance. The festival of Dionysia, where plays were performed in ancient Greece, was in his honor. • Why Worship Dionysus at a Play Festival? Dionysus symbolized both chaos and order, ecstasy and reason—contrasting forces similar to the emotional catharsis experienced in theatre. Theatre itself, with its mix of celebration and tragedy, mirrors the duality of Dionysus as a god of both joy and madness. The festival was an opportunity for the community to release tensions through theatrical performances, much as they celebrated with wine and revelry. 4. The Romans had a very interesting attitude toward actors. Have the students research this aspect of Roman theatre. Roman Attitudes Toward Actors In Roman culture, actors were often considered lower-class citizens and viewed with suspicion, despite the popularity of theatre. This paradox arose because acting was seen as a form of deception or moral ambiguity. • Attitudes: Actors were frequently slaves or foreigners, and though they could gain fame, their profession was not respected. They were often excluded from many civic rights, including the right to vote. • Contrast: While actors were loved by the public for their performances, they were stigmatized socially and often faced derision from the upper classes. 5. Compare Aristotle’s Poetics with Horace’s Art of Poetry. Comparison of Aristotle’s Poetics and Horace’s Art of Poetry • Aristotle’s Poetics: Aristotle’s work primarily analyzed tragedy, focusing on its structure and emotional effects on the audience. He emphasized the unity of plot, the role of catharsis (purging of emotions), and the importance of character, thought, and diction. • Horace’s Art of Poetry: Horace’s work was more prescriptive, giving practical advice to playwrights and poets. He emphasized the need to blend instruction with entertainment (dulce et utile) and advocated for decorum in art, urging that art should match its intended purpose and tone. • Comparison: While Aristotle approached theatre from a more theoretical and analytical perspective, focusing on the internal mechanics of a play, Horace’s work was more concerned with the aesthetic and moral responsibilities of the playwright, instructing them on how to effectively communicate and engage with an audience. 6. Using the synopsis of King Oedipus provided in the text (or the text of the play, if you have read it in class), create a timeline outlining the order of events of Oedipus’s story. Then draw a box around those events that comprise the plot. Review the characteristics of the climactic structure (see Chapter 3) as it relates to this exercise. Timeline and Plot of King Oedipus Using a timeline, you can outline the sequence of events in the story of Oedipus Rex: • Timeline of Events: 1. Oedipus is born to Laius and Jocasta, but abandoned due to a prophecy. 2. Oedipus is raised by King Polybus of Corinth. 3. Oedipus consults the Oracle and flees Corinth to avoid the prophecy. 4. Oedipus kills a stranger (Laius) on the road. 5. Oedipus solves the Sphinx's riddle and becomes king of Thebes. 6. Oedipus marries Jocasta, his mother. 7. A plague strikes Thebes, and Oedipus seeks to find its cause. 8. Oedipus discovers his true parentage and fate. 9. Jocasta commits suicide, and Oedipus blinds himself. • Plot and Climactic Structure: The boxed events of the plot would include the plague’s investigation, Oedipus’s gradual realization of his identity, and the confrontation with the truth. These follow the climactic structure of rising action, crisis, and resolution. The discovery of Oedipus's past is the story’s climax. 7. Watch the film A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, which uses Pseudolos, a play by Plautus, as material for this modern musical. What are the ways that audiences have remained the same over two thousand years? A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum The film A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum is based on Plautus’s Pseudolus, adapted into a modern musical comedy. The story revolves around farcical situations, mistaken identities, and stock characters, many of which Plautus used in his comedies. • Audience Consistencies Over Time: Like audiences in ancient Rome, contemporary viewers enjoy the exaggerated humor, witty wordplay, and physical comedy. The use of familiar character types—clever slaves, braggart soldiers, and young lovers—continues to resonate with audiences because these archetypes are timeless. • Changes in Performance Style: While the humor and characters have remained relevant, the performance style has evolved. Modern films like A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum use fast-paced editing, musical numbers, and sophisticated dialogue delivery, whereas Roman theatre was performed live with less emphasis on such cinematic techniques. Each of these points encourages deeper engagement with historical and theatrical contexts while making connections to modern-day culture and performances. Chapter 12 Early Theatre: Asian Overview and Outline While each of the Asian theatres is unique they do share some common characteristics, a strong emphasis on dance and symbolism. The traditional theatres of Asia originated from religious ceremonies and concepts. Most of these theatres are highly theatrical and stylized and fuse acting, mime, dance, music, and text. The origins of Asian theatre remain obscure however the high point seemed to occur when writers of poetic and intellectual ability began to create a dramatic tradition in which the text assumed a central place. In India in the fourth and fifth centuries C.E., a theatre of a very high order—Sanskrit drama—came to full flower. Its origins and dramatic rules were outlined in a revealing document called the Natyasastra. The most productive playwright of classical India was Bhasa, however Shakuntala by Kalidasa is considered the masterpiece of Indian drama. In China, an acting school called the Pear Garden flourished in the early eighth century, and professional theatre companies flourished in the tenth century. The first significant Chinese theatre from which we have surviving manuscripts emerged during the Yuan dynasty from
1271 to 1368. During the succeeding Ming Dynasty, from 1368 to 1644, theatre became more “literary” and less in touch with ordinary people. In Japan, the first important theatre form was nō (it is also spelled noh), which emerged in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and is still performed today. Zeami Motokiyo is considered the most important figure of nō theatre. Bunraku—Japanese puppet theatre—came on the scene in Japan in the seventeenth century, followed closely by kabuki. Both bunraku and kabuki are still performed in Japan today. Like most Asian theatres, nō, kabuki, and bunraku are complex forms; to understand them, audiences need to be aware of their intricate conventions. Considerable theatre activity has also taken place elsewhere in Asia; one example is the shadow plays performed in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Shadow play or shadow puppetry is an ancient form of storytelling and entertainment using opaque, often articulated figures in front of an illuminated backdrop to create the illusion of moving images. I. The Theatres of Asia: Background Timeline: Asian II. Indian Theatre A. Sanskrit Drama 1. Kalidasa B. Later Indian Drama C. How Was Indian Drama Staged? III. Chinese Theatre A. Early Theatre in China B. Theatre in the Yuan Dynasty 1. Important Plays from the Yuan Period 2. Theatre Production in the Yuan Period C. Theatre in the Ming Dynasty 1. Li Yu IV. Japanese Theatre A. Early Theatre in Japan B. Nō 1. Zeami Motokiyo 2. Characteristics of Nō Theatre 3. Producing Nō Theatre: How was Nō Staged? C. Bunraku 1. Chikamatsu Monzaemon D. Kabuki 1. Origins of Kabuki: Okuni of Izumo 2. Development of Kabuki 3. Producing Kabuki V. Southeast Asia: Shadow Plays Features: Experiencing Theatre History: Sotoba Komachi Playing Your Part: Thinking About Theatre Terms
aragato biwa bunraku Brahman chou dan hanamichi hashigakari jing jōruri kabuki kathakali kyōgen Mahabhasya nanxi or “southern drama” Natyasastra nō theatre onnagata rasa samisen shadow play shamanism sheng shite sudtradhara total theatre tsure variety plays wayang yūgen zaju
Topics for Discussion 1. Compare the tradition of bunraku, with its musicians and chanter, with the Greek tradition of the chorus. How are they similar? How are they different? Comparison of Bunraku with the Greek Chorus • Bunraku: This traditional form of Japanese puppet theatre features large, intricately controlled puppets, with three puppeteers per puppet. The performance is accompanied by a chanter (narrator) who recites the script, as well as musicians who play the shamisen (a three-stringed instrument). The puppeteers, dressed in black, are meant to be "invisible" to the audience. • Greek Chorus: In ancient Greek theatre, the chorus was a group of performers who sang, danced, and provided commentary on the action of the play. They represented the collective voice of society and were often integral in narrating or explaining the story, providing moral insights, or amplifying the emotional tone. • Similarities: • Both traditions feature an external narrator or voice that guides the story or helps convey the action. The chanter in bunraku narrates, while the Greek chorus offers commentary and reflections on the play. • Both emphasize music as an essential element in supporting the performance, with instruments accompanying the narration or choral interludes. • Differences: • In bunraku, puppeteers manipulate the figures while remaining visible (though considered “invisible”), whereas the Greek chorus are actors directly involved in the performance, often representing the people of the city or society. • The Greek chorus actively participates in the drama through movement and song, while the chanter and musicians in bunraku remain more detached, focusing solely on narration. 2. The text indicates that all three Asian theatre traditions reached a high point of artistic excellence at a time when religion and philosophy were central in each culture. How does this compare with the social climate of fifth-century Greece and Elizabethan England, which produced Western theatre’s greatest tragedies? Asian Theatre Traditions and Religion in Relation to Western Theatre Traditions • Asian Theatre Traditions: Asian theatre forms like Noh, Kabuki, and Bunraku reached artistic peaks during periods when religion, philosophy, and societal hierarchy played central roles. The theatrical traditions often expressed religious beliefs, philosophical ideas, or mythological stories. For example, Noh theatre frequently explores Buddhist themes, and its structured form reflects a deeply philosophical approach to existence. • Fifth-Century Greece and Elizabethan England: In fifth-century Greece, religion (especially the worship of gods like Dionysus) was central to the performance of tragedies and comedies, with festivals dedicated to these gods. Similarly, Elizabethan theatre flourished in a society where religious and philosophical tensions were high, and plays often explored themes of fate, divine justice, and human morality. • Comparison: • Both Asian and Western theatre traditions blossomed during times when religion and philosophical thought were intertwined with everyday life and societal structures. • In both contexts, theatre often reflected or interrogated the dominant philosophical and religious ideas of the time—whether through the stories of gods and fate in Greece, or religious morality and human flaws in Elizabethan England. • In both cultures, theatre became a vehicle for exploring profound questions about life, death, and human behavior, with tragedy as a central dramatic form. 3. In bunraku, the puppet masters, dressed in black, are considered “invisible.” Discuss similar conventions in contemporary entertainment, such as the technicians who make acoustical adjustments at rock concerts. Can you think of any other similar conventions? Invisible Puppet Masters in Bunraku and Similar Contemporary Conventions • Bunraku’s Puppet Masters: The puppeteers in bunraku are dressed in black and positioned in full view of the audience, but the tradition holds that they are "invisible," focusing attention solely on the puppets themselves. This convention allows the audience to suspend disbelief and focus on the characters being portrayed. • Similar Contemporary Conventions: • Technicians at Concerts: At large concerts, sound engineers, lighting technicians, and other crew members operate in the background, ensuring the smooth functioning of the performance. While essential, they are not meant to be the focus of attention and work to remain out of sight. • Green Screen and CGI in Film: In modern film production, the use of green screens and CGI often involves actors and crew working in highly technical environments, but the audience never sees the technology behind the finished product. The technology is meant to be "invisible," with the audience focusing on the final visual effects. • Stagehands in Theatre: In contemporary theatre, stagehands are responsible for changing scenery and props between scenes, often doing so in dimmed light or black clothing to remain unseen by the audience. 4. What common elements of Asian theatre tend to lend it to being adapted by the American musical theatre? Common Elements of Asian Theatre in American Musical Theatre Adaptations Several elements of Asian theatre traditions have influenced and been adapted by American musical theatre: • Emphasis on Music and Dance: Asian theatre forms, such as Kabuki and Peking Opera, heavily emphasize music, dance, and choreographed movements, which are also central to American musicals. The spectacle of a musical number can evoke the stylized movements of Kabuki or Noh theatre. • Exaggerated Character Types and Expression: Many Asian theatre traditions, like Bunraku and Peking Opera, feature larger-than-life characters and exaggerated, symbolic movements or facial expressions. American musicals often incorporate similarly exaggerated characters, especially in comedic or satirical pieces. • Use of Color and Spectacle: Asian theatre often employs vivid costumes, makeup, and elaborate set designs. Similarly, musicals often use bright colors, large sets, and extravagant costuming to create a visually stimulating experience for the audience. • Storytelling through Stylization: Asian theatre uses stylized, non-realistic methods to convey emotion and narrative, such as the slow, deliberate movements in Noh theatre or the puppetry of Bunraku. In musicals, stylized choreography, lighting, and musical motifs are used to heighten emotional expression and storytelling. For example, musicals like The Lion King or Pacific Overtures (which was directly influenced by Asian forms) blend stylization with story-driven music. Exercises and Demonstrations 1. Read The Good Woman of Setzuan or The Caucasian Chalk Circle by Bertolt Brecht. Discuss how Brecht uses the traditions of Asian theatre. Brecht has written essays concerning Asian theatre. It might be interesting to have the class examine these as well. Brecht’s Use of Asian Theatre Traditions in The Good Woman of Setzuan and The Caucasian Chalk Circle Bertolt Brecht was deeply influenced by Asian theatre, particularly Chinese opera and the techniques of Japanese theatre, which he incorporated into his Epic Theatre style. This influence can be seen in several ways: • Alienation Effect (Verfremdungseffekt): Brecht’s concept of distancing the audience emotionally to encourage critical thinking is closely related to the distancing techniques used in Asian theatre. In Beijing Opera, actors break the fourth wall and use stylized movements to create an emotional distance, encouraging the audience to reflect on the events rather than emotionally identify with them. Similarly, in The Good Woman of Setzuan and The Caucasian Chalk Circle, Brecht uses direct address, song, and placards to create this distancing. • Minimalistic Scenery: Brecht’s use of sparse sets mirrors Asian theatre, particularly Kabuki and Beijing Opera, where minimal props and sets are used symbolically to represent larger ideas. In Brecht’s plays, symbolic scenery allows the focus to remain on the message rather than spectacle. • Use of Song and Music: Brecht often incorporates music that interrupts the action to comment on the situation, similar to how Noh or Kabuki actors would use music to transition or reflect on a moment. • Essays on Asian Theatre: Brecht wrote extensively on how Asian theatre uses stylization to express complex themes. He admired how Peking Opera created a space for the audience to both enjoy the performance and engage with its philosophical and social questions. 2. Beijing (Peking) opera uses a small amount of furniture to represent all the scenes in a play. Ask the students to stage a popular folk story (e.g., one of Grimm’s fairy tales), using only a few pieces of furniture and symbolic props to tell the story. Remind them that creativity is most important. Staging a Folk Story Using Minimal Furniture and Symbolic Props In Beijing (Peking) opera, a few pieces of furniture, like a table or chair, are used to represent various locations, from a palace to a battlefield. Students can adopt this minimalist approach by focusing on symbolic use of space. For example: • Grimm’s Fairy Tales: In staging Cinderella, a single chair could symbolize the throne, the fireplace, or even the stepmother’s oppressive presence. Symbolic props like a shoe or broom could carry multiple meanings throughout the performance. This exercise pushes students to be creative, using props symbolically rather than realistically, which mirrors the Asian tradition of using minimalism to enhance the audience's imagination. 3. Have the students perform a popular folk tale in the style of bunraku, except using live actors in the place of the puppets. Have a chanter offstage provide the dialogue while the actors provide the movement. What is the effect of this? Performing a Folk Tale in Bunraku Style with Live Actors Bunraku puppetry uses puppeteers dressed in black to manipulate the puppets, who become the focal point of the performance. In this exercise, live actors take the place of puppets, while a chanter provides the narration: • Effect: The separation between dialogue and movement allows the audience to focus on the physicality of the performance, similar to bunraku. The actors’ movements become exaggerated and stylized, enhancing the ritualistic and symbolic nature of the performance. The effect is one of heightened theatricality, where the audience is aware of the artifice but is still drawn into the story. This mirrors Brechtian techniques, as the use of a chanter outside the action encourages the audience to maintain critical distance. 4. Have students research and find visual or descriptive evidence of symbolic special effects used in kabuki performance. Kabuki also utilizes stage technicians dressed entirely in black to manipulate scenic elements and properties. Have students find visual research of kabuki performance on the internet. Researching Symbolic Special Effects in Kabuki Kabuki theatre is known for its visually stunning stagecraft, which includes elaborate scenic effects, rapid costume changes (hikinuki), and symbolic props: • Special Effects: Kabuki’s use of symbolic stage effects, such as the mawari-butai (revolving stage) and hanamichi (runway extending into the audience), creates dynamic shifts in time and space without the need for realistic scenery. • Stage Technicians in Black: These "kurogo" (stagehands) manipulate props and scenery in full view of the audience but are considered invisible, much like the puppet masters in bunraku. Students can explore how this convention allows the performance to flow smoothly while emphasizing the performance's stylized nature. Students can research these elements through images or videos available online to gain a deeper understanding of Kabuki’s visual and symbolic impact. 5. Explore shadow puppet videos performed in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia by surfing the web. Discuss how Asian puppet traditions inform the theatricality of Julie Taymor’s The Lion King. Shadow Puppet Traditions and Their Influence on The Lion King Shadow puppetry is a traditional form of storytelling in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia that uses intricate cut-out figures and light to create dramatic shadows on a screen. Key elements include: • Symbolism and Stylization: The puppets are often highly stylized, and the shadows they cast are larger-than-life, which brings out the symbolic nature of the storytelling. This mirrors the symbolic visual language seen in Julie Taymor’s The Lion King. • Influence on The Lion King: Taymor's use of large puppets and stylized masks in The Lion King draws directly from these Asian puppetry traditions. Her designs for the animal characters use stylized, exaggerated forms and visible puppeteers, reflecting the Asian tradition of visible manipulation while emphasizing the symbolic over the realistic. • Theatricality: Much like Asian shadow puppetry, which transforms simple materials into something evocative and magical, Taymor’s production is about transforming actors and objects into symbolic representations, creating a rich, immersive theatrical experience. These traditions inform Taymor’s ability to tell stories that rely heavily on visual spectacle while maintaining a deep emotional and symbolic resonance. Solution Manual for Theatre: The Lively Art Edwin Wilson, Alvin Goldfarb 9780073514307