This Document Contains Chapters 9 to 12 Chapter 9 Basic elements of individual behavior in organizations END-OF-CHAPTER Questions for Review 1. What is a psychological contract? List the things that might be included in individual contributions. List the things that might be included in organizational inducements. A psychological contract is the overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the firm and what the organization, in return, will provide to the individual. Individual contributions include effort, time, ability, skills, and creativity. Organizational inducements include pay and benefits, as well as security, status, and opportunities for advancement and learning. 2. Describe the three components of attitudes and tell how the components are related. What is cognitive dissonance? How do individuals resolve cognitive dissonance? Attitudes are made up of an affective, or emotional, component; a cognitive, or intellectual, component; and an intentional component, which reflects expectations about behavior. The three components are interrelated, with each affecting the others. Feelings, thoughts, and intent all play a part in forming attitudes. Cognitive dissonance occurs when one individual’s attitudes are in conflict. To resolve cognitive dissonance, individuals typically revise one or more attitudes. 3. Identify and discuss the steps in the creative process. What can an organization do to increase employees’ creativity? The steps in the creative process are (1) preparation—getting ready to be creative; (2) incubation—a period of low-intensity or subconscious thought; (3) insight—a spontaneous breakthrough; and (4) verification—determining the validity of the insight. Firms can provide structures and mechanisms that improve creativity, such as establishing rewards for innovation or developing a culture in which experimentation and mistakes are not punished. 4. Identify and describe several important workplace behaviors. Performance behaviors are the total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects the individual to display. Absenteeism is when an individual does not show up for work. Turnover behavior occurs when people quit their jobs. Organizational citizenship refers to the behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization. Questions for Analysis 1. Organizations are increasing their use of personality tests to screen job applicants. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this approach? What can managers do to avoid some of the potential pitfalls? Personality testing can increase the person-job fit, providing benefits to the organization. However, personality testing is controversial and will upset some job applicants. It is also very difficult to perform accurately and thus may result in a mismatch between a worker and a job. Finally, there is little scientific evidence to link personality to job fit or future job performance, in many cases. Most important, managers can work to ensure that there is a link between the personality attributes that are being tested and future job performance. Also, managers can receive training in the accurate interpretation of personality test results. 2. As a manager, how can you tell that an employee is experiencing job satisfaction? How can you tell that employees are highly committed to the organization? If a worker is not satisfied, what can a manager do to improve satisfaction? What can a manager do to improve organizational commitment? Job satisfaction is likely to be expressed through low turnover and absenteeism, conformance to company policy and cultural norms, sound personal relationships with co-workers, contentment with working conditions and pay, and high job effort and performance. The signs of high commitment are much the same. To improve satisfaction, managers can focus on each of the areas mentioned above, such as effective socialization into the firm’s culture, development of positive working relationships, adequate work conditions and pay, and so on. These actions are also likely to improve commitment. 3. Managers cannot pay equal attention to every piece of information, so selective perception is a fact of life. How does selective perception help managers? How does it create difficulties for them? How can managers increase their “good” selective perception and decrease the “bad”? Selective perception can aid in the decision-making process by reducing the amount of information, which increases the manager’s ability to focus on the truly important data. However, selective perception may inappropriately eliminate information that would be useful, thereby reducing decision quality. One solution calls for group decision making, which would tend to reduce the impact of the individual’s decision-making biases. Another technique would be the adoption of a process that explicitly requires attention to data that contradicts the manager’s basic beliefs, such as a “what-if” analysis or a devil’s advocate process. 4. Write the psychological contract you have in this class. In other words, what do you contribute, and what inducements are available? Ask your professor to tell the class about the psychological contract that he or she intended to establish with the students in your class. How does the professor’s intended contract compare with the one you wrote? If there are differences, why do you think the differences exist? Share your ideas with the class. This question makes a good experiential exercise. Contributions made by students usually include such things as their attendance, class preparation, class participation, and the tuition and fees they pay to attend. Inducements include such things as a well-organized class, an interesting and effective instructor, and a fair and clear grading system. Students are often surprised to discover the extent to which the intended psychological contract, as developed by the instructor, differs from and in some cases directly contradicts the contract as it is perceived by students. 5. Assume that you are going to hire three new employees for the department store you manage. One will sell shoes, one will manage the toy department, and one will work in the stockroom. Identify the basic characteristics you want in each of the people to achieve a good person-job fit. The shoe salesperson may need to be especially friendly, courteous, outgoing, and willing to work on a commission. The toy department manager might need to be well organized, friendly, fond of children, and able to supervise regular workers in the department. The stockroom employee may need to be able to lift heavy boxes and carefully follow instructions. Building Effective Interpersonal Skills Exercise a. Purpose This exercise introduces students to the Myers-Briggs personality type framework and then uses these concepts to consider personal relationships between individuals with differing characteristics. b. Format Completion of the online test should be done by individuals and will require about 30 minutes outside of class. The follow-up questions may be used as a written assignment or as the basis for an in-class discussion. c. Follow-up After the students have determined their four-letter code, help them to discover their two letter personality type based on the following rule: If the student’s code has an “S”, look at the last letter and choose either “SP” or “SJ.” If the student’s code has an “N,” look at the third letter and choose either “NT” or “NF.”. Building Effective Time-Management Skills a. Purpose This exercise is designed to aid students in seeing the relationship between poor time management and stress. Students may also gain some insight into improving their time management skills. b. Format This time-management exercise is best done individually. It should take about 15–20 minutes, although some students who take it more seriously may spend much longer completing it. c. Follow-up (1) Evaluate the extent to which poor time-management skills on your part play a role in how each stressor affects you. For example, do exams cause stress because you tend to put off studying? (2) For each stressor that relates to your time management habits, develop a strategy for using your time more efficiently. (3) Note the interrelationships among different kinds of stressors to see if they revolve around time-related problems. For example, financial pressures may cause you to work, but work may interfere with school. Can you manage any of these interrelationships more effectively by better managing your time? (4) How do you typically manage the stress in your life? Can you manage stress in a more time-effective manner? Students’ answers will vary a great deal, as each one will notice different areas of poor time management and different levels of stress. Most students will probably notice that poor time management is a significant source of stress and that they could be more effective and relaxed with better time management. Ideas for stress management include relaxation and fun with friends, exercise, more sleep, frequent breaks from work, and reducing the number of commitments. Learning to say “No” to undesired tasks can save a great deal of time and can thus reduce stress. Skills Self-Assessment Instrument Personality Types at Work a. Purpose This exercise introduces students to the Big Five model and then uses those concepts to consider person-job fit. b. Format Completion of the online test should be done by individuals and will require about 30 minutes outside of class. The follow-up questions may be used as a written assignment or as the basis for an in-class discussion. c. Follow-up After the students have determined their personality characteristics, they should individually examine their personality traits with their job experiences, choice of major, and long-term career goals. They should then form small groups to discuss their results. Teaching Tip: Point out to students that, as a manager, it is just as important to understand the personalities of one’s superiors and subordinates as it is to understand one’s own personality. Therefore, it is useful to learn about every personality type. (1) How easy is it to measure personality? Students will agree that personality is difficult to measure. Some will point out that self-reported answers to written questions may not reflect one’s true character, either by intent or ignorance, or due to the influence of temporary moods. Also, the interpretation of results depends on the personality of the interpreter, confusing and diluting the power of the tests. In addition, some students will see the questions as ambiguous; others may disagree with the dimensions of personality used in the test. Finally, students will note that, if an individual resents or fears the testing, results are unlikely to be accurate. (2) Do you feel that the online test accurately assessed your personality? Why or why not? Share your assessment results and your answers with the class. Clearly, opinions will vary. Students should not be required to share their individual results if they do not feel comfortable in doing so. You can point out to students that, even if they don’t agree with the personality test results, the results may nevertheless be accurate. In other words, you can remind students that we often don’t see a true picture of ourselves. (3) How well do your results reflect what you expected to find in view of your recent job experiences, your choice of major, and your long-term career goals? Students may find that their Big Five assessment supports, or conflicts with, the personality traits typically associated with their type of job, major, and career goals. You can point out to students that the Big Five is just one way of assessing personality, and that the typical personality–job associations are based on averages, not individual case studies. Experiential Exercise Stress Test a. Purpose The purpose of this exercise is to demonstrate the occurrence of job-related stress. b. Format This exercise has both an individual and a small group component. Individually, students are required to assess the task, physical, role, and interpersonal demands associated with this class. They are then required to discuss their list with the group and look for similarities and differences. Finally, the group shares its findings with the rest of the class. c. Follow-up There are no follow-up activities for this exercise. MANAGEMENT AT WORK IS ANYBODY IN CONTROL HERE? The job of an air traffic controller is difficult and stressful, so much so, that the Federal Aviation Administration has made 56 the mandatory retirement age. The job is stressful because an air traffic controller has to many quick decisions that involve the safety of a lot of people. Given that aircrafts travel at an average speed of 600 miles per hour, accurate and fast decisions add to the stress. Discussion Starter: In Arthur Hailey’s novel (which was also made into a popular motion picture), Airport, an air traffic controller feels so responsible for the crash of a small aircraft that months after the accident he feels so stressed out that he seriously contemplates suicide. The novel depicts graphically the highly stressful nature of an air traffic controller’s job. Given the acute shortage of air traffic controllers, would this be a career that students would be interested in?? 1. What about you? Do you think that you could handle the kind of stress that air traffic controllers face on the job? Why or why not? This is a personal question and the answer depends on each individual’s personality and idea of a career. What is interesting about this is that we are in a down economy where the job market is not very attractive for college graduates. Would this be a factor here? 2. In your opinion, which causes of work stress, or organizational stressors, are likely to be among the most common experienced by air traffic controllers? Explain your reasoning. The category, task demands, is most likely the biggest organizational stressors in the work life of air traffic controllers. They have to make a large number of quick and critical decisions every minute of their job and because of the speed of decision making, it is likely that they are making them with incomplete information. 3. Controller Pete Rogers says that any gathering of air traffic controllers is “almost like a mini-convention of Type A personalities.” Does this assessment surprise you or make sense to you? In what ways is it perhaps a good thing? A not-so-good thing? The book defines a Type A personality as “individuals who are extremely competitive, are very devoted to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency.” The last two traits (devotion to work and a strong sense of time urgency) are very much in consistency with the job requirements of an air traffic controller. What should surprise students is the competitiveness trait that Type A’s show and its fit with the job of an air traffic controller. An air traffic controller typically works alone in guiding aircrafts and so there should be no element of competition involved. 4. “This business of people saying they ‘thrive on stress’? It’s nuts,” says one eminent psychiatrist who goes so far as to say that such people are in danger of slipping into a pathological state. Nevertheless, some people say that they like getting into chaotic situations and putting them back in order. What about you? Are there times when you seem to be motivated and satisfied by circumstances that most people would call stressful? If your answer is yes, what kinds of circumstances are they, and why do you think you react the way you do? If your answer is no, what do you normally do when faced with such circumstances? Student responses would vary to these questions that deal with work related stress. Yes, I find that there are times when I feel motivated and satisfied by circumstances that others might consider stressful. Specifically, I thrive in situations where quick problem-solving, adaptability, and decision-making are required, such as organizing a last-minute event, managing a high-stakes project with tight deadlines, or resolving interpersonal conflicts in a team. The reason I react this way is that these situations push me to think creatively, prioritize effectively, and focus intensely. They also provide a sense of accomplishment and purpose once the chaos is resolved, which I find rewarding. Additionally, I view such challenges as opportunities to learn and grow, enhancing my ability to handle future stressful situations more effectively. On the other hand, when the stress is overwhelming or prolonged, I manage it by breaking the situation into smaller, manageable tasks, seeking support from colleagues or mentors, and ensuring I take breaks to recharge. This balanced approach helps me maintain motivation without slipping into a pathological state, as the psychiatrist mentioned. YOU MAKE THE CALL Putting In the Hours 1. From a management perspective, what are the key issues in this chapter’s opening case? The key issue for management is employee unhappiness regarding hours worked on the job and the compensation for it. This has serious consequences, ranging from turnover (the Omar Belazi and RadioShack example) to lawsuits (all three examples in the case). 2. How would you respond if one of your employees wanted to come in early and get set up for their job but said they did not want to get paid for this extra time? While student responses could vary, clearly this is an example of a situation where a manager should feel lucky that he/she has employees who don’t mind coming in early to get set-up for work. However, the issues that the manager faces is one of fairness. What happens if others don’t feel the same way and want to be paid extra for set-up time? 3. How might you respond if your employer (current or future) directly or indirectly requires you to work extra hours with no additional compensation? This is an opinion question and so student responses will vary. It also depends on whether the employee is in an hourly job or a salaried job and what his/her responsibilities are. 4. What might you as a manager do to ensure your employees never feel compelled to work “off the clock?” A manager’s powers depend on what is delegated to him/her. While student responses to this question would vary, they have to understand that how they react to the above issue depends on the powers that they have. Chapter 10 Managing Employee Motivation and Performance END-OF-CHAPTER Questions for Review 1. Summarize Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the two-factor theory. In what ways are they similar and in what ways are they different? Maslow’s needs hierarchy claims that individuals have five different levels of needs and they work to fulfill their needs starting at the lowest level. The levels are, from lowest to highest, (1) physiological, (2) security, (3) belongingness, (4) esteem, and (5) self-actualization. Maslow believed that individuals would fulfill one need, then move on to the next, always in order, and that individuals would not regress to earlier, filled levels. In Maslow’s theory, satisfaction is a single dimension and results when workers are able to fulfill all of their needs. The two-factor theory also hypothesizes that individuals fill needs, but the needs are defined as (1) hygiene factors such as pay, security, and good working conditions; and (2) motivating factors such as recognition and opportunity to learn and advance. Hygiene factors roughly correspond to Maslow’s physiological and security levels, while motivating factors correspond to the levels of belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Herzberg believed that individuals would work to fulfill both sets of needs simultaneously and could continue to work on needs that were already filled at a minimal level. In Herzberg’s theory, there are two distinct continua, satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Satisfaction results when motivating factors are filled. When hygiene factors are provided, workers feel no dissatisfaction. 2. Compare and contrast content, process, and reinforcement perspectives on motivation. The content theories of motivation focus on why people are motivated, whereas the process and reinforcement perspective focus on how people are motivated. In both the reinforcement and the process perspectives, individual rewards are seen as fulfilling the needs discussed in the content theories; however, the actual decision to perform is outlined in the process perspective. 3. Using equity theory as a framework, explain how a person can experience inequity because he or she is paid too much. What are the potential outcomes of this situation? Equity theory claims that workers will compare the ratio of their inputs to outputs to the same ratio for other workers in order to calculate equity. Inequity may result when workers feel that they are contributing too much for too little reward, as well as when they feel that they are contributing too little for too much reward. Workers prefer equity, so workers who perceive inequity will either rationalize away the differences or take action to right the inequity, such as by working harder. 4. Explain how goal-setting theory works. How is goal setting different from merely asking a worker to “do your best”? Goal-setting theory proposes that workers are most motivated when they know exactly what they are expected to achieve (goal specificity) and when the goal is somewhat challenging but not impossible to achieve (goal difficulty). The expanded theory addresses additional areas: the need for employees to accept the goal and feel a commitment to achieving it. Asking a worker to do his or her “best” will be motivating for some individuals who have a high need for achievement, but most workers will be more motivated by being given a specific and challenging goal. 5. Describe some new forms of working arrangements. How do these alternative arrangements increase motivation? Variable work schedules allow workers to work outside of the traditional “Monday to Friday, 9-to-5” hours of most businesses. Workers may work early in the morning, stay late in the evening, work on the weekend, or work a few long days followed by several days off. Flexible work schedules give even more freedom for each employee to design their own optimum schedule. Job sharing allows two part-time workers to fill a full-time position. Workers who telecommute can work from home or any other location by using email and the Internet to communicate with their office. Anything that makes workers’ lives more convenient or gives workers control over how they work is likely to be motivating. Questions for Analysis 1. Choose one theory from the content perspective and one from the process perspective. Describe actions that a manager might take to increase worker motivation under each of the theories. What differences do you see between the theories in terms of their implications for managers? Students will choose different theories, so answers will vary. Students should note that content theories imply that managers should diagnose worker needs and then attempt to fill those needs, while process theories claim that managers must engage in a variety of behaviors such as communication, setting goals, or giving punishment. 2. Can factors from both the content and the process perspectives be acting on a worker at the same time? Explain why or why not. Whether you answered yes or no to the previous question, explain the implications for managers. Clearly, both content and process theories can be operating at the same time, because there is nothing in the theories that precludes this conclusion. For managers, the implication is that they should be aware of the variety of theories that can explain worker motivation. Greater awareness and skill in applying the theories make it more likely that the manager will be effective in increasing motivation. 3. How do rewards increase motivation? What would happen if an organization gave too few rewards? What would happen if it gave too many? Underlying every motivation theory is the premise that individuals act in certain ways in order to gratify their needs. Rewards can fill those needs directly, such as when a worker uses his or her pay to buy groceries, filling a need for food. Rewards can also fill needs indirectly, such as when a worker’s promotion leads to greater status and respect from others, filling a need for power. Organizations that do not offer adequate rewards will have employees who are unmotivated, leading to low performance, absenteeism, negative attitudes, and other undesirable outcomes. Organizations that offer too many rewards, on the other hand, may find that rewards lose their power to motivate. For example, if a manager praises every worker every day, regardless of performance, then there is little incentive for the workers to increase their performance. 4. Think about the worst job you have held. What approach to motivation was used in that organization? Now think about the best job you have held. What approach to motivation was used there? Can you base any conclusions on this limited information? If so, what are they? One likely response is the use of Herzberg’s theory. Note whether the response shows hygiene factors to be present on the “worst” job and motivation factors to be present on the “best” job. Another approach would be positive reinforcement for the best job and punishment for the worst job. A complex answer might involve expectancy theory—intensive training and a clearly defined reward system in the best job, and being hired and thrown into a position in the worst job. 5. Consider a class you have taken. Using just that one class, offer examples of times when the professor used positive reinforcement, avoidance, punishment, and extinction to manage students’ behavior. Examples will vary, but students will see that most professors, like most managers, use a variety of reinforcement techniques, depending on the particular situation. Reinforcement theory is most effectively applied when a manager uses all of the four techniques. Building Effective Interpersonal and Communication Skills Exercise a. Purpose This in-class demonstration shows the students, in a very vivid way, how positive reinforcement and punishment affect the relationship between employees and their supervisors. b. Format The in-class demonstration should be done by the entire group and will take about 10 minutes. The amount of time spent on discussion will vary. c. Follow-up Teaching Tip: For this demonstration, it’s important to choose volunteers carefully. The demonstration could be seen by a shy or sensitive student as embarrassing or demeaning, so be sure to select individuals who are outgoing and emotionally resilient. There are two parts of this demonstration: the punishment and the positive reinforcement. Bring to class, or ask a student to contribute from their possessions, a small but colorful and distinctive object. Good choices would be a small child’s toy or stuffed animal, a brightly colored cell phone, or a colorful hat. Show the object to all the students. Also bring to class a lightweight and long object, such as a rolled-up newspaper or an empty wrapping-paper roll, to serve as the “rod.” Ask for four student volunteers; then assign two to act as “boss” and two to act as “employee.” Also ask one student to serve as timekeeper. Explain that the purpose of the demonstration is for the employee to find the object, which you will hide somewhere in the classroom while they are out of the room. Ask one of the employees to leave the room and stand in the hall, without observing the class. Hide the object somewhere in the room. The students can often make good suggestions for hiding places. The object should be entirely invisible to a casual observer. When the object is hidden, ask the “employee” to re-enter the room. Ask the student volunteer to start timing when the employee starts the search and end when the object is found. For the punishment part of the demonstration, the employee moves freely around the room, seeking the hidden object. The “boss” follows the employee everywhere. As the employee gets further from the hidden object, the boss should administer light taps with the rod. (Please emphasize the “light” part to the boss student!) This is punishment for not finding the object. As the employee nears the hidden object, the taps should be reduced in frequency and severity, until they cease when the object is very near. The other students in the class should watch but not give any feedback. The demonstration ends when the student discovers the object. Again, hide the object, in a different place. Again, time the search. Ask the second “employee” student to enter the room, after the object is hidden. For the positive reinforcement part of the demonstration, the employee again moves freely, seeking the object, followed by the second “boss” student. But this time, the employee gets verbal praise from the manager as he or she nears the hidden object. The praise should be general, such as “Good job” or “Keep it up,” and should not give away the object’s location. If the employee is far from the object, the boss should say little or nothing. This is positive reinforcement for approaching the object. Other students should watch silently and the demonstration ends when the object is found. (1) Based on what you saw, which is more effective—positive reinforcement or punishment? In most cases, the individual experiencing positive reinforcement will find the object faster, indicating higher effectiveness. (2) How did positive reinforcement and punishment affect the “employee” in the demonstration? How did it affect the “boss”? In most cases, the employee and manager in the positive reinforcement demonstration have good feelings about their involvement. However, the employee in the punishment demonstration typically feels confused or upset with the punishment, while the student giving the punishment may feel unhappy or guilty. (3) What, in your opinion, are the likely long-term consequences of positive reinforcement and punishment? Students should use this demonstration to consider the good long-term outcomes of positive reinforcement, as compared to the risk of poor long-term outcomes with the use of punishment. Given this situation, you can spark classroom discussion by asking students to describe the circumstances under which punishment should be used, in spite of the negative long-term implications. Building Effective Decision-Making Skills Exercise a. Purpose Students exercise their decision-making skills by researching a career path and making choices about that path. b. Format This decision-making skills exercise should be done outside of class by individuals. It will take students about 10 minutes to complete, although research will take longer. c. Follow-up (1) Consider the position that you’d would like to hold at the peak of your career. It may be CEO, owner of a chain of stores, partner in a law or accounting firm, or president of a university. Then again, it may be something less lofty. Whatever it is, write it down. (2) Now describe a career path that will lead you toward that goal. It may help to work “backwards”—that is, to start with your final positions and work back in time to an entry-level position. If you do not know the career path that will lead to your ultimate goal, do some research. You can talk to someone in that career field, ask a professor in that subject, or get information online. For example, the AICPA’s website has a section titled “Career Development and Workplace Issues,” which includes information about career paths and position descriptions for accounting (although it takes a bit of digging down through multiple web pages to find it). Many other occupations have similar information online. (3) Write down each step in your path on a card or a sheet of paper. (4) If you were to carry this paper with you and refer to it often as you pursued your career goals, do you think that it would help you achieve them? Why or why not? Students will choose a variety of goals and an even larger variety of paths to achieve those goals. However, most will acknowledge that an explicit consideration and recording of career goals could be useful. In addition, the constant reminder may be helpful as students make choices and accomplish tasks in their chosen fields. Skills Self-Assessment Instrument Assessing Your Needs a. Purpose The purpose of this self-assessment is to help students understand their own personal judgments about their needs that affect motivation. b. Format Students should complete the assessment individually, but class discussion should cover content from the chapter. c. Interpretation Manifest needs—achievement, affiliation, aggression, autonomy, exhibition, impulsivity, nurturance, order, power, and understanding—are those covered by this self-assessment. Students should be encouraged to discuss each of these needs as a potential source of motivation. Experiential Exercise Motivation at Bluefield a. Purpose This exercise helps students to use motivational theories discussed in this chapter and apply them to a practical situation. b. Format Read the personnel files of the seven supervisors individually. Then, as a small group, fill out the Need/Motivation Worksheet. After discussion within the group, present the group’s findings to the class. c. Follow-up All people have needs, and those needs make people pursue different goals in an effort to satisfy their needs. Students’ responses on the Worksheet will vary and a discussion would help clarify their reasons for assigning specific scores to the seven supervisors. CHAPTER CLOSING CASE: THE LAW OF DIMINISHING MOTIVATION The number of women partners in law firms is significantly lower than the number of women who join law firms. The chapter closing case looks at possible reasons as to why this happens. Motivation appears to be a problem – motivation caused by conflicting demands that women face. Management Update: Fortune’s “Best Companies to Work for” article shows how the more progressive firms support their women employees. A comparison of the best practices in this area among leading companies should lead to a good discussion. 1. Among the various approaches to enhancing workplace satisfaction and productivity discussed in the chapter, which ones might you take under the circumstances described in the case? Why are some of the other approaches less likely to be effective (or even relevant)? The case quotes a woman partner at a law firm who says, “You have a given population of people (women) who were significantly motivated to go through law school with a certain career goal in mind.” This underscores the fact that women law graduates have the skill and the motivation to enter the profession and do well. Their key challenge is in striking a balance between the demands of work and the demands of personal life. One thing to consider would be alternative forms of work arrangements such as variable work schedules, job sharing, and telecommunicating. Using reward systems may not be effective or even relevant because the lack of these may not be barriers to women in law firms. 2. You’re the managing partner in a law firm with 55 male associates and 45 female associates, and you agree with the argument that women lawyers need to “self-promote” more effectively. Which approach to motivation would you apply in order to encourage female associates in your firm to “self-promote” more actively? Explain your choice of approach. One theory that can be applied to this situation is the expectancy theory of motivation. If you, the managing partner, can explain to the women associates the link between effort (to self-promote) and performance and rewards, they are more likely to work toward it. Of course, it is important that the valence of the rewards coincides with what they want. 3. What about your own values when it comes to balancing your home and work life? Assume that you’re about to graduate from law school and about to marry someone who’s also about to graduate from law school. When you sit down with your future husband or wife to discuss your plans for married life ever after, what do you want to do about raising a family? What kind of adjustments will you propose if it turns out that your intended’s ideas on the matter are more or less the opposite of your own? Be sure to consider such factors as the debt you’ve racked up while in law school and the standard of living that you’d like to achieve. Student responses will vary. Balancing home and work life requires clear communication and shared priorities. I value a partnership where both careers and family responsibilities are equally important. When raising a family, I’d propose planning around financial stability, including tackling our law school debt together while setting realistic goals for our standard of living. If our views differ, I’d suggest open discussions to find compromises, such as staggered career focus or shared parental leave. We could consider flexible work arrangements, like one working part-time initially, to manage parenting duties. Budgeting and prioritizing long-term goals will be key, ensuring that our financial health and family well-being align with our aspirations. By fostering mutual understanding and flexibility, we can create a balanced life that supports both our professional and personal growth. YOU MAKE THE CALL Motivating the Whole Person 1. If you worked at WFM, how would you vote when the company’s current health-care plan came up for an employee vote? Explain your reasoning. Students should note that WFM’s health care plan that came up for vote had a high deductible. This means that, while employees were covered for expensive illnesses, a lot of money came out of their pockets as deductible. Student responses will vary as this is a personal question. 2. To underscore WFM’s relatively high prices, some sceptics point out that, despite discounts of 15 percent or more, many of the firm’s employees can’t afford to shop where they work. If you were a team member at WFM, how would this affect your motivation? One of jokes about WFM is that the company stands for “the whole paycheck.” This means that buying things at WFM would cost one his/her whole paycheck. While student opinions would differ, there is a likely to be a sense of unfairness when you cannot shop at the place that you work at. 3. John Mackey now takes $1 a year in pay. In the last year in which he received a regular paycheck as CEO, his pay package totaled $436,000 – about 14 times the average WFM worker’s salary of $32,000 and relatively low for the industry. In the same year, however, he exercised nearly $2 million in stock options, bringing his total earnings to about $2.5 million. The company acknowledges that Mackey also holds more money in vested stock options but prefers to publicize its worker-friendly pay cap. If you were a team member at WFM, would this fact affect your motivation? How about your attitude toward your job? Student responses are likely to vary. Some may argue that the company doesn’t “walk the talk,” while others are likely to argue that as the founder/head of a large company, Mackey’s job involves a lot more stress and so his compensation cannot be compared to those of his employees. Chapter 11 Leadership and Influence Processes END-OF-CHAPTER Questions for Review 1. What activities do managers perform? What activities do leaders perform? Do organizations need both managers and leaders? Why or why not? Managers are responsible for planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem solving. Leaders establish direction, align people, motivate, and inspire. A firm needs to achieve results in an orderly fashion, which falls in the domain of management, and it also needs to energize and inspire its workers, which is the role of leadership. 2. What are the two generic approaches to leadership? What can managers today learn from these approaches? One generic approach to leadership is the search for leadership traits. Leadership experts try to generate a generic profile of a leader including traits such as intelligence and self-confidence. This approach has been largely discounted today. For example, while most leaders are highly intelligent, many intelligent individuals never become leaders. Eventually, the list of traits became so long and every trait was found to have so many exceptions that this approach was no longer useful. However, it remains very popular with individuals and the popular media. Managers today will not find this approach very helpful. The other generic approach to leadership is the behavioral theories. These theories include the Michigan studies (conducted by Likert), the Ohio State studies, and the Leadership Grid. Each of these approaches assumes that leaders have one of two types of behavior: behavior focused on goal achievement and behavior focused on employee satisfaction. This approach has been largely discounted also, because managers are able to show both types of behavior at different times or at the same time. These approaches do identify some leader behaviors that contribute to leader effectiveness, which may be helpful to some managers. However, other theories identify the same types of behavior and approach the issues in a way that is more theoretically sound. 3. What are the situational approaches to leadership? Briefly describe each and compare and contrast their findings. Situational approaches assume that appropriate leadership style varies from situation to situation. LPC theory outlines two leadership styles: task-oriented and relationship-centered. Leadership style is assessed by the LPC measure. The LPC model suggests that leader behavior is a function of situational favorableness. The path-goal theory of leadership suggests that leadership can be enhanced by helping subordinates clarify paths to goal attainment and by rewarding behavior to ensure that good performance is a direct path to positive outcomes. Four styles of leader behavior have been identified: (1) directive, (2) supportive, (3) participative, and (4) achievement-oriented behavior. The Vroom decision tree approach focuses only on decision making and leadership. The basic premise is that effective decisions are best gauged by the quality of the decision and by employee acceptance of the decision. The leader-member exchange (LMX) model compares how the manager treats his or her most trusted employees (the in-group) to how he or she treats all other employees (the out-group). A unique feature of LMX theory is the attention given to the leader’s relationship with each individual employee, rather than treating all employees as a group. 4. Describe the subordinate’s characteristics, leader behaviors, and environmental characteristics used in path-goal theory. How do these factors combine to influence motivation? The subordinate’s characteristics include the subordinate’s perception of his or her own abilities and the subordinate’s locus of control. Leader behaviors can be directive, supportive, participative, or achievement-oriented. Characteristics of the environment include task structure, authority system, and social support from the work group. Path-goal theory asserts that effective leaders will choose from the four types of leader behavior the one that best fits the demands of the situation, including characteristics of the subordinates and the environment. 5. In your own words, define political behavior. Describe four political tactics and give an example of each. In their definitions, students should include power and its use to obtain desired outcomes. Inducement occurs when something is offered in exchange for support. An employee may suggest a cost-cutting measure in exchange for a promotion. Persuasion happens when a manager changes the opinions of others based on emotion or logic. A manager may prevail in a disagreement with peers by offering superior evidence in support of his or her views. Managers create obligations by doing favors and then asking for favors in return. An employee may “cover” for a tardy coworker in exchange for a similar favor the following day. Coercion involves the use of force or threats. Managers who threaten to lay off workers who disagree with them are using coercion. Questions for Analysis 1. Even though the trait approach to leadership has no empirical support, it is still widely used. In your opinion, why is this so? In what ways is the use of the trait approach helpful to those who use it? In what ways is it harmful to those who use it? The trait approach is intuitively appealing, in spite of lack of empirical support. People want to believe in a theory that is simple, consistent, and broadly applicable—for example, that great leaders are physically attractive. Those who knowingly reject trait theories often display them unconsciously—for example, expecting that a tall person is a more effective leader than a short one. The trait approach can be helpful if the traits are skills, such as communication, that are in fact related to effective leadership. However, trait theories do harm when they lead us to focus on inappropriate variables, such as height or attractiveness, which have no relationship to leadership ability. 2. The behavioral theories of leadership claim that an individual’s leadership style is fixed. Do you agree or disagree? Give examples to support your position. The behavioral theories also claim that the ideal style is the same in every situation. Do you agree or disagree? Again, give examples. Opinions will vary, and students should be able to give examples to support their responses. The same is true for answers about an ideal leadership style. I disagree that an individual’s leadership style is entirely fixed. While people may have a natural tendency toward certain styles, leaders can adapt based on experience, feedback, and the needs of their team. For example, a leader who prefers a democratic style may adopt an autocratic approach during a crisis to ensure quick decision-making. I also disagree that the ideal style is the same in every situation. Different circumstances require different approaches. For instance, a participative style works well in creative industries where input is valued, whereas a task-oriented style may be better in manufacturing for meeting production targets. Flexibility in leadership style is key to achieving the best outcomes. 3. Consider the following list of leadership situations. For each situation, describe in detail the kinds of power that the leader has. If the leader were the same but the situation changed—for example, if you thought of the president as the head of his family rather than of the military—would your answers change? Why? • The president of the United States is Commander in Chief of the U.S. military. • An airline pilot is in charge of a particular flight. • Fans look up to a movie star. • Your teacher is the head of your class. The President has legitimate power through his job description. He may have referent power to the extent that members of the military look up to and admire him, and he may have expert power, if he has served in the military. An airline pilot has legitimate power through the employer, and he or she could conceivably have coercion power, but it is unlikely he or she would use it (“Do what I want or I’ll crash this plane.”). He or she has referent power if passengers look up to him or her, and a pilot would have expert power on an airline flight. A movie star primarily has referent power as a role model or a charismatic leader and may have expert power, if he or she is seen as expert in some aspect of film making. Teachers have legitimate power through their schools; they have reward and coercive power through their awarding of attention, praise, grades, and reprimands; they have referent power if students admire them; and they have expert power because of their subject knowledge. Clearly, the type of power a leader has depends heavily on the leadership situation. For example, a manager may not have coercive power, because he or she may not have the capability of punishing coworkers, but they probably have coercive power as a parent, because they can administer spankings or other disciplinary actions. 4. Think about a decision that would affect you as a student. Use Vroom’s decision tree approach to decide whether the administrator making that decision should involve students in the decision. Which parts of the model seem most important in making that decision? Why? Student responses will vary but an example might be as follows. Course schedules: (1) quality requirement—low; it really doesn’t matter when the courses are scheduled; (2) commitment requirement—low; it really doesn’t matter if students are enthusiastically committed to particular course schedules. (3) The Vroom decision tree model then suggests that departments should make course schedules without any real involvement of students. 5. Describe a time when you or someone you know was part of an in-group or an out-group. What was the relationship between each of the groups and the leader? What was the relationship between the members of the two different groups? What was the outcome of the situation for the leader? For the members of the two groups? For the organization? Clearly, answers will vary. Students should recognize that in-groups have closer relationships with leaders than do out-groups. The relationship between members of in-groups and out-groups is typically strained, with misunderstandings and resentments on both sides. Leaders may benefit from the dynamics of in-group/out-group interactions, if the in-group members are in fact the most trusted and highest performing workers. If not, the outcome may be too much conflict. Members of the in-group are likely to experience better outcomes than members of the out-group. Organizations may benefit from the high performance of in-group members, but can suffer negative consequences from the unhealthy competition and stress. Building Effective Diagnostic Skills Exercise a. Purpose This exercise asks the students to expand their diagnostic skills by having them decide how to use different types of power to respond effectively to different situations. b. Format Hand out the speech on the following page to students. This text is taken from Shakespeare, William, Henry V, Act 4, Scene 3, The Riverside Shakespeare. Copyright © 1974 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Characters: Gloucester, Bedford, Westmoreland, Exeter, Salisbury, and York. (These are Henry’s noblemen, now his army officers, most of them also his cousins.) Henry V, King of England, also called Harry. Montjoy, also called Herald (a messenger from the French King). Gloucester: Where is the King? Bedford: The King himself is rode to view their battle. Westmoreland: Of fighting men they have full threescore thousand. Exeter: There’s five to one; besides, they are all fresh. Salisbury: ‘tis a fearful odds. Westmoreland: O that we now had here But one ten thousand of those men in England That do no work to-day! King Henry: What’s he that wishes so? My cousin Westmoreland? No, my fair cousin. If we are marked to die, we are enough To do our country loss; and if to live, The fewer men, the greater share of honor. God’s will, I pray thee wish not one man more. Rather proclaim it, Westmoreland, through my host, That he which hath no stomach for this fight, Let him depart, his passport shall be made, and crowns for convoy put into his purse. We would not die in that man’s company That fears his fellowship to die with us. This day is called the feast of Crispian: He that outlives this day, and comes safe home, Will stand at tiptoe when this day is named, And rouse him at the name of Crispian. He that shall see this day, and live old age, Will yearly on the vigil feast his neighbors, And say, “To-morrow is Saint Crispian.” Then will he strip his sleeve and show his scars, And say, “These wounds I had on Crispian’s day.” Old men forget; yet all shall be forgot, But he’ll remember with advantages What feats he did that day. Then shall our names, Familiar in his mouth as household words, Harry the King, Bedford and Exeter, Warwick and Talbot, Salisbury and Gloucester, Be in their flowing cups freshly remembered. This story shall the good man teach his son; And Crispin Crispian shall ne’er go by, From this day until the end of the world, But we in it shall be remembered— We few, we happy few, we band of brothers; For he to-day that sheds his blood with me Shall be my brother; be he ne’er so vile This day shall gentle his condition; And gentlemen in England, now a-bed, Shall think themselves accursed they were not here; And hold their manhoods cheap whiles any speaks That fought with us upon Saint Crispin’s day. Salisbury: My sovereign lord, bestow yourself with speed. The French are bravely in their battles set, And will with all expedience charge on us. King Henry: All things are ready, if our minds be so. Westmoreland: Perish the man whose mind is backward now! King Henry: Thou dost not wish more help from England, coz? Westmoreland: God’s will, my liege, would you and I alone, Without more help, could fight this royal battle! King Henry: You know your places. God be with you all! [Enter Montjoy.] Montjoy: Once more I come to know of thee, King Harry, If for they ransom thou wilt now compound, Before thy most assured overthrow. King Henry: Who hath sent thee now? Montjoy: The Constable of France. King Henry: I pray thee bear my former answer back: Bid them achieve me, and then sell my bones. Good God, why should they mock poor fellows thus? Let me speak proudly: tell the Constable We are but warriors for the working-day; Our gayness and our gilt are all besmirched With rainy marching in the painful field; But, by the mass, our hearts are in the trim. Go thou, Herald, save thou thy labor. Come thou no more for ransom, gentle herald, They shall have none, I swear, but these my joints: Which if they have as I will leave ‘um them, Shall yield them little, tell the Constable. Montjoy: I shall, King Harry. And so fare thee well; Thou never shalt hear herald any more. York: My lord, most humbly on my knee I beg the leading of the vaward. King Henry: Take it, brave York. Now, soldiers, march away, And how thou pleasest, God, dispose the day! c. Follow-up (1) What types of power does Henry exert in this speech? Give specific examples of each type. Henry, as King, has legitimate power. Henry does not rely much on this type of power in this speech, except perhaps at the end, when he issues orders. Henry has the opportunity to give valuable awards (reward power), and he emphasizes that frequently with his references to monetary payments, praise, recognition, pride, esteem from others, and so on. Henry’s coercive power is certainly high because he could punish traitors or deserters—as he does in other scenes of this play. However, in this scene, he does not use his coercive powers at all. Henry has referent power because he is admired by his soldiers. That is mentioned several times such as when Henry says, “he today that sheds his blood with me shall be my brother …” As a brave and skillful soldier, Henry has expert power. (2) It is interesting that Henry had been a notoriously wayward youth before turning his life around and living up to his royal responsibilities. In what ways might knowledge of his past tend to increase or decrease his referent power? Student responses will vary. This question is intended to point out to students that referent power may exist for “good” reasons such as the admiration that is felt for Mother Teresa or Congressional Medal of Honor winners, as well as for “bad’ winners such as the referent power enjoyed by inner-city drug dealers, successful corporate raiders, or charming and attractive criminals. (3) In Shakespeare’s play, of course, Henry’s speech inspires his soldiers to almost impossible victory. You may or may not find it inspiring, but you should be able to see why audiences have long praised it as sufficiently stirring to account for such an improbable achievement. What elements of the speech do the most to make it inspirational? If you yourself find it inspiring, explain why. If you don’t, explain why not. Student responses will vary. They should be able to justify their answers with references to leadership theories, particularly Henry’s uses of power. Building Effective Interpersonal Skills Exercise a. Purpose Students will examine the ways in their attitudes toward work relationships reflect their political behavior in the workplace. b. Format Each student will complete a 20-question instrument that asks to what extent each statement describes their use—actual or intended—of the described behavior when they are on the job. Follow-up (1) Students will add up the 20 numbers in the blanks before all the questions. Their total will range between 20 and 100 and this number reflects their overall political behavior. The higher the score, the greater their political behavior. (2) Students can then determine their use of political power in four different areas. They will add up their score for a particular range of questions and divide the score by 5. The score for questions 1-5 indicate learning organizational culture, 6-12 developing good working relationships, 13-16 team player, and 17-20 gaining recognition. The higher their average score for each category, the greater their use of political power in that area Skills Self-Assessment Instrument Managerial Leader Behavior Questionnaire a. Purpose This self-assessment is intended to help students identify their personal beliefs about managerial leadership. b. Format Students should complete the assessment individually. Class discussion should follow to elaborate on the concepts introduced. c. Interpretation This instrument is developed from 23 categories of behavior that have been identified through research. Students should recognize that effective leadership normally uses less than half of these and the particular ones vary greatly across situations. Objective, “hard” criteria for each situation (profits, return on investment, sales volume, sales revenues, customer return business, etc.) should be examined relative to each of the categories. One must also recognize that research demonstrates that subjective, “soft” criteria (subordinate satisfaction, morale, ratings of the supervisor, etc.) are generally not related to objective criteria or the same set of leadership behaviors. Experiential Exercise Leadership Management Interview Experiment a. Purpose This exercise is designed to allow students to develop a conceptual framework for leadership and management. b. Format The student prepares the interview questions. The instructor critiques and approves the questionnaire. Some schools have policies requiring that student questionnaires be approved by the school administration, and, if so, compliance is recommended. Either one or two students can conduct the interviews, with results shared with the whole class. c. Follow-up Leadership and management are in some ways the same, but more often they are different. Since most management behaviors and leadership behaviors are a product of individual work experience, each leader/manager tends to have a unique leadership/management style. An analysis of leadership/management styles and a comparison of such styles with different organizational experiences are often rewarding experiences in learning. The exact learning outcomes from this experiment are not predictable, but any one or more of the following may occur: (1) The student is better able to prepare a leadership/management-oriented questionnaire. (2) The student is better able to conduct an interview as the interviewer. (3) The student better understands that leader/managers are unique individuals. (4) The student becomes aware that some leader/managers still believe in the managerial myths regarding motivation, perception, and communications. (5) The student gains self-confidence as he or she observes that the leader/manager is somewhat intimidated by certain questions, and resorts to defensive mechanisms. (6) The student gains confidence in his or her education as the leader/manager is seen as actually applying organizational behavior theory. Pre-experiment Briefing The following topics are usually covered in the briefing: 1. Questions asked of the leader/managers should relate to what the student has studied in this class. 2. Questions should be in common language rather than in textbook language. For example: (wrong) Do your employees suffer from cognitive dissonance? (right) When your employees are disappointed because they don’t get a pay raise they expected, how do you deal with their disappointment? 3. The student should request an appointment in advance, ask for only about 20 minutes of the manager’s time, and be there promptly. 4. These interviews often last longer than the 20 minutes allotted because the leader/manager likes to be interviewed as an expert or because the leader/manager does not feel comfortable terminating it. Students should play this by ear. After 20 minutes the student should make a comment similar to, “Mr. (Ms.) Jones, I see my time is up. You have been most kind to spend this time with me, and I appreciate it.” 5. Some students use this interview experiment to get exposure to a company where they would like to work. 6. Needless to say, students should be told to be courteous during the interview and not play games in an effort to upstage the manager. Problems Most students who select this experiment do so because they have confidence in their ability to conduct the interviews without experiencing problems. Occasionally, a student has difficulty preparing suitable questions and requires considerable help from the instructor. Sometimes the interview will be nonproductive because of the unsuitability of the leader/manager selected. These problems are not frequent and often not serious. As a rule, the experiment is a productive learning experience. MANAGEMENT AT WORK ABUSE OF POWER The case describes a sexual harassment case involving Julie Gallagher, an employee of Cleveland-based C.H. Robinson Worldwide Inc. While Julie lost her case in court, she prevailed on appeal. The case goes on to describe what sexual harassment is and what a person needs to provide that she was a victim of sexual harassment. Management Update: The EEOC’s sexual harassment website (http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/sexual_harassment.cfm) contains details about what it is and various facts about it. 1. What is the role of power in sexual harassment? Sexual harassment is often thought as the perpetrator wielding power over the victim—“if you don’t do this, this will happen (or not happen) to you.” It is essentially a power play where the perpetrator uses the victim’s weakness to take advantage. 2. What should leaders do when sexual harassment is alleged? It is absolutely essential for leaders to take such allegations seriously (unlike Julie’s branch manager). They are not only doing the right thing but they are also protecting their organization. 3. What is your opinion of the situation cited in this case? Student responses may vary, but it is important for students to look at what attorney Ellen Simon indicates as the necessary requirements to bring about a successful case of sexual harassment and then decide if Julie Gallagher’s case meets the criteria. 4. Do some online research and see if the case has been resolved. An online search in late May 2014 indicated that the case was still in district court and was not resolved. YOU MAKE THE CALL When To Stand On Your Head and Other Tips From The Top 1. Studies indicate that good leaders are typically positive and enthusiastic. In what ways do the tips cited in the vignette suggest the possession of these qualities by the various leaders who offer them? Based on their suggestions for managing stress and information flow, what other qualities might you assign, in general, to the leaders cited in the vignette? Maintaining their energy level and enthusiasm for the job is critical if leaders have to be positive role models for their employees. The leaders described in the vignette all do this either via regular exercise or through vacations to recharge themselves. They manage their stress as well as the information flow so that they can focus their energy in leading their organization. 2. Recall our discussion, in Chapter 9, locus of control, which we defined as the degree to which an individual believes that his or her behavior has a direct impact on the consequences of that behavior. In what ways do the attitudes expressed or implied in the vignette suggest the degree of locus control possessed by the leaders who are cited? All of them appear to possess an internal locus of control because they believe that what they do impacts the consequence of their actions. Thus they proactively manage their stress and time because they want to control these. 3. We discussed delegation—the process by which managers assign work to subordinates—in Chapter 6. It is no surprise that effective delegation eases the stress on managers. Judging from their advice on managing information flow, what sort of tasks do you think these managers delegate to others? What sort of tasks do they not delegate? As a result of your efforts to address these questions, can you think of a good rule of thumb for what a successful leader should and should not delegate? The examples of Carlos Ghosn and Bill Gates, in particular, illustrate that managers delegate the task of sifting through non-critical information flow to their subordinates. Notice that even with this, Gates responds to over a 100 emails a day—presumably he gets a lot more but he delegates the task of filtering his emails to his subordinate. What managers don’t delegate are critical relationship-building tasks. For example, Gates responds to emails from his partner company executives such as HP, Intel, etc. A good rule of thumb is probably delegate routine tasks and not delegate exceptions to the routine. Chapter 12 Communication in organizations END-OF-CHAPTER Questions for Review 1. Describe the difference between communication and effective communication. How can a sender verify that a communication was effective? How can a receiver verify that a communication was effective? Communication is the process of transmitting information from one person to another. Effective communication is communication, but in addition, the message received must be close in meaning to the message that was intended. For both the sender and the receiver then, verification of effective communication must involve feedback, because each must receive confirmation that the message was received, that its content was clear, and that its content was the intended content. 2. Which form of interpersonal communication is best for long-term retention? Why? Which form is best for getting across subtle nuances of meaning? Why? Written communication is probably best for long-term retention. The receiver has a written record that can be reviewed and consulted as necessary to recall details. Oral communication may be more effective to transmit subtle nuances of meaning. The sender can select the appropriate words to convey her or his meaning and can also reinforce that meaning nonverbally. 3. What are the similarities and differences of oral and written communication? What kinds of situations call for the use of oral methods? What situations call for written communication? Both oral and written communication can be done one-to-one or in large groups, and both involve the use of words. However, oral communication allows the sender to employ body language and other nonverbal communication. Oral communication also makes it easier and quicker to give and receive feedback. Written communication, on the other hand, can efficiently communicate a lot of detailed information accurately. It also allows time to absorb the message and can be stored as a more permanent record. 4. What forms of digital communication do you use regularly? Students will most likely identify a variety of forms of digital communication that they use regularly, including PDAs, e-mail, cell phones, instant messaging, “Skype-ing, tweeting, and so on. 5. Describe the individual and organizational barriers to effective communication. For each barrier, describe one action that a manager could take to reduce the problems caused by that barrier. Individual barriers include conflicting cues, such as when a manager says two things that disagree. To reduce conflicting cues, managers can work carefully to ensure that their messages are consistent. Credibility barriers occur when a sender is not believed by the receiver; this can be avoided by keeping a reputation for honesty. Reluctance to communicate can be overcome if managers ensure that employees are not penalized for providing frank feedback. Poor listening habits may be improved if the manager concentrates and makes eye contact during communication. Predispositions limit communication and can be resolved by keeping an open mind. Organization barriers include semantic difficulties and managers can avoid these by ensuring that their use of language is clear and that words do not convey unintended meanings. Power differences are best resolved by the higher-ranking manager’s stated willingness to disregard the differences. Differing perceptions require that managers speak out about their assumptions. Noise disruption can be reduced if the volume of e-mails is limited to restrict information overload. Questions for Analysis 1. At what points in the communication process can problems occur? Give examples of how noise can interfere with the communication process. What can managers do to reduce problems and noise? Problems can occur at any step in the communication process. Static on a cell phone connection, mumbling, garbled fax transmission, lost letters, e-mail sent to the wrong receiver, interruptions, and a noisy, distracting communication setting are all examples of noise. There are many different sources of problems and noise, and each requires a different solution. For the examples given above, solutions might include waiting to make an important phone call on a wired phone, enunciating clearly, re-sending faxes, ensuring proper addressing of letters and asking for delivery confirmation, care in sending e-mails, closing the office door to signal others not to interrupt, and moving to a more quiet setting. 2. How are digital communication devices (cell phones, e-mail, and websites) affecting the communication process? Describe both the advantages and the disadvantages of these three devices over traditional communication methods, such as face-to-face conversations, written notes, and phone calls. It seems clear that communication devices will continue to evolve and that communication will soon be possible from virtually anywhere on the planet. Internet connectivity will soon be available anywhere and will be wireless in most areas, so that communication can take place easily. Devices will become smaller, lighter, easier to use, and more affordable and will combine features from different devices into one single device. Electronics enable communication instantly. The devices enable the users to communicate wherever they are, rather than being tied to the location where communication equipment is available. Computers allow the transmission of far more data than would be practical without computers. On the negative side, the continual presence of communication ability creates stress for some users. Some users also lack skills in the new communication media—for example, many users do not understand how to write an effective e-mail message. 3. What forms of communication have you experienced today? What form of communication is involved in a face-to-face conversation with a friend? A phone call from a customer? A traffic light or crossing signal? A picture of a cigarette in a circle with a slash across it? An area around machinery defined by a yellow line painted on the floor? Students should provide examples of oral communication (for example, discussions, lectures, telephone calls) that have been part of their daily activities. They may mention written communication in the form of notes, letters, textbooks, and computer messages. Face-to-face communication is oral and nonverbal. Beyond the oral discussion that takes place in conversation, most students will also discuss the nonverbal aspects (that is, the facial gestures or body language). The telephone call should be primarily oral, but some wordless sounds—sighs, moans—may be used as a nonverbal method of exaggerating a point. The traffic light or crosswalk signal is a nonverbal signal, as is the “No Smoking” sign and the warning area painted on the factory floor. 4. Keep track of your own activities over the course of a few hours of leisure time to determine what forms of communication you encounter. Which forms were most common? If you had been tracking your communications while at work, how would the list be different? Explain why the differences occur. Of course, responses will vary, but students are likely to find that they encounter a number of different forms of communication. Some common examples might include viewing traffic signals and signs, reading mail, television watching, phone calls with friends, e-mail or instant messaging, listening to recorded music, attending a lecture class, nodding or waving to passers-by, studying lecture notes and textbooks, and face-to-face conversations. The types of work-related communication the students experience will differ, depending on their work environment. 5. For each of the following situations, tell which form of communication you would use. Then ask the same question to someone who has been in the workforce for at least ten years. For any differences that occur, ask the worker to explain why his or her choice is better than yours. Do you agree with his or her assessment? Why or why not? • Describing complex changes in how healthcare benefits are calculated and administered to every employee of a large firm • Asking your boss a quick question about how she wants something done • Telling customers that a new two-for-one promotion is available at your store • Reprimanding an employee for excessive absences on the job • Reminding workers that no smoking is allowed in your facility Changes in benefits should be communicated in writing, probably through a published brochure or on a website. The need to communicate detailed information, the need to allow the receivers time to process a complex message, and the importance of written records for legality all play a part in this choice. Asking the boss a quick question could most easily be done with a face-to-face conversation, although e-mail is also a possibility, particularly if the boss isn’t present at that moment, is at a remote location, or prefers not to be continually interrupted. Telling customers about a promotion could effectively be done on TV or radio, with a newspaper ad, with a sign or billboard, or through signs or flyers available at the store itself. Reprimands should be delivered face-to-face, in private, to protect the employee’s rights and allow the employee the opportunity to give instant feedback. However, if the reprimand is a repeat of previous complaints and the manager is considering more formal disciplinary action, a written record may also be useful. Reminding workers not to smoke can be done through displays or notices. If the problem is especially acute, then an e-mail or memo reminder could also be used. Students will benefit from talking to a worker about these choices, because they may learn of additional concerns that might not have initially occurred to them, such as the need for a written record of complaints when an employee may be terminated. Building Effective Technical Skills Exercise a. Purpose The students will gather information relevant to an organizational task to practice using the Internet as source of communication. b. Format This technical skills exercise will require between 30 and 45 minutes to complete. c. Follow-up (1) Use the Internet to identify as many as ten possible locations. (2) Using additional information from the Internet, narrow the set of possible locations to three or four. (3) Again using the Internet, find out as much as possible about the potential locations. Students will find a wealth of information about cities on the Internet, including data such as weather, cost of living, real estate prices, and rail and highway locations. Building Effective Interpersonal Skills Exercise a. Purpose This communication skills exercise helps student the nonverbal and verbal behavior of a pair of individuals. b. Format This exercise involves watching and discussing video segments with and without the audio. Skills Self-Assessment Instrument Gender Communications Quiz a. Purpose The purpose of this self-assessment is to help students identify and understand their beliefs and values about the ways in which men and women typically communicate. b. Format Students should respond individually to the 18 T/F items in this self-assessment. Group discussion should follow. The assessment can be done outside of class or will take about 10 minutes of class time to complete. c. Interpretation The correct answers are as follows:
1. T 4. T 7. F 10. T 13. T 16. T
2. T 5. F 8. T 11. T 14. F 17. F
3. T 6. F 9. T 12. T 15. T 18. F
Further commentary on the answers can be found at http://www.rose-hulman.edu/media/1268896/Gender-Communications-Quiz-4-.pdf Experiential Exercise Nonverbal Communication in Groups a. Purpose The purpose of this exercise is to make students aware of the power of nonverbal communication and give them some practice in using it. b. Format This is a large-group exercise. Members of a group count out their number without any verbal or physical signals. c. Follow-up The discussion responses will vary depending on the methods used by the different groups. A debate on the methods used can help in underscoring the importance of nonverbal communications both in the classroom and in businesses. MANAGEMENT AT WORK THE CONVERSE OF IN-PERSON COMMUNICATION This vignette describes the “do’s” and “don’ts” of phone interviews, which are becoming increasingly popular because of time and cost savings. While most people think that phone interviews are easier to do as a job candidate than face-to-face interviews, this is not always true. How you respond matters as much in a phone interview as in a face-to-face interview. Discussion Starter: The website http://jobsearch.about.com/cs/interviews/a/phoneinterview.htm presents a list of questions likely to be asked during a phone interview. These questions can be used to start a lively discussion of how best to answer these questions so that a favorable impression is created by the interviewee. 1. Experts suggest that you dress professionally for a telephone interview even though the interviewer can’t see you. Do you agree that this is important? Why or why not? Since a phone interview is a job interview, it is important to act professionally. Since studies show that job candidates sound more articulate and more intelligent when they are dressed professionally, it make sense to do so. Some may disagree and say that comfortable clothes may them more at ease. There is truth in both arguments. 2. In getting ready for a telephone interview for a new job, what are the three or four things for which you most want to be prepared? If you are getting ready to interview someone else for a job, what are the three or four major things that you’d expect that person to be prepared for? Some of the important things would be knowing and being able to pronounce the interviewer’s name and knowing his/her designation. Obviously, knowing and having one’s resume is critical. Anticipating some of the more generally asked question is important too. Almost all of these are the ones that the interviewer would expect the interview to be ready with. 3. Matt Aberham warns against simply trying to “sell yourself” during a phone interview. You agree, but you also believe that selling yourself is one of the things that you to do as a job seeker. What sort of strategies do you regard as legitimate and effective in trying to sell yourself to a phone interviewer (or an in-person interviewer, for that matter)? It is important to sell oneself but not oversell oneself. Also, one has to keep in mind that one may not have all the skills necessary and that is understandable from the company’s point-of-view because they expect to train the candidate and also expect the candidate to pick up skills along the way. 4. Think of one or two experiences from your own life that you’d particularly like to come up in a job interview. What sort of questions might allow you to “take the initiative” in making sure that they didn’t fall through the cracks? How much time do you think each incident would be worth in a 30- to 45-minute interview? Since this is a personal question, student responses will vary. To highlight key experiences in a job interview, I’d prepare to steer the conversation by connecting them to common interview questions. For instance: 1. If I want to discuss a leadership role in a university project, I’d use a question like, “Can you describe a time when you demonstrated leadership skills?” 2. To share a challenging work situation I resolved, I’d look for a question like, “How do you handle conflict or high-pressure situations?” Each incident would be worth about 5-7 minutes, ensuring I provide concise, relevant details while leaving time for the interviewer’s questions and follow-ups. 5. Using Skype and similar methods has become quite popular in setting up the complete online conversation. How would the use of this technology modify a telephone interview? How about other forms of communication, such as text messaging? One possibility is to use VOIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol) services such as Skype for the phone interview. This can effectively combine the webcam in the interviewee and the interviewer’s computers to facilitate visual as well as audio linkup. Text messaging and like forms may be less effective because they are not audio enabled. YOU MAKE THE CALL Que Pasa in the Ad Agency? 1. You’re assistant director of marketing for a maker of upscale furniture, and your company is preparing to enter new markets in California and the Southwest. Entering new markets, especially one of this size, is expensive, and your boss has decided to forgo Spanish-language advertising as part of the firm’s market entry strategy. You’re inclined to disagree. What might you say to your boss to change her mind? As the case points out, 15.1 percent of the U.S. population is Hispanic and they have tremendous buying power. A large Hispanic population exists in California and the Southwest. Not going in for Spanish-language advertising means that your company is likely to miss out on a major business opportunity. It is important to communicate to the Spanish market in their language. 2. You’re a top manager in a large factory whose workforce is approximately 40 percent Hispanic. Business is down because of the recession, and you’ve learned that there’s a rumor about layoffs circulating in the grapevine. In particular, a lot of Spanish-speaking employees seem to think that they’ll be laid off first. How should you deal with the rumor? The chapter gives pointers on how managers should deal with rumors that travel through the grapevine. The key pointer is to keep open the channels of communication and respond vigorously to inaccurate information. In this question, Hispanics are a big part of the workforce. It is thus necessary to have a Spanish speaker communicate to the Hispanic worker. If the top manager cannot do it, he/she should pick a trustworthy deputy who is fluent in Spanish to act as the conduit. 3. Arnold Schwarzenegger, the Austrian-born ex-governor of California, which is home to 13.6 million Hispanics, advised Latino immigrants that if they want to learn English more quickly, “You’ve got to turn off Spanish[-language] television. . . . I know that when I came to this country, I very rarely spoke German to anyone.” Do you agree with Schwarzenegger’s advice to immigrants on learning English in the United States? Why or why not? Student opinions will vary depending on whether they adhere to the melting-pot idea or oppose it. Some may argue that the only way ahead in the U.S. is to learn to communicate in English. But others may argue that in following Schwarzenegger’s advice, Hispanics may lose touch with their native language and culture. Solution Manual for Fundamentals of Management Ricky W. Griffin 9781285849041, 9780357039168
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