CH-9-11 Employee Development and Career Management – Employee Training and Development : Book Guide

This Document Contains Chapters 9 to 11 Chapter Nine Employee Development and Career Management This chapter provides an overview of employee development and career management. Whereas training typically focusses on learning to prepare individuals for their current jobs, development is more future oriented. Employee development is central to promoting employee retention and helping employees advance their careers within the organization. A wide variety of development activities exist, and it is important to know when different activities are most appropriate. This chapter details development planning and the different types of development activities, including assessment, formal courses and programs, experiences, mentoring, and coaching. OBJECTIVES 1. Discuss the steps in the development planning process. 2. Explain the employees’ and company’s responsibilities in planning development. 3. Discuss current trends in using formal education for development. 4. Relate how assessment of personality type, work behavior, and job performance can be used for employee development. 5. Explain how job experiences can be used for development and suggest a job experience to match an employee’s development goal or need. 6. Identify the characteristics of an effective mentoring program. 7. Describe the succession planning process and how the nine-box grid is used. 8. Design an effective on-boarding process. INTRODUCTION Employee development is a necessary component of a company’s talent management efforts and can help enhance a company’s competitive advantage. Development is important on many fronts. • Development helps high-potential managers understand their strengths, weaknesses, and interests. • Development shows managers how new jobs and expanded job responsibilities help meet their personal growth needs. • Development helps retain valuable managers who might otherwise turnover. • Development is key to ensuring that employees have the competencies necessary to serve customers and create new products. • Development can help increase employee engagement by showing employees that the company is interested in their skill development and developing managers who can create a positive work environment. THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG DEVELOPMENT, TRAINING, AND CAREERS Development and Training Development refers to learning activities and experiences that help employees grow and prepare for the future. Development often involves voluntary learning that is not tied directly to the employee’s current job. Training, on the other hand, is related to the current job and is typically required. Development prepares employees for other positions and increases their ability to move into jobs that may not yet exist. Development is especially important for senior managers and employees with leadership potential. Development and Careers Traditionally, careers have been described in a variety of ways: • as a sequence of positions held within an occupation • in the context of mobility within an organization • as a characteristic of the employee—an employee’s career consists of different jobs, positions, and experiences Today’s careers are often characterized as protean careers. A protean career is based on self-direction, whereby the employee’s career is driven by the person rather than the organization. A key goal in protean careers is to achieve psychological success, the feeling of pride and accomplishment that comes from achieving life goals. Employees need to develop new skills rather than rely on a static knowledge base to be successful. The emphasis on continuous learning has altered the direction and frequency of movement within careers. Traditionally, employees progressed through a linear hierarchy in the organization. Today, it is becoming more common to see career patterns across specializations. The most appropriate view of today’s careers is that they are boundaryless. Boundaryless means that individuals identify more with a job or profession than with their employer. Most employees are unlikely to stay at one company for their entire careers or even for a significant portion. A career can also be considered boundaryless in the sense that career plans or goals are influenced by personal demands and values. DEVELOPMENT PLANNING SYSTEMS A development planning system refers to a system to retain and motivate employees by helping to meet their development needs. Development planning systems vary in their level of sophistication and the emphasis placed on different components of the process. The development planning process involves four primary steps: • Self-assessment—identifying opportunities and areas for improvement • Reality check—identifying what needs are most realistic to develop • Goal setting—identifying development objectives • Action planning—creating a plan to determine how goals will be achieved Self-Assessment Self-assessment refers to the use of information by employees to determine their career interests, values, aptitudes, and behavioral tendencies. It often involves psychological tests such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory, and the Self-Directed Search. Through this process, a development need can be identified. Employees can identify capabilities they are lacking and gain specific information about what they can do to develop skills through development experiences. Reality Check Reality check refers to the information employees receive about how the company evaluates their skills and where they fit into the company’s future plans. Employees may receive feedback from their manager through the formal personal appraisal process or via 360-degree feedback. Goal Setting The next step of the development process is for employee to establish goals to focus their development efforts. Such goals may be short-term or long-term. These goals usually relate to securing a new position, moving to a new work setting, the acquisition of new skills, and the application of skills to meet a business need. Action Planning An action plan is a written strategy that employees use to determine and articulate how they will achieve their development goals. APPROACHES TO EMPLOYEE DEVELOPMENT Formal Education Formal education programs may take many forms. They include on-site or off-site programs tailored specifically for a company’s employees, short courses offered by consultants or academic institutions, and on-campus university programs. Many companies rely on in-house development programs, rather than programs sponsored by universities. They do so because content can be directly tied to business needs and because top management more readily supports in-house efforts. Executive Education A number of academic institutions in the U.S. and abroad provide executive education. Executive education includes executive MBA programs, as well as specialized curricula on topics such as leadership, entrepreneurship, change, innovation, and global business. Executive education programs typically involve a blended learning approach. For example, managers visit campus for face-to-face instruction, and then between sessions they work online and independently on assignments such as team projects, cases, or reading assignments. In addition to blended learning, business schools and other educational institutions have begun offering companies in-house, customized programs. These programs are desirable because there is less disruption as managers do not need to travel to campus. Tuition Reimbursement Enrollment in executive education programs may be limited to managers and employees identified as having management potential. As a result, many companies provide tuition reimbursement as a benefit for all employees to encourage them to develop on their own. Companies have found that these programs increase employee retention, readiness for promotion, and job performance. Assessment Assessment involves collecting information and providing feedback to employees about their behavior, communication style, and skills. Data may come from a variety of sources, including employees, their peers, managers, and customers. Assessments are useful on several fronts. • Assessment helps to identify managerial potential and measure current managers’ strengths and weaknesses. • Assessments can be used to identify managers with potential to move executive positions. • Assessments can be used with work teams to identify the strengths and weaknesses of individual team members. • Assessments can help employees understand their tendencies, values, and preferences. Personality Tests and Inventories Personality tests and inventories are used to help employees gain self-awareness of how they respond to conflict, what motivates them, how they solve problems, how they react to stress, and other behavioral tendencies. • The NEO Personality Inventory measures the Big Five personality dimensions, which include emotional stability (relaxed, non-worrier), extraversion (sociable, outgoing), openness (willing to try new things), agreeableness (friendly, polite), and conscientiousness (hardworking, detail oriented) • The DISC measures personality and behavioral style, including dominance (directness, forcefulness), influence (sociability, persuasiveness), steadiness (cooperativeness, dependability) and conscientiousness (accuracy, competency). • The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) determines different personality types. The sixteen unique personality types are based on preferences for introversion (I) or extraversion (E), sensing (S) or intuition (N), thinking (T) or feeling (F), and judging (J) or perceiving (P). Each personality type has implications for work habits and interpersonal relationships. Assessment Center At an assessment center, multiple raters assess employees’ performance on a number of exercises. An assessment center is usually an off-site location such as a conference center. Assessment centers are primarily used to identify if employees have the personality characteristics, administrative skills, and interpersonal skills for managerial jobs. They are increasingly being used to determine if employees have the skills to work in teams. Common exercises include leaderless group discussions, interviews, in-basket exercises, and role plays. • In a leaderless group discussion, teams are assigned a problem to solve within a certain time period. • In interviews, employees answer questions about their work and personal experiences, strengths, weaknesses, and career plans. • An in-basket exercise is a simulation focused on administrative tasks that managers face. These exercises include a variety of documents that may appear in an in-basket, e-mail account, or on a manager’s desk. Participants prioritize which tasks they will focus on. • In role plays, participants act out interpersonal interactions taking on the role of a manager or other employee. Performance Appraisals and 360-Degree Feedback Systems Performance appraisal information can be useful for employee development under certain conditions. The appraisal system must tell employees specifically about their performance problems and how they can improve their performance. This includes providing a clear understanding of the differences between current performance and expected performance, identifying causes of the performance discrepancy, and developing action plans. It is important that managers be trained in providing effective performance feedback. Upward feedback and 360-degree feedback are popular tools for development. Upward feedback refers to collecting performance feedback from subordinates. In 360-degree feedback systems, feedback is obtained from subordinates, peers, customers, managers, and employees themselves. Raters complete questionnaires asking them to rate the employee on a number of different dimensions. There are many benefits of upward and 360-degree feedback. • Feedback is obtained from multiple perspectives, which allows employees to compare their perceptions to those of others. • Employees gain a better perspective of their strengths and areas for improvement. • These systems help to formalize the feedback process. Potential limitations include: • The time demands placed on raters. • Employees may retaliate against raters. • Facilitators may be required to interpret results. • Companies may fail to provide opportunities for employees to act on the feedback. Job Experiences Most development occurs through job experiences, which include the demands, responsibilities, problems, and relationships that employees deal with in their jobs. A major assumption is that development is most likely to occur when employees are given stretch assignments. Stretch assignments refer to those where there is a mismatch between the employee’s skills and the skills required for future success. One issue is whether job experiences are viewed as positive or negative stressors. Job experiences that are perceived as positive stressors challenge employees to stimulate learning. Those viewed as negative stressors create high levels of harmful stress. Research suggests that all job demands, with the exception of obstacles, are related to learning. Enlarging the Current Job Job enlargement involves adding challenges and new responsibilities to an employee’s current job. These development experiences could include special project assignments, switching roles within a work team, or researching new ways to serve clients and customers. Some companies enlarge jobs by giving two managers the same job title and responsibilities and then allow them to divide the work. This is known as “two-in-a-box.” Job Rotation and Lateral Moves Job rotation and lateral moves give employees a series of job assignments in various functional areas of the company or navigate among jobs in a single functional area or department. Job rotation helps employees gain an overall appreciation of the company’s goals, increases their understanding of different company functions, and helps develop a network of contacts. Despite the advantages, there are some limitations. The rotation may create a short-term orientation, and employees may not be given enough time in a position to receive challenging assignments. Productivity losses and workload increases may be incurred both by the department gaining the rotating employee and the department losing the employee. Lateral moves help companies retain talented employees who want new job experiences. They also help identify employee strengths and weaknesses, and allow employees to learn about new areas of the business. Employees are afforded the opportunity to work on new projects and problems and apply their skills in a new way. Characteristics of effective job rotation systems include: • They are linked to specific developmental needs. • They are used to provide employees experiences needed for managerial positions. • Employees understand specific skills that will be developed by the rotation. • They are used for all levels and types of employees. • The timing of rotations is managed to minimize workload costs. • All employees are given equal opportunity for job rotation assignments without regard for their demographic status. Transfers, Promotions, and Downward Moves A transfer refers to reassigning an employee to a different job in a different area of the company, most likely a lateral move. Job responsibilities and compensation are not necessarily increased. Transfers may involve relocating, which can be very stressful to employees, and transfers are not always well received. The employees most willing to transfer are those with high career ambitions, a belief that their future with the company is promising, and a belief that accepting the transfer is necessary to advance in the company. A downward move involves giving an employee a position with less responsibility and authority. A downward move may involve a move to another position at the same level (a lateral demotion), a temporary cross-functional move, or a demotion because of poor performance. Temporary cross-functional moves to lower-level positions, which give employees work experience in different functional areas, are most frequently used for development. A promotion involves advancing an employee into a position of greater challenge, responsibility and authority. Promotions usually involve an increase in compensation. Obviously, employees are more willing to accept promotions than they are to accept lateral moves or downward moves. To ensure employees approach these moves as developmental experiences, particularly when relocation is involved, companies should: • Provide information about the content, challenges, and potential benefits • Involve employees in the decision by sending them to preview the new location or job • Assign a host at the new location to help with the adjustment • Inform the employee how the new job will affect their income, taxes, and expenses • Assist the employee in selling a home and securing new housing • Assist family members in the relocation (e.g., identifying schools and childcare) • Help spouses find new employment • Provide an orientation program • Provide clear performance objectives and early performance feedback Temporary Assignments, Projects, Volunteer Work, and Sabbaticals Temporary assignments refer to job tryouts, project work, employee exchanges, sabbaticals, and voluntary assignments. All temporary assignments have a predetermined ending date after which the employee returns to his or her permanent position. • Temporary assignments with other organizations may emerge from two companies agreeing to exchange employees in order for the companies to better understand each other. • Volunteer assignments, where employees serve their community and its members, may provide opportunities to manage change, teach, take on more responsibility, and learn new skills. • A sabbatical involves a leave of absence from the company to renew or develop skills. Employees on sabbatical often receive full pay and benefits. Sabbaticals reduce stress and burnout and help employees acquire new skills and perspectives. Interpersonal Relationships Employees can also develop skills and increase their knowledge about the company by interacting with more experienced organization members. Mentoring and coaching are two types of interpersonal relationships that are often used for employee development. Mentoring Mentoring involves an experienced, productive senior employee (the mentor) helping develop a less experienced employee (the protégé). Most mentoring relationships develop informally based on shared interests, values, or work assignments. Mentoring relationships may also develop through formal company mentoring programs. Mentoring programs help socialize new employees, develop managers, and provide opportunities to employees without regard to race and gender. • In group or peer mentoring programs, the mentor is paired with a group of four to six protégés. Protégés are not only able to learn from the mentor, but from each other. • Reverse mentoring involves younger employees mentoring older employees. Benefits of mentoring to protégés include: • career support—coaching, protection, sponsorship, and providing challenging assignments, exposure, and visibility • psychosocial support—serving as a friend and role model, providing positive regard and acceptance, and creating an outlet for communication • skill development • higher rates of promotion and higher salaries • greater organizational influence Benefits of mentoring to mentors include: • developing interpersonal skills • increased self-esteem and sense of worth to the company • access to new knowledge in their field One challenge of formal mentoring programs is that the relationship may not “stick” if it has been “artificially” created. To enhance formal mentoring programs, companies should: • Make participation voluntary for mentors and protégés • Ensure the matching process does not hinder the formation of informal relationships • Chose mentors who have a good record developing employees and have the willingness to serve • Match based on how the mentor’s skills can help meet the protégé’s needs • Clarify roles and expectations for both mentors and protégés • Specify a minimum amount of contact time between mentors and protégés • Provide a formal time period for the program, but encourage continued relationships • Evaluate the program • Reward employee development Coaching A coach is a peer or manager who works directly with an employee to help develop skills, motivate, and provide feedback. The best coaches are empathetic, supportive, practical, and confident. The coach can play three roles: • Developing high-potential managers • Helping the employee learn for him/herself • Providing resources to which the employee might not otherwise have access Managers may be reluctant to coach, and four issues may need to be addressed. • Managers may be reluctant to discuss performance problems to avoid confrontation • Managers may be better able to identify performance issues than solve them • Managers may fear that employees will perceive coaching as criticism • Managers may feel they don’t have time to coach Succession Planning Succession planning refers to the process of identifying, developing, and tracking high potential employees who are capable of moving into different positions in the company. Succession planning helps to easily place individuals in planned or unplanned job openings due to turnover, promotions, or business growth. Succession planning is often used with managers and top leaders, but it is important for any job. Succession planning helps organizations in several different ways. • It identifies and prepares future company leaders. • It helps ensure that the company runs smoothly when key employees and managers leave. • It helps to enhance “bench strength,” having a pool of talented employees who are ready when needed. • It helps to plan development experiences for movement into higher-level positions. • It helps to attract and retain employees. Many companies use the nine-box grid for conducting the succession planning review. The nine-box grid is a matrix used to compare employees within a department, function, division, or the entire company. One axis of the matrix is job performance. The other axes are typically labeled “potential” or “promotability.” The nine boxes include: 1. poor employee 2. inconsistent employee 3. potential may be misplaced 4. strong contributor 5. core employee 6. rising star 7. technical/subject expert 8. agile non-performer 9. star High-potential employees with high performance are found in the top-right corner of the matrix (stars). These are employees who should be developed for leadership positions. One issue is whether to make succession planning public. One advantage of doing so is that employees may stay because they have an understanding of promotion prospects. Another advantage is that high-potential employees who are not interested in other positions can communicate their intentions. The company can then avoid investing resources and have a more accurate picture of its potential future talent. On the flip side, those not on the list may become discouraged and leave the company. Furthermore, employees might not believe they have had a fair chance to compete for leadership positions if they already know that a list of potential candidates has been established. Developing Managers with Dysfunctional Behaviors A number of studies have identified managerial behaviors that can cause a competent manager to be a “toxic” manager. Examples of such behaviors include insensitivity and aggression toward others, inability to be a team player, arrogance, poor conflict-management skills, and the inability to adapt. Typically, a combination of assessment, training, and counseling is used to help change dysfunctional behavior. Onboarding Onboarding, also known as socialization, refers to helping new hires adjust to the social and performance aspects of their new jobs and places of employment. Onboarding helps promote early retention, job satisfaction, and performance. There is wide variation in the types of onboarding programs, but onboarding typically covers four primary areas. • Compliance—understanding basic legal and policy-related rules and regulations • Clarification—understanding job and performance expectations • Culture—understanding company history, traditions, values, and norms • Connection—understanding and developing formal and informal relationships Effective onboarding programs share the following characteristics: • Employees are encouraged to ask questions. • The program focuses on both technical and social aspects. • Employees learn about company culture, history, language, products, services, and customers. • The program involves participation and active involvement. • The program involves formal and informal interactions with new hires and more seasoned employees. • Managers take on some onboarding responsibility. • Embarrassing new employees is avoided. • There is follow up at different points during the first year of employment. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. How could assessment be used to create a productive work team? Assessment can be used with work teams to identify the strengths and weaknesses of individual team members and the decision processes or communication styles that inhibit the team’s productivity. Two useful assessments would be the DISC and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). • The DISC measures personality and behavioral style, including dominance, influence, steadiness, and conscientiousness. • MBTI determines different personality types. The sixteen unique personality types are based on preferences for introversion (I) or extraversion (E), sensing (S) or intuition (N), thinking (T) or feeling (F), and judging (J) or perceiving (P). Each personality type has implications for work habits and interpersonal relationships. 2. List and explain the characteristics of effective 360-degree feedback systems. • The systems should provide reliable and consistent ratings of behaviors or skills • Rater confidentiality is maintained • The behaviors and skills that are assessed are job-related • The system is easy to use • Employees are held accountable to act on the feedback 3. Why do companies develop formal mentoring programs? What are the potential benefits for the mentor? For the protégé? Because mentoring has many benefits, companies develop formal mentoring programs to provide greater access to mentoring programs for greater number of employees. Formal programs also help ensure fair access to mentors regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity. Benefits of mentoring to protégés include: • career support—coaching, protection, sponsorship, and providing challenging assignments, exposure, and visibility • psychosocial support—serving as a friend and role model, providing positive regard and acceptance, and creating an outlet for communication • skill development • higher rates of promotion and higher salaries • greater organizational influence Benefits of mentoring to mentors include: • developing interpersonal skills • increased self-esteem and sense of worth to the company • access to new knowledge in their field 4. Your boss is interested in hiring a consultant to help identify potential managers among current employees of a fast-food restaurant. The manager’s job is to help wait on customers and prepare food during busy times, oversee all aspects of restaurant operations (including scheduling, maintenance, on-the-job training, and food purchase), and motivate employees to provide high-quality service. The manager is also responsible for resolving disputes between employees. The position involves working under stress and coordinating several activities at one time. She asks you to outline the type of assessment program that you believe would do the best job of identifying employees who will be successful managers. What will you tell her? The ideal management assessment program for this type of position would rely heavily on role-plays and leaderless group discussions to assess the potential managers’ ability to motivate employees and skill in handling customer complaints. The assessment program should also have in-basket and scheduling exercises to gauge their ability to handle administrative tasks. Furthermore, personality assessments such as the DISC and MBTI could be utilized to assess work styles and behavioral preferences. 5. Many employees are unwilling to relocate geographically because they like their current community and their spouses and children prefer not to move. Yet employees need to develop new skills, strengthen skill weaknesses, and be exposed to new aspects of the business to prepare for management positions. How could an employee’s current job be changed to develop management skills without having to relocate them? Job rotation could be a viable strategy. Job rotation gives employees a series of assignments in various functional areas of the company. Job rotation helps employees gain an overall appreciation of the company’s goals, increases their understanding of different functions, develops their network, and improves problem-solving skills. Job enlargement could also be employed by adding challenging and new responsibilities to employees’ work. The “two-in-a-box” strategy could be useful whereby two managers are given the same job title and responsibilities and then are allowed to divide the work. The “two-in-a-box” approach helps someone learn from a more experienced employee. 6. What is coaching? Is there only one type of coaching? Explain. Coaching is working with employees to motivate them. There are many ways to coach, involving a combination of providing one-on-one feedback, putting employees in touch with experts, teaching them how to get feedback from others, and putting them in touch with needed resources.. 7. Why should companies be interested in helping employees plan their development? What benefits can companies gain? What are the risks? Employee development is a necessary component of a company’s talent management efforts and can help enhance a company’s competitive advantage. • Development helps high-potential managers understand their strengths, weaknesses, and interests. • Development shows managers how new jobs and expanded job responsibilities help meet their personal growth needs. • Development helps retain valuable managers who might otherwise turnover. • Development is key to ensuring that employees have the competencies necessary to serve customers and create new products. • Development can help increase employee engagement by showing employees that the company is interested in their skill development and developing managers who can create a positive work environment. The risk of investing in employee development is that the employee may leave the organization. In this respect, the organization may not realize a significant return on its investment. Effective HRM practices, however, should help minimize this risk. 8. What are the manager’s roles in a development system? Which role do you think is most difficult for the typical manager? Which is the easiest role? List the reasons why managers might resist involvement in career management. The role of the manager includes: • Helping with assessment to identify strengths, weaknesses, interests, and values. • Communicating performance evaluation feedback; discussing where the employee fits in the company’s long-range plans. • Ensuring that development goals are SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely). • Identifying and helping to secure resources that employees need to reach their development goals. • Providing ongoing coaching for employees. The most difficult for the typical manager may be identifying skill weaknesses. The easiest may be helping the employee to establish development goals. Management has resisted involvement in career management for a number of reasons. • They may believe that it is the responsibility of employees to take ownership of their own careers (and not theirs). • They may feel they don’t have the time. • They may not feel comfortable discussing difficult performance issues with employees. • They may believe they don’t have the expertise. 9. What should be included in a development plan? What do you think is the most important part of the plan for ensuring that employees develop? Explain your choice. Development plans usually include descriptions of strengths and weaknesses, career goals, and development activities for reaching career goals. An effective development plan focuses on development needs that are most relevant to the organization’s strategic objectives and the employees’ professional goals. 10. Should a company identify and formally acknowledge its high-potential managers or should it be kept secret? Should managers know they are considered high-potential managers? Explain your positions. One advantage of formally and openly communicating succession plans is that employees may remain with the organization because they have an understanding of promotion prospects. Another advantage is that high-potential employees who are not interested in other positions can communicate their intentions. The company can then avoid investing resources and have a more accurate picture of its potential future talent. On the flip side, those not on the list may become discouraged and leave the company. Furthermore, employees might not believe they have had a fair chance to compete for leadership positions if they already know that a list of potential candidates has been established. 11. Nationwide Financial, a 5,000-employee life insurance company based in Columbus, Ohio, uses the nine-box grid for its succession review. What type of development plans and activities would you recommend for solid but not outstanding performers with moderate leadership potential? How would these plans differ from employees with high potential and high performance (stars)? Explain. Development plans for solid but not outstanding performers could include a mix of activities designed to help ensure that their solid performance continues. Furthermore, these plans could include experiences that can help individuals grow their skills and determine their interest and ability to perform in positions requiring different skills or more responsibility. Regarding stars, there should be extensive development activities and opportunities to prepare them for leadership positions. 12. Explain the four steps in on-boarding. What should new hires learn at each step? How might social media or the Internet aid the on-boarding process? The four steps of onboarding include: • Compliance—understanding basic legal and policy-related rules and regulations • Clarification—understanding job and performance expectations • Culture—understanding company history, traditions, values, and norms • Connection—understanding and developing formal and informal relationships Social media and the internet might help the onboarding process because new hires could communicate with other employees online. In addition, aspects of new hire training could be conducted online, particularly those components related to compliance. Reference materials could also be put online for employees to access at a later point. While social media and the internet could be utilized, organizations should rely more heavily on “live” social interactions to effectively onboard individuals. 13. What is bench strength? Is it important for companies to have bench strength? Why? How does succession planning influence companies’ bench strength? One goal of succession planning is to enhance “bench strength,” having a pool of talented employees who are ready when needed. It is important to have bench strength because it allows companies to more easily fill upper-level positions internally. Given that succession planning refers to the process of identifying, developing, and tracking high potential employees, it is an effective means to help ensure appropriate bench strength. Chapter Ten Social Responsibility: Legal Issues, Managing Diversity, and Career Challenges Many organizations are concerned with addressing broader social and societal issues in addition to achieving their primary business goals. The training and development function can contribute toward an organization’s social responsibility efforts, and the goal of this chapter is to highlight a number of avenues through which this may be done. For example, this chapter discusses training partnerships with outside organizations, legal issues and workplace diversity, cross-cultural preparation for expatriates, and career challenges. This chapter highlights that training can a have broader impact on individuals, organizations, and society beyond what might be typically recognized and appreciated. OBJECTIVES 1. Discuss the role of training partnerships in developing skills and contributing to local communities. 2. Discuss the potential legal issues that relate to training. 3. Develop a program for effectively managing diversity. 4. Design a program for preparing for cross-cultural assignments. 5. Discuss the importance of career paths and dual career paths for employees and companies. 6. Develop policies to help employees achieve work-life balance. 7. Describe how companies are helping veterans develop skills and get employment. 8. Explain the value of phase retirement programs for older employees. INTRODUCTION Many organizations are concerned with addressing broader social and societal issues in addition to achieving their primary business goals relating to profit and growth. For example, some companies are committed to social responsibility to help improve their communities by protecting the environment, supporting cultural activities, and helping to reduce poverty and unemployment. Companies also have a social responsibility to comply with laws and regulations, and more importantly, take actions and create conditions to help all employees grow and develop, regardless of their background and the career issues they may be facing. The training and development function can contribute toward an organization’s social responsibility efforts, and the goal of this chapter is to highlight a number of avenues through which this may be done. Training Partnerships Sector partnerships refer to government agencies and industry trade groups that help identify skills that local employers require and work with community colleges, universities, and other educational institutions to provide qualified employees. Sector partnerships often focus on jobs that require more than a high school diploma but less than a four-year college degree. Some partnerships may also focus on skills for professional employees such as engineers. Through these partnerships, needs for workforce skills can be met faster than if individual employers worked alone. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act is designed to assist the states in building school-to-work systems that prepare students for high-skill, high-wage jobs or future education. The act encourages partnerships between educational institutions, employers, and labor unions. The act requires that every school-to-work system include work-based learning, school-based learning, and connecting activities to match students with employers and bridge workplaces and classrooms. The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) of 2014 is designed to help job seekers access employment, education, training, and support services and match employers with skilled workers. WIOA is an amendment and reauthorization of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998. The cornerstone of the system is “one-stop” service delivery, which unifies numerous training, education, employment programs into a single system in each community. WIAO streamlines workforce development systems by eliminating existing programs, establishes a common set of metrics for evaluating programs, and provides states with the flexibility to direct funds to develop needed skills. Furthermore, WIAO helps those with disabilities develop skills for employment and improves outreach to out-of-school youth and high school dropouts. Joint Union-Management Programs Historically, joint union-management programs were designed to help displaced employees find new jobs by providing training and outplacement assistance. Today, these programs provide a wider range of services to help employees learn skills that are directly related to their jobs and valuable to employers in other companies or industries. Both employers and unions finance these programs and oversee their operation. LEGAL ISSUES AND MANAGING A DIVERSE WORKFORCE AT HOME AND ABROAD Legal Issues Trainers must ensure they are in compliance with the law and avoid a variety of legal traps. • Failing to provide required training or providing inadequate training. To comply with a range of laws and regulations, companies are required to show that employees have completed training and are transferring new knowledge and skills. For example, companies provide sexual harassment prevention training, health and safety training, etc. • Incurring injuries to employees during a training activity. Workers’ compensation laws in many states make employers responsible for paying employees their salary or providing a financial settlement for injuries incurred in training. • Incurring injuries to employees or others outside a training session The company may liable for injuries or damages resulting from actions of poorly trained employees. This may hold even when training is conducted by an external vendor. Training content and methods should be thoroughly documented. • Incurring breach of confidentiality or defamation. Information placed in employee files regarding training should be accurate. Before managers discuss employee training performance with others or use training performance data for other HRM decisions, employees should be informed. • Reproducing and using copyrighted material without permission. The use of videos, manuals, handouts or any copyrighted material in training without the owner’s permission is illegal. • Excluding women, minorities, and older employees. Women, minorities, and older employees have been denied access to training, which limits opportunities for promotion, career growth, and job security. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964) makes it illegal to make employment decisions on the basis of race, color, religion, gender or national origin. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) prohibits discrimination against individuals over the age of 40. • Not ensuring equal treatment during training. Conditions of the learning environment, such as practice and feedback, should be available to all trainees regardless of their background. Trainees should also avoid jokes, stories, and examples that might be perceived as discriminatory. • Requiring attendance at potentially offensive training. Individuals should not be required to attend potentially offensive training. All State Insurance has been subject to religious discrimination lawsuits by its employees. It was argued by the plaintiffs that training content was on Scientology, which was offensive and counter to their religious beliefs. • Revealing discriminatory information during training. During a diversity training program at a supermarket chain, supervisors were asked to express their stereotypes, which were viewed as discriminatory by some. Practices such as these should be avoided. • Failing to accommodate those with disabilities. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment practices. The ADA defines a disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one’s major life activities. The ADA requires employers to make reasonable accommodation to help individuals perform effectively, unless doing so would create undue hardship. The ADA is intentionally vague in its definitions of disabilities, reasonable accommodation, and undue hardship to allow for case-by-case interpretation. • Incorrectly reporting training as an expense, failing to report training reimbursement as income, or failing to pay employees for attending training. Companies can often deduct the cost of training provided to employees as a business expense, up to certain limits. Reimbursement for training expenses that an employee incurs may be considered part of the employee’s annual income. The Fair Labor Standards Act requires employees to receive compensation for all hours worked. However, there is some ambiguity regarding training. Training should be paid unless four conditions are met—training is outside of regular working hours, training is voluntary, training is not directly related to the employee’s job, and the employee does not perform any productive work during training. Given that these condition are difficult to meet, the majority of training hours should be paid. Managing Workforce Diversity and Inclusion Diversity training refers to learning efforts designed to change employee attitudes about diversity and develop skills needed to work with a diverse workforce. The goals of diversity training are two-fold: • to eliminate values, stereotypes, and managerial practice that inhibit employees’ personal development • to allow employees to contribute to organizational goals regardless of their race, sexual orientation, gender, family status, religious orientation, or cultural background The most common areas addressed in diversity training include the pervasiveness of stereotypes, assumptions, and biases. Research shows that diversity training has a small to medium effect. Greater benefits have been found when there was a positive learning environment, where: • the program was sufficient length for trainees to learn (four hours or more) • managers were used as trainers • trainees interacted face-to-face with the instructor, the content, and other learners using cases and exercises Characteristics associated with a diversity program’s long-term success include: • There is management support and involvement • The diversity program is structured • Business objectives focus on diversity • The program is evaluated using metrics such as sales, retention, and promotion rates • The program is ongoing and not a one-time effort • Different groups are not blamed for problems • Skills needed to successfully interact with others are taught • Managers are rewarded for achieving diversity goals • Managers collect feedback and act on it Melting the Glass Ceiling A major issue facing companies is placing women and minorities in upper-level management positions. The glass ceiling refers to a barrier to advancement that adversely affects women and minorities. This barrier may be due to stereotypes or specific HR practices. HR practices such as flexible scheduling, diversity training, coaching, and mentoring are needed to help break the glass ceiling. CROSS-CULTURAL PREPARATION Because of increased global operations, employees may work outside their country of origin or work with individuals from other countries. An expatriate is someone who works in a country other than his or her country of origin. Cross-cultural preparation educates expatriates and their families for their lives abroad. To successfully conduct business in the global marketplace, employees must understand international business practices and cross-cultural norms. Steps in Cross-Cultural Preparation To succeed overseas, expatriates need to be: • competent in their area of expertise • able to communicate effectively both verbally and nonverbally in the host country • flexible, tolerant of ambiguity, and sensitive to cultural differences • motivated for success, able to enjoy the challenges of a different culture, and willing to learn about the host country’s culture, language and customs • supported by their families for an international assignment Cross-cultural preparation involves three phases—pre-departure, on-site, and repatriation. The key to a successful foreign assignment is a combination of training and career management for employees and their families. Pre-departure The pre-departure phase is the preparatory period before the expatriate leaves the home country. As noted above, it is critical that expatriates and their families receive training in the host country’s language, culture, and norms. Information regarding housing, schools, recreation, shopping, and healthcare also needs to be provided. Furthermore, expatriates must discuss with their managers how the foreign assignment fits into their future career plans. Cross-cultural training methods may include lectures, e-learning, experiential exercises, and immersion experiences. The rigor needed in cross-cultural training depends on three factors: • cultural novelty—the degree of similarity between the home and host country’s culture • interaction—the amount of interaction between expatriates and host country nationals • job novelty—the expatriates’ familiarity with job tasks and work environment in the host country On-Site Phase The on-site phase, in the host country, should involve continued orientation through formal training and mentoring. Expatriates and their families may be paired with an employee from the host country to help them navigate the new terrain. Expatriates should be encouraged to develop social relationships both inside and outside of the workplace. Repatriation Phase The repatriation phase relates to returning to the parent company and home country upon completion of the foreign assignment. Expatriates are likely to experience a high level of stress and anxiety when they return home because of various changes that likely occur. Employees should be encouraged to self-manage the repatriation process. Prior to the assignment, employees should consider what types of skills that want to develop and what positions with the company they would like to pursue. To help them with their return home, expatriates should be brought up to date on national issues, politics, and news stories. Furthermore, expatriates should keep up-to-date on current events at their parent company while on their assignment abroad. CAREER CHALLENGES FACING A MULTIGENERATIONAL WORKFORCE Employees’ careers typically involve four stages—exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline. • Exploration—individuals attempt to identify the type of work that interests and engages them. They consider their preferences and begin pursuing the type of education and training they need. • Establishment—individuals find employment, make an independent contribution, achieve more responsibility and financial success, and establish a suitable lifestyle. • Maintenance—individuals are concerned with keeping their skills up to date and being perceived as someone who is still contributing to the company. • Decline—individuals begin to phase out of work and enter retirement. Although individuals can progress through these stages in a linear fashion, many individuals do not because of today’s boundaryless careers and more frequent career changes. There are likely generational differences in what employees want in their careers. Accordingly, companies need to understand and adapt in order to attract, motivate, and retain a talented multigenerational workforce. • Gen Xers place a high emphasis on work-life balance, opportunities for growth, and good work relationships. • Millennials and Gen Xers are more used to change and job insecurity than Baby Boomers, more likely to leave their jobs, and less likely to learn new skills. • Baby Boomers are loyal to their organizations. Work-Life Balance Maintaining a healthy work-life balance is important for employees of all ages. However, it is often difficult to maintain work-life balance due to long hours, unfavorable shifts, and electronic technology. Specifically, work-life balance refers to helping employees deal with the stresses, strains, and conflicts related to balance work and non-work demands. The Family and Medical Leave Act (FLMA) is a key piece of legislation designed to promote work-life balance. The FMLA allows employees to take up to twelve weeks of unpaid leave in a one-year period to take care of an ill family member, take care of themselves, or for the birth or adoption of a child. Many companies have gone beyond the FMLA by offering telecommuting, compressed workweeks, flextime, and job sharing. • Telecommuting refers to a work arrangement that gives employees flexibility in both work location and hours. • Compressed workweek refers to a work schedule that allows employees to work fewer days but with longer hours. • Flextime refers to giving employees the option of choosing when to work during the workday, workweek, or work year. • Job sharing refers to having two employees divide the hours, the responsibilities, and the benefits of a full-time job. CAREER PATHS AND DUAL CAREER PATHS A career path is a sequence of job positions involving similar types of work and skills that employees pursue. Career paths help companies chart future employment prospects for their employees and help employees determine appropriate training and development needs. Career paths maximize employees’ value to the company and signal to employees that they do not have to leave the company to advance to new positions. Dual Career Path Many companies structure career paths so that individuals advance through the company by moving into management positions. However, not all individuals desire to move into management, but still seek to advance within the organization. For this reason, some organizations have developed dual career path systems, which enable individuals to remain on either an individual contributor path or on a management career path. Effective dual-career paths have several characteristics: • Salary, status, and incentives for individual contributors compare favorably with those of managers. • While individual contributor base salaries may be lower than managers, they are given opportunities to increase their total compensation through bonuses. • The individual contributor career path is not used to satisfy poor performers who have no managerial potential. This path is for employees with outstanding technical skills. • Individual contributors are given the opportunity to choose their career path. CAREER RECYCLING Career recycling involves changing one’s major work activity after being established in a specific field. Recycling is accompanied by a re-exploration of values, skills, interests, and potential employment opportunities. Recycling is not limited to older employees who are nearing retirement. Many companies that face a serious shortage of qualified employees are developing retraining programs to fill labor shortages with employees from other fields. Companies are using these training programs to help recycle employees into new jobs and careers. It is not uncommon for employees who are considering recycling to conduct informational interviews with managers or employees in different fields to gather information about these jobs and potential fit. Job Hopping Job hopping refers to employees changing jobs, usually between companies, every two to three years. Job hopping is prevalent today, especially among the younger generations, as more employees view themselves as “free agents” who must actively manage their own careers. Employees increasingly recognize that they have protean careers, where they must be responsible for their own careers because companies often make them expendable. For employers, job hopping results in a loss of talent, productivity, and higher costs related to turnover, recruitment, and retraining. Furthermore, job hopping makes it difficult to create and sustain a culture that supports relationships between employees and continuity in employee-customer relationships. On the positive side for employers, job hopping does provide companies with the opportunity to hire employees who have a variety of experiences in different companies, which can allow the company to understand best practices. Hiring employees who job hop may increase a company’s flexibility and adaptability because these employees may be capable of quickly learning different jobs. Also, employees who job hop likely have lower expectations for job security, making it easier to downsize if necessary. From an employee perspective, in addition to better pay and growth opportunities, job hopping can provide opportunities to work in a variety of industries, in different-sized companies, and to gain new skills, experiences, and personal contacts. However, individuals may not be staying in any one job long enough to complete important projects, develop personal networks, or gain relevant experience. Companies are unlikely to eliminate job hopping. However, they can reduce job hopping by creating conditions for employee engagement, providing employees with growth opportunities, and offering incentives and rewards for good performance. COPING WITH CAREER BREAKS Both men and women face major problems returning to work after taking several months or years off. These challenges are particularly prevalent for those in the armed services who return to civilian jobs. Returning troops may face a number of challenges finding employment or returning to their previous jobs. These challenges stem from. • lack of experiences in the workplace • incomplete skill sets and educational credentials • difficultly working in less structured situations • psychological and physical challenges Veterans are known to possess many positive characteristics that make them desirable to employers, such as attention to detail, self-discipline, problem solving, decision making in stressful situations, and teamwork. The Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Act covers deployed employees’ rights, such as guaranteeing jobs when they return, except under certain circumstances. As such, employers must accommodate the rights of service personnel. COPING WITH JOB LOSS Research suggests that layoffs do not result in improved profitability, have mixed effects on productivity, and have adverse effects on morale and commitment among “survivors.” As such, companies should first seek alternative ways to reduce head count and lower labor costs. These alternatives may include asking employees to work fewer hours, offering early retirement plans, delaying wage increases, and deciding not to fill openings created by turnover and retirements. That said, sometimes layoffs are inevitable, and efforts should be taken to reduce their potential negative effects. In particular, companies should provide outplacement services, which should include: • Advance warning and an explanation for the layoff • Psychological, financial, and career counseling • Assessment of skills and interests • Job seeking services, such as resume writing and interviewing training • Job banks where job leads are posted • Electronic delivery of job openings, self-directed career management guides, and interest inventories MEETING THE NEEDS OF OLDER WORKERS Older employees are a significant portion of the labor force. That said, what technically is an older worker? • The ADEA provides protection for individuals once they reach the age of 40 • Mandatory retirement ages exist in certain occupations (air traffic controllers = 56, pilots = 65, federal law enforcement = 57) • Professional football players are considered old at 30 • Retirees today can receive full social security benefits at 65 (or reduced benefits beginning at 62) Older employees do not have higher absenteeism rates, nor are they likely to put in less effort. Older employees are as productive as younger employees, and they have valuable experience. However, they do require more training in technology and prefer hands-on learning. Companies can take several steps to meet the needs of older employees. • Provide flexibility in scheduling to allow older employees to take care of sick spouses, travel, or work fewer hours. • Ensure older employees receive training to avoid obsolescence and learn new technology. • Provide resources and referrals to aid in health care. • Offer assessments and counseling to help older employees recycle their careers or move to different positions. • Recognize that as older employees’ physical and mental abilities decline, they can rely on experience and motivation. • Ensure younger employees do not hold inappropriate stereotypes about older employees. Preretirement Socialization Preretirement socialization is the process of helping employees prepare to exit from work. These efforts typically include: • Psychological aspects of retirement, such as developing personal interests and activities • Housing, including a consideration of transportation, living costs, and proximity to medical care • Maintaining a healthy lifestyle during retirement, including nutrition and exercise • Healthcare plans • Financial planning, insurance, and investments • Estate planning • The collection of benefits from company retirement plans and social security Many companies are also using phased retirement and alternative work arrangements to help employees make the transition into retirement while at the same time continuing to use their talents. Retirement Retirement involves leaving a job and making the transition to life without work. For some employees, retirement involves seeking full-time or part-time employment elsewhere or recycling into another career. Employees tend to be retiring at later ages today. Recent changes in the social security system have led to no mandatory retirement ages for most jobs, and financial need had led to more individuals working longer. The aging workforce and the use of early retirement programs to shrink companies’ workforces have three implications: • Companies must meet the needs of older employees. • Companies must take steps to prepare employees for retirement. • Companies must be careful that early retirement programs do not unfairly discriminate against older employees. Early Retirement Programs Early retirement programs offer employees financial benefits to leave the company. These programs are usually part of the company’s strategy to reduce labor costs without having to lay off employees. To avoid costly litigation, companies need to make sure that their early retirement programs contain the following features. • The program is part of the employee benefit plan. • The company can justify age-related distinctions for eligibility for early retirement. • Employees are allowed to choose early retirement voluntarily. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What is a sector partnership? Why is it important? Provide an example of a sector partnership. Sector partnerships refer to government agencies and industry trade groups that help identify skills that local employers require and work with community colleges, universities, and other educational institutions to provide qualified employees. Sector partnerships often focus on jobs that require more than a high school diploma but less than a four-year college degree. Some partnerships may also focus on skills for professional employees such as engineers. Through these partnerships, needs for workforce skill can be met faster than if individual employers worked alone. (A number of examples are presented in the text.) 2. Assume you were asked to investigate whether a police officer training adequately covered the use of force. What would you review? Would you look at any data? It is important that such training addresses the adequate use of force, as using too much force may result in injury or legal action against a police department. To determine whether training adequately covered the use of force, one could examine existing training materials and needs assessment data to determine what levels of force are appropriate. These standards could be benchmarked relative to other similar training programs. When assessing the program itself, one could examine whether there was sufficient coverage of the standards, relevant exercises (including role plays), and exams or quizzes on the material. Finally, one could examine the number of complaints regarding force to help determine whether a problem currently exists. 3. Explain the relationship between “managing diversity and inclusion” and “diversity training.” Which is most effective? Why? Diversity training refers to learning efforts that are designed to change employee attitudes about diversity and/or develop skills needed to work with a diverse workforce. Managing diversity and inclusion is more comprehensive than diversity training. As such, one could argue that managing diversity and inclusion is more effective. Diversity training important and can be subsumed under the broader umbrella of managing diversity and inclusion. 4. How would you prepare a team of three managers to go to Warsaw, Poland, to oversee the operations of a recently acquired financial services firm? They will be leaving in one month, and the assignment lasts two years. To prepare the managers for the assignment, training could focus on cultural differences between the home country and Poland, basic language skills, and information on living abroad (e.g., information about housing, schools, recreation, shopping, and health care facilities. The managers would also need some training in the work customs and habits of the host company. The managers should discuss with their superiors how the foreign assignment fits into their career plans and what types of positions they can expect upon their return. 5. What should companies do to develop talented women to take top management positions? Provide support for your recommendations. • Garner top management support for promoting and developing talented women. • Provide access to training to help women advance their careers. • Pair talented women with key mentors. • Provide challenging development assignments so women can enhance their skill sets. • Provide training to help eliminate gender stereotypes. 6. How are career paths useful for employees? How can they contribute to company effectiveness? A career path is a sequence of job positions involving similar types of work and skills that employees move through in the company. Career paths help companies offer career options to their employees that help them make job choices that best fit their life situations. Furthermore, career paths help companies build employee skills throughout a series of jobs or roles. Career paths maximize employees’ value to the company and show that employees do not have to leave the company to move to new positions. 7. What is job hopping? Which career challenges might a company focus on to reduce job hopping? Job hopping refers to employees changing jobs, usually between companies, every two to three years. Job hopping is prevalent today, especially among the younger generations, as more employees view themselves as “free agents” who must actively manage their own careers. Companies are unlikely to eliminate job hopping. However, companies can reduce job hopping and attract and retain talented employees by creating conditions for employee engagement, providing employees with growth opportunities, and offering incentives and rewards for good performance. 8. What advantages and disadvantages might a company gain by using phased retirement? Phased retirement can benefit both companies and their employees. It can help companies cope with the shortages of skilled employees in the labor market. It provides a source of income for employees who have seen the value of their retirement funds decrease during the economic recession. On the flip side, the use of phased retirement plans is complicated by regulations regarding taxation of retirement benefits and concerns about continued health care coverage (e.g., there is no legal definition of phased retirement, and the tax code has few regulations for how to offer phased retirement within a defined retirement benefits plan). 9. What are work-life programs? How are they related to work-family programs? What are some of the challenges in developing and using work-life programs? Work-life programs aim to promote work-life balance via reduced working hours, job sharing, telecommuting, compressed work, and personal time. Work-family programs include practices such as paid/unpaid elder care leave, flexible spending accounts for dependent care, and elder care resources. Work-family programs can be subsumed under work-life balance programs; they are just more narrowly focused on specific family issues. There are several challenges with the use of work-life balance policies. The first challenge is using them to help employees achieve work-life balance without hurting business needs such as customer service and productivity. Second, managers need to understand and accept the idea that employees should not be punished for use of work-life balance policies. Third, it is important to ensure that work-life balance practices are accessible to everyone and meet the needs of all employees, not just those with families. 10. How could you help the survivors of a downsizing remain motivated and productive? Which of your recommendations is most important? Explain why. Survivors are more likely to view layoffs as fair if employees are asked to cut costs to avoid layoffs, if the factors used to decide whom to lay off are applied equally to individual contributors and management employees, advance notice is provided, and clear and adequate explanations are given. Survivors need to be trained to deal with increased workloads and job responsibilities due to the consolidation and loss of jobs. The company also needs to provide survivors with realistic information about their future with the company. Providing an explanation for the layoffs and treating laid off employees fairly, may also reduce “survivor guilt.” Chapter Eleven The Future of Training and Development This chapter discusses how the training and development function will evolve in the future. It is critical to have an understanding of future trends in this area, for they will have a great effect on training design, delivery, and evaluation. The trends discussed in this chapter include the continued influence of new technologies, neuroscience as it relates to learning, rapid instructional design, intellectual capital and social learning, and just-in-time learning, among others. As the final chapter in the text, it provides the student with a forward looking view of the training and development function. OBJECTIVES 1. Identify the future trends that are likely to influence the training departments and trainers. 2. Discuss how these future trends may impact training delivery and administration as well as the strategic role of the training department. 3. Discuss how rapid instructional design differs from traditional training design. 4. Discuss the advantages of embedded learning. 5. Discuss how training can contribute to a company’s sustainability initiative. 6. Discuss the implications of cloud computing for learning, training, and development. INTRODUCTION This chapter takes a look at what the future of training and development might look like and highlights numerous innovations in the field. Key trends include: • Need to contribute to sustainability • Use of new technologies for training delivery and instruction • Breakthroughs in neuroscience for learning • Greater emphasis on speed in design, content, and focus • Increased emphasis on capturing and sharing intellectual capital and social learning • Increased use of just-in-time learning and social support • Increased emphasis on performance analysis, big data, and learning for business enhancement • Increased use of stakeholder-focused learning partnerships and outsourcing TRAINING FOR SUSTAINABILITY Sustainability refers to a company’s ability to make a profit without sacrificing the resources of its employees, community, or the environment. A growing number of companies have made sustainability an important part of their business strategy. Training can contribute to companies’ initiatives by providing learning opportunities for employees in organizations in developing countries that lack the resources, providing development experiences for employees in poor and emerging countries that benefit the local community, and teaching employers to protect the environment. INCREASED USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES FOR TRAINING DELIVERY Wearables (Smartwatches, Bands, Smart Eyewear) Outside of the training context, a Fitbit is an example of a “wearable” that allows individuals to track their daily fitness activity. Wearables are just beginning to be developed for training and performance support solutions. For example, Wearable Intelligence provides smart eyewear and camera technology that gives employees hands-free, voice activated access to procedures and checklists, live access to experts, the opportunity to review best practice videos, and real-time notifications and alerts. This technology may be useful for training in many respects. • It can provide access to live experts. • It can be used to easily access resources and reference materials. • It can help monitor transfer of training. • It can be used to assess training needs. • It can be used to track compliance with training—whether employees have completed specific training modules. Wireless Tablet-Based Technology Player Lync, a training software company, has invented wireless tablet-based technology. This technology shrinks video and documents with integrated, interactive messaging to miniscule sizes and delivers them quickly and automatically. This technology is beginning to be used for training retail, construction, and restaurant teams. Augmented Reality Augmented reality refers to a live direct or indirect view of a physical, real-world environment whose elements are supplemented by computer-generated sound, video, or graphics. Augmented reality can allow a learner to enter books, magazines, and training rooms to experience them in 3D as in real life. Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence will become even more human-like and accessible at a lower cost. Amelia is a computer who learns from textbooks, transcriptions of conversations, and e-mail chains. Programmers have tried to provide her with the human ability to think to help automate tasks. While not alive, she does have three emotional states—arousal, dominance, and pleasure—that are activated by how customers communicate with her. These emotions affect her decision-making in dealing with customers. Robots with artificial intelligence will increasingly provide performance support or entirely replace employees in repetitive jobs. Tin Can API (or Experience API) The Tin Can API (or Experience API) is a specification for learning technology that makes it possible to collect data about an employee or a team’s online and face-to-face learning experiences. The Tin Can API allows the collection of data based in the reality that learning occurs everywhere using different methods (e.g., simulations, virtual worlds, serious games, and social collaboration), through real world experiences, and through formal training. Gamification The use of games and mobile learning is likely to increase as companies seek to make training fun, maximize the learning experience, and appeal to Millennials. Gamification often includes short interactive lessons, is available at learners’ fingertips, and allows learners to ask their peers questions, share experiences, and seek advice. The gamification experience might include simulations that learners can explore in a three-dimensional environment. BREAKTHROUGHS IN NEUROSCIENCE ABOUT LEARNING Advances in neuroscience are increasing researchers’ ability to study the brain and its functioning. These advances are leading to a better understanding of how we learn, which can be used to design more effective training. For example, researchers have shown that whether an idea can be easily recalled is linked to the strength of activating the hippocampus, located in the lower section of the brain, during a learning task. The stronger the hippocampus is stimulated during learning, the greater the recall of the idea. Research on the hippocampus has identified the conditions that are necessary for learning to occur, which include attention, generation, emotion and spacing. From a training perspective learners have to eliminate distractions, they need to make their own connections to new ideas, and they need some but not overwhelming emotional stimulation. Long-term recall is better when we learn information over several different time periods rather than all at once. INCREASED EMPHASIS ON SPEED IN DESIGN, FOCUS IN CONTENT, AND USE OF MULTIPLE DELIVERY METHODS The traditional training design model has been criticized for its linear approach and the time needed to design and deliver programs. Rapid instructional design (RID) is a group of techniques that allows training to be built more quickly. It modifies the traditional training design model that consists of needs analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. There are two important principles in RID: • The instructional content and process can be developed independently of each other. • Resources that are devoted to design and delivery of instruction can be reallocated. Design includes everything that happens before the training experience; delivery is what happens during the training experience. Some common examples of RID strategies include: • Developing a learning system instead of an instruction system • Using shortcuts where appropriate • Combining or skipping different steps of the process • Adapting existing materials • Developing instruction around job aids and performance support Managers are demanding training courses that are shorter and that focus only on necessary content. Training departments will be expected to reduce the number of courses that do not directly address a business need. INCREASED EMPHASIS ON CAPTURING AND SHARING INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL AND SOCIAL LEARNING Sharing knowledge and contributing to the company’s intellectual capital is going to become more collaborative given the continued advances in social networking technology. Social learning refers to learning with and from others, which can occur face to face or through online technology. By sharing ideas, information, and experiences, we can learn more with others than we can alone. Given the importance of informal learning, social learning will continue to become more important. INCREASED USE OF JUST-IN-TIME LEARNING AND TRUE PERFORMANCE SUPPORT Companies are moving away from courseware and classes as a performance improvement method. Instead they are focusing on true performance support that is available during work. Just-in-time learning (or embedded learning) refers to learning that occurs on the job as needed. It involves collaboration and non-learning technologies such as instant messaging. Just-in-time learning may become increasingly prevalent when it is not possible for employees to attend classroom instruction or spend hours on online learning that is not directly relevant to their current job demands. Just-in-time learning products include task-specific, real-time content, and simulations that are accessible during work, and it includes real-time collaboration in virtual workspaces. Wireless technology is connecting employees directly to business processes. One vision of the future is that employees will be presented with short learning episodes embedded in their work, be alerted when the learning episodes are needed, have direct connections to experts, be continuously connected online wirelessly, and have simulations for guidance. Another vision is that the personal computer will be a hub that allows employees to share data and access training content and subject matter experts just in time. INCREASED EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS, BIG DATA, AND LEARNING FOR BUSINESS ENHANCEMENT Because of an increasing focus on contributing to the company’s competitive advantage, training departments will have to evolve. Training departments must shift the focus from training as the solution to business problems to a performance analysis approach. A performance analysis approach involves identifying performance gaps or deficiencies and examining training as one possible solution. Training departments will need to be involved in performance analysis in three ways. • Focusing on interventions related to performance improvement • Providing support for high-performance work systems • Developing systems for training administration, development, and delivery that reduce costs and increase employee access to learning. As more companies move to high-performance work systems, training departments will need to provide training in interpersonal, quality, and technical skills and in ways so employees understand all aspects of the customer-service or production system. Just-in-time learning is many companies’ answer to quick learning and the quick application of learning to the business. Because of the trend toward learning as a way to enhance business performance, companies have started to purchase learning management systems (LMSs) that provide training administration, development tools, and online training. LMSs are moving from providing and tracking training to a broader focus on talent management. LMSs will include more career planning tools to help connect employees with many different development resources. LMSs can also include performance evaluations which can be used to identify skill gaps. Cloud computing refers to a computing system that provides information technology infrastructure over a network in a self-service, modifiable, and on-demand context. Cloud computing allows groups to work together in new ways, enhances productivity by allowing employees to more easily access information, and provides greater access to large company databases. Workforce analytics tools, training and development programs, and social media resources will be more easily accessible and available for use. Furthermore, cloud computing can make it easier for employees to access training programs from a variety of sources allowing for just-in-time training delivery. Finally, cloud data can be used to store learning data in a “warehouse” that can be easily accessed to analyze trends and for use in demonstrating the business impact of training. The emerging interest in big data related to training will continue to grow. Big data involves collecting data about users’ activities, analyzing or mining the data to identify patterns and trends, and understanding how these patterns and trends link to business goals. Big data can be useful for identifying how employees learn, who the experts and leaders are in social networks, and what type of instruction lead to positive reactions from learners and results. INCREASED USE OF STAKEHOLDER-FOCUSED LEARNING PARTNERSHIPS AND OUTSOURCING Chapter 2 addressed the importance of making learning, training, and development strategic by ensuring that it supports the business strategy and the needs of different stakeholders. The emphasis on strategic learning will continue as companies recognize that competitive advantage can come from developing human capital and providing learning services. One important decision will not be whether to outsource training, but how much. Organizations continue to outsource training to help employees acquire specialized expertise, gain access to best practices, and achieve cost savings. Barriers between business and educational institutions make it difficult for many employees to update needed skills for their current jobs or future opportunities. A lifelong learning system can provide better opportunities for more people to develop their skills for multiple jobs and careers over their lifetimes. Trainers will need to identify partners for outsourcing who can deliver effective training solutions, particularly technology-based learning solutions in which they lack internal expertise. One type of training outsourcing involves the use of an application service provider (ASP), a company that rents out access to software for a specific application. The major benefit of using an ASP is that company resources are not used to purchase or maintain an internal network or intranet. Companies save the costs associated with building, renting, or maintaining a training facility. IMPLICATIONS OF FUTURE TRENDS FOR TRAINERS’ SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES The following are key skills and competencies needed for trainers now and in the future. • Matching training content and methods to the local culture of the workplace • Designing learning space and content in technology-driven environments • Use of multimedia tools • Delivering and packaging training in different formats for beginners and experts • Use of assessments to determine trainees learning styles • Developing search-and-identify technologies so employees can find information when they need it • Facilitating learning and staying in touch with employees, managers, and business units for their learning needs • Being a change agent • Developing learning that is integrated with the job • Integrating social media into learning • Identifying root causes of job and business problems DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss how new technologies are likely to impact training in the future. Do you think this will lead to more or less effective training? Explain your answer. There will likely be an increase in new training technologies as they become more readily available, cheaper, and higher quality. More training will be done via such technology, reducing the need (to an extent) for live one-on-one instruction and classroom training. Training will become more independent, and trainees will have more information and resources at their disposal. In some respects, these advances in technology will make training better because training will be more readily accessible, and there will be more innovative ways to deliver training content. Moreover, new technology can make training more individualized in that it can address an employee’s unique learning needs. On the downside, technology removes much of the human element in training, which is potentially problematic as many individuals prefer “live” instructional delivery. 2. What new skills will trainers need to be successful in the future? Trainers will need to develop a variety of new skills in order to be successful in the future: • Matching training content and methods to the local culture of the workplace • Designing learning space and content in technology-driven environments • Use of multimedia tools • Delivering and packing training in different formats for beginners and experts • Use of assessments to determine trainees learning styles • Developing search-and-identify technologies so employees can find information when they need it • Facilitating learning and staying in touch with employees, managers, and business units for their learning needs • Being a change agent • Developing learning that is integrated with the job • Integrating social media into learning • Identifying root causes of job and business problems 3. What is rapid instructional design? How does it differ from the traditional training design model discussed in Chapter 1? (See Figure 1.1.) Rapid instructional design (RID) refers to a group of techniques that allows training to be developed more quickly. RID modifies the training design model that traditionally focuses on needs analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. RID strategies are built around two important principles. One principle is that instructional content and process can be developed independently of each other. The second principle is that resources for design and delivery of instruction can be reallocated as appropriate. Design includes everything that happens before the training experience. Delivery is what happens during the training experience. For example, if a company has limited access for training delivery, extra time could be allocated to the design process. 4. How does the use of a learning management system better link training to business strategy and goals? Because of the shift from learning as the primary outcome toward learning as a way to enhance business performance, companies have started to purchase learning management systems (LMSs) to provide training administration, development tools, and online training. LMS software contains learning analytics that can track learning activity and costs and can relate learning results to product revenues or sales goals. As such, the use of a LMS better links training to business strategy and goals. 5. What is cloud computing? How does it enable just-in-time training delivery? Cloud computing refers to a computing system that provides information technology infrastructure over a network in a self-service, modifiable, and on-demand context. Cloud computing allows groups to work together in new ways, enhances productivity by allowing employees to more easily access information, and provides greater access to large company databases. Workforce analytics tools, training and development programs, and social media resources will be more easily accessible and available for use. Furthermore, cloud computing can make it easier for employees to access training programs from a variety of sources allowing for just-in-time training delivery. Finally, cloud data can be used to store learning data in a “warehouse” that can be easily accessed to analyze trends and for use in demonstrating the business impact of training. 6. How will social learning and social networks influence employee expectations about learning, training, and development? Social learning refers to learning with and from others. We can learn from others in face-to-face interactions occurring in classrooms, conferences, and group meetings, as well as online using social media. By sharing ideas, information, and experiences, we can learn more with others than we can alone. Social networking platforms will be part of learning management systems. These advances will allow managers to determine which learning content is in most demand and apply content developed by social network contributors in formal training courses. Social learning via shared workspaces, social networks, and wikis will supplement traditional training, encouraging employees to learn from each other, trainers, other work experts. 7. Explain the excitement about using big data related to learning, training, and development. What’s the usefulness of big data? Big data involves collecting data about users’ activities, analyzing or mining the data to identify patterns and trends, and understanding how these patterns and trends link to business goals. Big data can be useful for identifying how employees learn, who the experts and leaders are in social networks, and what type of instruction lead to positive reactions from learners and results. 8. How can training contribute to a sustainability initiative? Sustainability refers to a company’s ability to make a profit without sacrificing the resources of its employees, the community, or the environment. A growing number of companies have made sustainability an important part of their business strategy. Training and development can contribute to companies sustainability initiatives by providing learning opportunities for employees in organizations in developing countries that lack the resources, providing development experiences for employees in poor and emerging countries that benefit the local community, and teaching employers to protect the environment. 9. How is program design being influenced by neuroscience research? Advances in neuroscience are increasing researchers’ ability to study the brain and its functioning. These advances are leading to a better understanding of how we learn, which can be used to design more effective training. For example, researchers have shown that whether an idea can be easily recalled is linked to the strength of activating the hippocampus, located in the lower section of the brain, during a learning task. The stronger the hippocampus is stimulated during learning, the greater the recall of the idea. Research on the hippocampus has identified the conditions that are necessary for learning to occur, which include attention, generation, emotion and spacing. From a training perspective learners have to eliminate distractions, they need to make their own connections to new ideas, and they need some but not overwhelming emotional stimulation. Long-term recall is better when we learn information over several different time periods rather than all at once. 10. What are wearables? How might they be useful for training and learning? Outside of the training context, a Fitbit is an example of a “wearable” that allows individuals to track their daily fitness activity. Wearables are just beginning to be developed for training and performance support solutions. For example, Wearable Intelligence provides smart eyewear and camera technology that gives employees hands-free, voice activated access to procedures and checklists, live access to experts, the opportunity to review best practice videos, and real-time notifications and alerts. This technology may be useful for training in many respects. • It can provide access to live experts. • It can be used to easily access resources and reference materials. • It can help monitor transfer of training. • It can be used to assess training needs. • It can be used to track compliance with training—whether employees have completed specific training modules. Solution Manual for Employee Training and Development Raymond Andrew Noe 9780078112850, 9781259539367, 9780071267786