CH-8 Language, Thinking, And Reasoning – Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding : Exam Guide

Chapter 8: Language, Thinking, and Reasoning Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following statements about language is true? A. It is symbolic. B. It can be written, spoken, or signed. C. It is capable of an infinite set of meaningful utterances. D. All of the above Answer: D 2. The authors provide a brief conversation between two students discussing tickets for a game. The inferences we make about this discussion indicate that A. the ways in which language can be interpreted are extremely limited. B. our ability to understand “slang” is very limited because it is a cognitively taxing event. C. most language use is quite literal. D. our ability to understand language requires implicit skills in accessing knowledge and interpreting phrases. Answer: D 3. Newspaper headlines, such as “Killer Sentenced to Die for Second Time in 10 Years,” may strike us as funny. From the perspective of language, this is because the phrase or headline A. lacks subject-verb agreement. B. has no literal interpretation. C. has ambiguous syntax. D. is impossible to interpret. Answer: C 4. As symbol systems of communication, most languages A. are arbitrary in the relationship between words and meaning. B. do not have concepts that are unique to just one particular language. C. can be translated to another without impaired meanings of complex concepts. D. generally match sounds to the meaning of words. Answer: A 5. Language is A. a communication system that requires little implicit processing. B. rarely ambiguous. C. a symbol system of communication. D. a communication system that includes words, but not gestures. Answer: C 6. Carl is reading the newspaper and laughs when he sees the headline “Drunk Gets Nine Months in Violin Case”. From the perspective of language, Carl most likely finds this humourous because the phrase or headline A. lacks subject-verb agreement. B. has ambiguous syntax. C. has no literal interpretation. D. has ambiguous word interpretations. Answer: D 7. Much of our language use serves non-informational purposes, such as A. maintaining social relationships. B. telling the barista that we want a skim latte. C. providing directions to an event. D. advising a friend what time to show up at a party. Answer: A 8. We often do not consider the complexity of language. This is in part because A. our use of language is generally automatic. B. language acquisition requires little practice. C. language acquisition is easy. D. humans do not often consider complex phenomena. Answer: A 9. The level of analysis of language that focuses on the sounds people use when then speak and listen is called A. morphemes. B. phonemes. C. syntax. D. semantics. Answer: B 10. The level of analysis of language that focuses on the smallest units of meaningful speech is called A. morphemes. B. phonemes. C. syntax. D. extralinguistic. Answer: A 11. The level of analysis of language that focuses on how words are combined to form sentences is called A. morphemes. B. phonemes. C. syntax. D. extralinguistic. Answer: C 12. Dr. Doolittle is studying the order in which children around the world learn to make the speech sounds used in their native languages, to see if there are common patterns. Dr. Doolittle's approach to the analysis of language is at the level of A. morphemes. B. phonemes. C. syntax. D. extralinguistic. Answer: B 13. Mado is sad that she has lost the French-Canadian that her French-Canadian parents spoke in her childhood. She knows many French-Canadian words, but she has forgotten how to put them together into real French-Canadian sentences. Mado seems to have a problem with French-Canadian A. morphemes. B. phonemes. C. syntax. D. extralinguistic information. Answer: C 14. What are the basic units of sound that compose the words in a language? A. Lingmemes B. Morphemes C. Phonemes D. Anomias Answer: C 15. Phonemes are A. the basic rules of grammar. B. the basic brain structures. C. the basic units of meaning. D. the basic units of sound. Answer: D 16. Consider the English word "rereading." Which of these is one phoneme in that word? A. “read” B. “re” C. “r” D. “rea” Answer: C 17. The smallest units of speech that contain meaning are called A. lingmemes. B. morphemes. C. phonemes. D. anomias. Answer: B 18. Consider the English word "rereading." Which of these is one morpheme in that word? A. Reading B. Re C. R D. Rea Answer: B 19. Basic units of sound are called _______________; basic units of meaning are called _______________. A. phonemes, syntax B. phonemes, morphemes C. morphemes, phonemes D. morphemes, syntax Answer: B 20. Almost all words in any language contain more _______________ than _______________. A. phonemes, syntax B. phonemes, morphemes C. morphemes, phonemes D. morphemes, syntax Answer: B 21. A study of morphemes shows the first words babies learn to speak in any language typically refer to A. actions they enjoy doing (eat, run, play). B. how things look or feel (red, big, hot). C. how they feel (hungry, frightened, lonely). D. specific objects or people (mama, doggie, truck). Answer: D 22. The analysis of how words are combined together to form grammatical sentences and phrases is at the level of A. morphemes. B. phonemes. C. syntax. D. semantics. Answer: C 23. Syntax is the study of A. the meanings of words and phrases. B. the basic sounds of a language. C. how words are combined into sentences. D. developing more effective computer languages. Answer: C 24. Which of these levels of analysis is most directly related to the fact that "the boy ate the chicken" and "the chicken ate the boy" mean very different things? A. Morphemes B. Phonemes C. Syntax D. Extralinguistic information Answer: C 25. The English language has _______________ phonemes. A. no more than 15 B. more than 100 C. between 60 and 75 D. between 40 and 45 Answer: D 26. Language is based on universal sound units called A. phonemes. B. morphemes. C. semantics. D. registers. Answer: A 27. How many morphemes are there in the sentence “I predicted it”? A. 4 B. 6 C. 5 D. 7 Answer: C 28. You are learning Russian in preparation for a trip next summer. Although you are doing a good job recognizing the written signs you need to know, you are having trouble with the sounds of the Russian language. Which of the following aspects of language is giving you trouble? A. Phonemes B. Morphemes C. Syntax D. Semantics Answer: A 29. The system of rules that governs how we assign meaning to the morphemes we use is called A. semantics. B. syntax. C. phonology. D. regularization. Answer: A 30. The system of rules that governs how we combine words to form grammatical sentences is called A. semantics. B. syntax. C. phonology. D. regularization. Answer: B 31. The basic meaningful units of any language are called A. phonemes. B. morphemes. C. semantics. D. registers. Answer: B 32. The sounds t, th, and sh are A. phonemes. B. morphemes. C. semantics. D. registers. Answer: A 33. What are the smallest units of meaning in a language? A. Phonemes B. Morphemes C. Semantics D. Registers Answer: B 34. When speakers of English add “ed” to a verb to indicate past tense, they are applying A. a dialectical marker. B. a prefix. C. a morpheme. D. a phoneme. Answer: C 35. Which of the following is not one of the four levels of analysis that we use in producing language? A. Phonemes B. Morphemes C. Semantics D. Syntax Answer: C 36. Hawaiian words tend to consist of repetitions of only a few phrases (such as kakahiaka for morning) because the language contains a very small number of _______________. A. phonemes B. morphemes C. grammatical rules D. phonesthemes Answer: A 37. _______________ is to putting together a meal as _______________ is to menu items. A. Phonesthemes; phonemes B. Syntax; morphemes C. Morphemes; phonemes D. Syntax; phonemes Answer: B 38. From the following items, which is the best example of syntax? A. A textbook B. A conversation C. PowerPoint bullets D. A lecture Answer: A 39. In most cases, the rules of syntax A. are the same across different languages. B. are rarely followed in real-world language. C. are perfectly applied in conversation. D. are the same across different dialects. Answer: B 40. According to the Cross-Linguistic Table 8.2 in your book, which phoneme is distinct in Arabic but not English? A. R and L B. K and Kh C. D and T D. S and Z Answer: B 41. The term dialect is used to indicate A. variations of a language that follow no structural patterns. B. distinct and different languages found in the same country. C. language forms that share a common origin, but that have varied pronunciation, vocabulary, and syntax. D. language forms that are based on another language, but that do not have a syntactic structure of their own. Answer: C 42. Rosario lives in southern Italy and Genero lives in northern Italy. Both speak Italian and can understand each other, but their language varies according to their geographical areas. What feature of language reflects these variations? A. Phonesthemes B. Syntax C. Dialect D. Extralinguistic information Answer: C 43. Mike is from British Columbia and Mary Ann is from Nova Scotia. Mike sometimes makes fun of Mary Ann’s “maritime accent” and the way she pronounces certain words. In this example, Mike is noticing differences in _______________. A. syntax B. dialect C. morphemes D. phonesthemes Answer: B 44. Your friend sends you a text message on your cell phone that says “This is just horrible!” In order to interpret what your friend is meaning, you often need _______________ to help you understand what is going on. A. phonesthemes B. syntax C. extralinguistic information D. dialect Answer: C 45. Email can often lead to misunderstandings. This is because A. people misspell more often with email than with pen-and-paper writing. B. of decreasing literacy levels. C. most people read email more rapidly than other written forms. D. it lacks extralinguistic information. Answer: D 46. Although extralinguistic information is not a formal part of language, it does serve the purpose of A. generally providing entertainment value, which captures our attention. B. assisting in interpretation. C. distracting us from the emotional aspects of communication. D. providing literal and factual information. Answer: B 47. Extralinguistic information allows us to determine meaning by analyzing A. phonetics. B. grammar. C. context. D. added morphemes. Answer: C 48. Our co-worker says, “It's awful in here.” To understand what she means, we must A. examine the morphemes in the statement to determine the smaller units of meaning in the sentence. B. ignore nonverbal cues so that we are not distracted. C. parse the grammatical structure of her comment. D. take into account extralinguistic information, such as location and facial expressions. Answer: D 49. Language requires tremendous resource use on the part of the brain. For this reason, _______________ theorists believe that language must offer adaptive advantage. A. evolutionary B. cognitive C. psychoanalytic D. behaviourist Answer: A 50. A key difficulty in explaining how language evolved is the _______________ phonemes, words, and rules of syntax. A. rigidness and uniformity of B. consistency of C. resemblance of meaning to D. arbitrariness of Answer: D 51. Successful communication A. rarely requires nonverbal information from the speaker. B. depends mainly on the literal and accurate interpretation of words. C. depends exclusively on language content. D. depends on the reasoning abilities of the listener. Answer: D 52. Using the word hee-haw to describe the sound that a donkey makes is an example of A. a morphological marker. B. anomia. C. onomatopoeia. D. a dialect. Answer: C 53. The textbook authors note that the word for mother in most languages begins with an “m” or “n” sound. They speculate that this may be because A. they all derive from the Latin word mater. B. these are the most common phonemes in all languages. C. all languages have the same origin. D. these phonemes tend to be the first that children acquire. Answer: D 54. Words that use the “sn” sound sequence and are nose-related, such as sneeze, snort, snooze, and snot are referred to as A. onomatopoeia. B. morphemes. C. phonemes. D. phonesthemes. Answer: D 55. A collection of words such as slide, slip, slick, slid, sled, and slippery are an example of _______________. A. phonemes B. morphemes C. holophrases D. phonesthemes Answer: D 56. Juanita read the children’s story No Such Things repeatedly to her daughter Aliquandra when she was in the womb. Once Aliquandra was born, Juanita noticed that her daughter sucked on her pacifier much more when she would read No Such Things to her relative to other stories. What is the best explanation for why this occurs? A. Babies prefer novel stimuli and tend to pay less attention to stories that they have heard repeatedly. B. Babies can hear inside the womb and are able to recognize songs or stories once they are born. C. Babies respond to the sound of their mother’s voice only, and do not show preference for stories. D. Babies prefer melodic sounds relative to other noise and display more activity to rhyming stories. Answer: B 57. The best predictor of whether someone will achieve fluency in a second language is A. the simplicity of the second language's structure. B. IQ. C. motivation. D. age of acquisition. Answer: D 58. Using the _______________ paradigm, researchers have found that infants can recognize sounds to which they were exposed in utero. A. Cat in the Hat B. habituation C. high-amplitude sucking D. auditory cliff Answer: C 59. Babies can hear inside the womb A. no earlier than the seventh month. B. by the fifth month. C. only after the sixth month. D. by the second month. Answer: B 60. Newborn infants show a preference for A. their mother's native language. B. the English language. C. any language if it is spoken by a familiar voice. D. the Spanish language. Answer: A 61. Which of the following provides the strongest support for both the nature and nurture sides of language acquisition? A. All babies have the innate capacity for language in the brain, but are dependent on the environment to be able to express and produce any speech sounds or words. B. Without attention and reinforcement from their parents, babies would fail to develop language past the point of non-specific babbling sounds. C. All babies initially share the same basic phoneme categories, regardless of their parents’ native language, but only use phonemes specific to the language they have heard by about 10 months of age. D. Babies cannot process speech sounds and noise until approximately 5 months of age as their temporal lobes and auditory cortices are still forming and developing neural connections. Answer: C 62. Jack is a 10-month old, and smiles every time his mother says words such as Mommy, puppy, bottle, blankie, and teddy. He also has learned to point at the object that is associated with the words she speaks, however he has not yet been able to say the words himself. What does this example tell us about language acquisition? A. Production precedes comprehension B. Comprehension precedes production C. Recognition precedes comprehension D. Production precedes recognition Answer: B 63. Babies engage in intentional vocalizations that sound meaningful, but are not. This is referred to as A. babbling. B. holographic speech. C. telegraphic speech. D. two-word utterances. Answer: A 64. Which of the following stages in language development occurs at 2 months? A. Cooing B. Syllables C. Reduplicative babbling D. Conversational babbling Answer: A 65. Which of the following stages in language development occurs at 6 months? A. Cooing B. Syllables C. Reduplicative babbling D. Conversational babbling Answer: C 66. Which of the following stages in language development occurs at 10 months? A. Cooing B. Syllables C. Reduplicative babbling D. Conversational babbling Answer: D 67. By the end of the first year of life, an infant will generally A. speak in two-word “sentences.” B. be in the cooing stage of vocalization. C. have a vocabulary of approximately 100 words. D. use only the phonemes of the native language of his or her caregiver. Answer: D 68. _______________ are grammatical elements that modify words by adding sounds to them that change their meaning (such as adding s for plural). A. Syntax B. Dialectical qualifiers C. Phonesthemes D. Morphological markers Answer: D 69. Which of the following represents the most accurate statement about how children learn language? A. Most children recognize their own names as early as two months. B. Reduplicative babbling precedes the syllables stage of vocalization. C. Children can produce many more words than they can understand. D. Comprehension of words precedes production. Answer: D 70. Maria uses the single word cookie to convey the entire thought of “I want a cookie.” Maria is using the word cookie during the _______________ stage. A. babbling B. monolingual C. homonym D. one-word Answer: D 71. Children acquire most syntactic rules by _______________, and continue to acquire more complex rules as they develop. A. around 10 months old B. about 1 year of age C. 2 years of age D. preschool age Answer: D 72. Penny has begun to use words such as “daddy play” and “soft kitty” to express herself. Penny is in what stage of speech production? A. Morphemes B. One-word stage C. Two-word phrases D. Generative speech Answer: C 73. All of the following are true of sign language, except A. it features generativity. B. there is one universal form of sign language. C. it uses both iconic and non-iconic signs. D. there are complex syntax structures. Answer: B 74. When people are bilingual, speaking two or more languages, how will they respond when given personality tests in the two languages? A. They will respond more securely in their first language. B. Their responses will be the same in either language. C. They will show more friendliness in their second language. D. They will reflect the culture of the language they are using. Answer: D 75. Which of the following is true with respect to the brain areas associated with spoken and signed language? A. Sign language is associated with activation of Wernicke’s area but not Broca’s area. B. Sign language is associated with use of brain areas that concern visual and spatial processing only. C. Both spoken and sign language show activation of the “language areas” of the brain, and sign language also relies on visual and spatial processing areas. D. People who use sign language show much greater activation of visual and spatial processing areas than those who use spoken language alone. Answer: C 76. Which of the following is false with respect to language development in deaf babies? A. Deaf babies acquire their first “words” (signs) much later than hearing babies. B. Deaf babies pass through the same stages of syntactic development as hearing babies. C. Deaf babies engage in babbling behaviour with their hands rather than vocally. D. Deaf babies born to hearing parents may be slightly delayed if the parents do not know how to sign. Answer: A 77. All of the following are myths about sign language, except A. deaf babies babble with their hands. B. American Sign Language translates word-for-word to spoken English. C. signing has a negative effect on a deaf child's ability to speak. D. because they can lip-read, deaf people do not need to learn sign language. Answer: A 78. One of the key difficulties in studying how deaf infants acquire language is A. the small population size. B. having similar learning conditions between deaf and hearing babies. C. differences in how babies babble. D. that deaf babies do not learn syntax. Answer: B 79. Henry hears German spoken in his home, but he is exposed only to English in school. It is likely that Henry A. will fail to experience difficulties in either language. B. will have difficulties in vocabulary, but not syntax. C. will shown metalinguistic deficits. D. will have improved metalinguistic ability. Answer: D 80. The case of Genie and her failure to acquire meaningful language ability best supports A. metalinguistic deficiency. B. the nativist approach. C. the critical period theory. D. the limitations of bilingualism. Answer: C 81. Dr. Speecher wants to examine whether there are differences in language development between bilingual and monolingual children. He found that bilingual children do show some delay in _______________ but do not demonstrate impairments in _______________. A. vocabulary development; syntax B. phonestheme development; vocabulary C. syntax; vocabulary development D. vocabulary; phonestheme development Answer: C 82. Which of the following individuals would most likely be able to learn a second language more easily than the others? A. 27-year old Zeke who speaks Italian and is trying to learn Spanish. B. 14-year old Carlos is trying to learn English and has only spoken Spanish until that point. C. 9-year old Chantelle speaks French and needs to learn Japanese because her family is moving to Japan. D. 5-year old Luca is an English speaker being taught German as a second language. Answer: D 83. Susan would like for her child to learn a second language. If she wants the child to be fluent in the second language, research suggests that she should begin instruction no later than age A. five. B. three. C. ten. D. seven. Answer: D 84. _______________ provide(s) an example where children appear to develop their own system of communication that are often a combination of basic language components and invented components. A. Cryptophasia B. Homesign C. Phonesthemes D. Covert speech Answer: B 85. Language acquisition in humans is typically marked by a(n) _______________ period, rather than a _______________ period. A. holographic; cryptophasic B. sensitive; critical C. phonemic; morphemic D. imitative; generative Answer: B 86. Some believe that twins often share a secret and distinct language. Research suggests that A. the secret language of twins is referred to as homesign. B. Cryptophasia is a true phenomenon for roughly half of all twins studied. C. most twins develop language more quickly than singletons, leaving them free to develop new languages. D. twins may be more susceptible to language delays, which appear to some observers as distinct language forms. Answer: D 86. Which of the following negates a purely behaviourist view of language acquisition? A. Observational learning B. Generativity C. Social pragmatics D. Operant conditioning Answer: B 87. The language acquisition device is to _______________ as the social environment is to _______________. A. the nurturist view; the nativist view B. the social pragmatics account; the imitation account C. the nativist view; the social pragmatics account D. the imitation account; the nativist account Answer: C 88. Allowing an infinite number of unique sentences to be created from combining our symbols in novel ways refers to A. semanticity. B. generativity. C. displacement. D. syntax. Answer: B 89. The _______________ account of language acquisition posits that children are born knowing how language works. A. nurturist B. nativist C. environmentalist D. gestaltist Answer: B 90. This account of language acquisition posits that children infer what language means based on the context, including interactions with others. A. Social stigmatics B. Social pragmatics C. Nativist D. Nurturist Answer: B 91. While it offers compelling explanations for language development, the most significant shortcoming of the nativist account is A. its emphasis on extralinguistic information. B. that it is unfalsifiable. C. the emphasis on neurophysiology. D. it does not address generativity. Answer: B 92. A major debate that goes on with respect to how infants learn their first language deals with A. whether experience and learning have any important effect. B. the relative importance of genetic inheritance and experience. C. how many languages children are able to learn at one time. D. whether genetic inheritance has any important effect at all. Answer: B 93. Learning theories for the acquisition of language emphasize the importance of A. differences between animal communication and real language. B. an inborn ability to learn and use language. C. our experience with language. D. health in teaching children to speak. Answer: C 94. Learning theories for the acquisition of language would agree with the importance of which of the following statements? A. No other animals can use a real language in any way. B. The language we speak depends on what verbal skills are reinforced. C. Humans have an inborn ability to learn and use language. D. Children develop pragmatics without direct instruction. Answer: B 95. The fact that parents often repeat a baby's sounds into proper English supports which theory of language acquisition? A. Biological B. Learning C. Transformational D. Transitional Answer: B 96. Language acquisition theories that emphasize the importance of biology and genetic inheritance all claim that A. children must be carefully taught to speak to be healthy. B. humans have an inborn ability to learn and use language. C. no other animals can use a real language in any way. D. the language we speak does not depend on our experience. Answer: B 97. A language acquisition device (LAD) is A. an innate, unique capacity to acquire and develop language. B. a technique used by the Gardners to train Washoe to use sign language. C. a mechanical device that enhances the spoken word for hard-of-hearing infants. D. a procedure that all infants must go through in the acquisition of language. Answer: A 98. All of the following are true about children's use of language except: A. Language is innate in children. B. Children are born with a predisposition for language. C. Language acquisition in children is purely biologically based. D. Children are reinforced for their language behaviour. Answer: C 99. The key to understanding language acquisition is to A. consider the structure of the language. B. study the context in which language is learned and used. C. concentrate on the biological basis of language. D. analyze the way a child learns language. Answer: B 100. Based on animal and human research, the following may be said about language development: A. A child is pre-wired for language acquisition. B. The importance of the social setting in which it is used cannot be underestimated. C. A child must have correct language usage reinforced. D. All of the above Answer: D 101. The imitation account's primary weakness is that A. it does not account for generativity. B. it overemphasizes brain structures. C. it does not allow for the effects of social context. D. children only mimic language if reinforced. Answer: A 102. According to the _______________ account, children can deduce meaning of words they do not understand by inferring meaning from the context. A. social pragmatics B. imitation C. general cognitive processing D. nativist Answer: A 103. According to famed linguist Noam Chomsky, humans have an innate ability to understand and produce language through a device he called A. Syntax Synthesizer (SS). B. Grammar Grabber (GG). C. Language Acquisition Device (LAD). D. Language Learning System (LLS). Answer: C 104. There are specific areas of the brain that are specialized for processing language. This fact supports the view of language acquisition that emphasizes the importance of A. classical conditioning. B. innate biological factors. C. illness and nutrition. D. operant conditioning. Answer: B 105. The area of the brain involved in speech comprehension is A. the parietal lobe. B. Broca's area. C. the hippocampus. D. Wernicke's area. Answer: D 106. The area of the brain involved in speech production is A. the parietal lobe. B. Broca's area. C. the hippocampus. D. Wernicke's area. Answer: B 107. The conclusions regarding language in chimpanzees can be summarized by saying that A. chimp language will be meaningless until they learn to speak. B. some chimps have developed a fully human language. C. there is no evidence for real language in chimps at all. D. chimps are making us think carefully about language. Answer: D 108. In nonhuman animals, the most common circumstances under which communication occurs are A. mating and food distribution. B. feeding and labour. C. aggression and mating. D. hunting and food distribution. Answer: C 109. Dr. Wigdeed studies the use of alarm calls in a population of vervet monkeys. She presents the monkeys with different types of predators (e.g., leopard, snake, hawk) and records their vocalizations. What should Dr. Wigdeed expect to find when she analyses the alarm calls? A. Vervet monkeys only produce alarm calls for the most threatening of the predators. B. Vervet monkeys use different alarm calls for different predators. C. Vervet monkeys use the same alarm call for all different types of predators. D. Vervet monkeys do not produce alarm calls, but only calls specific to mating and aggression. Answer: B 110. Which of the following provides an example of animal communication that goes beyond situations concerning mating and aggression? A. Facial expressions and slapping the ground in chimpanzees. B. Male songbirds producing specific songs. C. A wildcat barring its teeth at an intruder. D. The waggle dance of honey bees. Answer: D 111. The key reason why psychologists are interested in whether parrots or chimpanzees can learn different aspects of language is because A. we want to ask them what their inner experiences are like. B. it would help us train them more quickly and efficiently. C. we get tired of just talking to other people all the time. D. it relates to how much language is controlled by biology. Answer: D 112. Early attempts to teach chimpanzees to talk were complete failures, primarily because A. the researchers didn't use scientific conditioning methods. B. chimpanzees lack the physical ability to produce spoken speech. C. nothing—even the earliest attempts achieved real successes. D. the chimpanzees used were not of the proper species. Answer: B 113. Studies using sign language or lexigram boards to teach chimpanzees language have found that A. chimpanzees are able to associate symbols to meaning very quickly. B. chimpanzees can combine words into complex forms, but never master syntactic rules. C. chimpanzees often focus their communicative efforts on abstract concepts. D. chimpanzees communicate better using vocal sounds than symbols and pictures. Answer: B 113. Which two animal species demonstrate language learning that resembles human learning the most? A. Bonobos and African Grey Parrots B. Vervet Monkeys and Chimpanzees C. Squirrels and Canaries D. Finches and Bonobos Answer: A 114. Based on animal and human research, the development of language in human children is A. a product of reinforcement only. B. in part innate and in part reinforced. C. innate. D. a role of physiology. Answer: B 115. Research has found some success in both _______________ and _______________ in learning language that follows similar pathways as human language acquisition. A. chimpanzees; parrots B. vervet monkeys; honey bees C. parrots; bonobos D. finches; chimpanzees Answer: C 116. Honeybees communicate through A. the waggle dance. B. the release of pheromones. C. touching antennae. D. changing pitch of buzzing. Answer: A 117. The communication between honeybees would not be classified as language because A. bees are not animals. B. bee communication seems to be instinctual. C. bees do not use a spoken or auditory communication system. D. their communication lacks semanticity. Answer: B 118. In order to conclusively show that animals do use language, one would have to demonstrate that A. the language had an auditory, or sound, component. B. the animals have the same vocal abilities as people. C. the language used arbitrary symbols. D. the language had a genetic or instinctual base. Answer: C 119. Which of the following is NOT an animal that has been taught to produce behaviour that some think is language-like? A. Armadillos B. Bonobos C. Parrots D. Chimpanzees Answer: A 120. In studies of attempts to teach chimpanzees language, researchers have found that A. children master syntax later than chimpanzees. B. chimpanzees are similar to human children in requiring few trials to associate signs with meaning. C. chimpanzees frequently engage in naming behaviours. D. chimpanzees do not get faster when learning new words. Answer: D 121. If you wanted to teach a nonhuman animal to communicate using language, which of the following animals does research suggest would be the best choice? A. Chimpanzees B. Bonobos C. Gorillas D. Parakeets Answer: B 122. John B. Watson speculated that thinking operates as a form of _______________ speech, which he referred to as covert speech. A. internal B. intimate C. holographic D. cryptophasic Answer: A 123. Helen Keller's writings suggest support for A. the imitation approach. B. linguistic relativity. C. critical periods. D. linguistic determinism. Answer: D 124. Studies that have demonstrated the ability of infants to engage in cognitive performance tests (such as looking and sucking procedures) provide evidence that A. infants do not appear to show any ability to engage in cognition prior to acquiring language. B. thought processes in infants are reflective of a linguistic determinism view. C. linguistic determinism does not accurately reflect our language or cognitive abilities. D. infants can engage in basic forms of cognition, but this delays language development. Answer: C 125. An early experiment on subvocal language in which curare was used to immobilize the test subject did not rule out the possibility of linguistic determinism. This is because A. the study was not replicated. B. language may be simulated mentally, rather than being subvocal. C. the study violated ethical guidelines. D. the subject still had limited use of facial muscles. Answer: B 126. Recent research using PET scans has found that _______________, as evidenced by patterns of brain activation. A. the linguistic determinism approach is correct B. the linguistic relativity approach is correct C. the linguistic determinism approach is incorrect D. the linguistic relativity approach is incorrect Answer: C 127. The view that language defines our thinking reflects what approach to language? A. Linguistic determinism B. Sapir-Wharf hypothesis C. Linguistic relativity D. General cognitive processing account Answer: A 128. Research findings concerning which of the following do not support the Sapir- Whorf hypothesis? A. Colour categorization tasks across cultures B. Memory recall across different languages C. Spatial classification according to native language D. Cross-language differences in perception Answer: A 129. Research on the relation between cognition and language suggests that A. language shapes all aspects of perception, thought, and memory. B. language cannot affect thinking and memory. C. some aspects of thinking are more vulnerable to language influence than others. D. cultures that have only two “colour” words, dark and bright, cannot distinguish other colours. Answer: C 130. According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, a person's native language dictates A. the understanding of syntax. B. the speed with which the language is acquired. C. the length of the critical period. D. their thinking processes. Answer: D 131. The ways different people think about and perceive the world is most strongly affected by A. the different types of food they eat. B. the different cultures in which they live. C. the different climates in which they live. D. the different languages they speak. Answer: B 132. In the 1950s, a linguist named Benjamin Whorf proposed that thought and language are related in that the language we speak A. is directly affected by how we think. B. may reflect something about how we think. C. directly determines how we think. D. may be affected somewhat by how we think. Answer: C 133. Current beliefs about thought and language can be summarized by saying that A. the language we speak completely determines how we think. B. the way we are trained as children controls our language. C. there is really no relationship between thought and language. D. our culture and experiences shape the language we use. Answer: D 134. Imagine a society in which people spoke a language with only two words for animals: animals with four feet, and animals with more than four feet (insects, spiders, etc). What would Benjamin Whorf predict about those people? A. They should be more open to the animals' true natures. B. They should perceive and think about animals differently. C. They should have a lower intelligence than other people. D. They should show more fear of multi-legged animals. Answer: B 135. The Dani language has only two words for colour ("light" and "dark"), but the Dani are just as good at recognizing and remembering different colours as North Americans are. This is strong evidence against A. the idea that artistic talent is genetically determined. B. the belief that colour is an important cognitive process. C. the racial prejudices against the Dani people. D. the hypothesis that language determines thought. Answer: D 136. Our sensitivity to and memory for odours could be used as an argument against Benjamin Whorf's hypothesis about thought and language, because A. most languages have many more odour words than English. B. we are so bad at recognizing and remembering odours. C. odours are described very differently in different languages. D. we can distinguish many more odours than we can name. Answer: D 137. What do we call the hypothesis that language influences what we think? A. The dynamic hypothesis B. The language reaction hypothesis C. The linguistic relativity hypothesis D. The cognitive linguistic hypothesis Answer: C 138. The linguistic relativity hypothesis suggests that A. one’s language determines the pattern of one’s thinking and view of the world. B. one’s thinking and view of the world determines the structure of one’s language. C. we decide which objects belong to a concept according to what is most probable or sensible, given the facts at hand. D. perception of surface structure precedes deep structure in understanding a sentence. Answer: A 139. A famous lecturer argues that because the Hopi Indians have only two nouns for things that fly, one for birds and another for non-birds, the Hopi must interpret all flying things in terms of these two nouns. This argument is based on A. the idealized prototype construct. B. bottom-up processing. C. deep structure elaboration. D. the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Answer: D 140. Researchers have found that _______________ influenced by culture. A. neither language nor thought is B. language, but not thought, is C. thought, but not language, is D. both language and thought are Answer: D 141. Researchers have found that despite the number of colour names in a language, the basic abilities to perceive colour are unchanged. This finding would be troublesome for the theory of A. Piccard and Worf. B. Sapir and Whorf. C. Skinner and Watson. D. Tolman and Thorndike. Answer: B 142. Neetu attempts to identify correctly the colours in the Stroop task interference list, but has difficulty doing so. This illustrates A. colour-blindness. B. that cognitive load is unimportant. C. the tendency to recognize colours before words. D. the automaticity of language. Answer: D 145. In which of the following circumstances would the person be least susceptible to interference on the Stroop task? A. 33-year old Nancy who has a lot of difficulty both reading and writing B. 15-year old Saul who spends more time reading comics than textbooks C. 6-year old Nathan who is an avid reader for his age D. 26-year old Justine who is doing her Ph.D. in linguistics Answer: A 146. To demonstrate the automaticity of language, participants performing the _______________ task must suppress their attention to printed words to identify the colour of the ink. A. Stroop B. Sapir-Wharf C. phonetic decomposition D. framing Answer: A 147. In order to become experts at reading, which two skills do we need to utilize? A. Vocabulary development and syntax B. Phonemes and grammatical rules of speech C. Phonetic decomposition and whole word recognition D. Prereading and a broad lexicon Answer: C 148. Which of the following words would present the most difficulty when using phonetic decomposition? A. Pleasure B. Bit C. Livid D. Tight Answer: A 149. All children must learn how language moves in order to be able to read. For a child learning to read Hebrew, there must be an awareness that language moves A. top to bottom. B. bottom to top. C. from left to right. D. from right to left. Answer: D 150. Hannah read nursery rhymes to her daughter Kristine very frequently when she was an infant. As Kristine develops, what would you expect regarding her reading skills? A. Frequent exposure to rhymes will increase Kristine’s awareness of phonemes and she will likely be an early reader. B. While Kristine may be better at speaking, her reading skills would be unaffected by rhymes. C. Kristine would be really good at phonetic decomposition but poor at whole word recognition. D. Kristine’s development of reading skills may be impaired because when her mother reads to her all the time, she does not need to make the effort to read herself. Answer: A 151. In order for 5-year old Zane to learn to read Japanese, he must have an awareness that the language moves A. top to bottom. B. bottom to top. C. from left to right. D. from right to left. Answer: A 152. In order to a child to be “reading ready,” they must be able to do all of the following except A. understand that language moves in a particular direction. B. learn to recognize phonesthemes. C. learn that printed letters correspond to specific sounds. D. recognize that writing is meaningful. Answer: B 153. Prereading requires that children are able to do all of the following except A. master phonetic decomposition. B. understand that writing is a symbol for meaningful concepts. C. recognize the alphabet. D. understand the correspondence between letters and sounds. Answer: A 154. Research on speed-reading courses indicates that A. the faster we read, the better able we are to retain attention to the text. B. comprehension is not negatively impacted. C. comprehension suffers greatly. D. speed is completely unrelated to comprehension. Answer: C 155. Alfred is taking a 7-day alphanetics course that claims it will increase the rate at which he reads to approximately 2,000 words per minute. Based on the research presented in your text, what will happen to Alfred’s comprehension of the material he is reading so fast? A. His comprehension will be low, and he will likely not understand more than 50% of what he read. B. His comprehension will be somewhat higher than when he reads at normal speeds. C. His comprehension will be dramatically improved because rate of reading and comprehension are positively correlated. D. There is no correlation between speed-reading and reading comprehension, so his comprehension will remain unchanged. Answer: A 156. It is possible to increase both our reading speed and comprehension, as long as our speed does not exceed _______________ words per minute. A. 100 B. 200 C. 300 D. 400 Answer: D 157. Which of the following slows down the rate of reading, and subsequently, reading comprehension? A. Bilingualism B. Subvocalizing C. Telegraphic speech D. Prereading Answer: B 158. Behaviourists attempted to explain thinking in the narrow terms of A. remembering and feeling. B. believing and deciding. C. feeling and perceiving. D. stimulus and response. Answer: D 159. One explanation for schizophrenia holds that person with schizophrenia have difficulty in filtering their attention. This is best related to the concept of A. chunking. B. cognitive economy. C. schema development. D. top-down processing. Answer: B 160. June is trying to read her psychology text, and finds that she cannot tune out background noise of the library, the way the chair is uncomfortable on various parts of her body, the hum of the heating vents, pencil scribbles on the desk, the light on the computer plug that flashes, the whir of her laptop fan, and her own breathing. It could be said that June lacks _______________ that would allow her to only attend to the information she needs for decision making and minimize the rest. A. bottom-up processing B. schemas C. cognitive economy D. disconfirmation strategies Answer: C 161. The brain's tendency to streamline our thinking processes by use of pre-existing knowledge is referred to as A. top-down processing. B. taxonomic construction. C. inductive reasoning. D. bottom-up processing. Answer: A 162. Which of the following is not an example of top-down processing? A. Phonetic speech B. The Stroop effect C. The automaticity of reading D. Chunking information Answer: A 163. Allan is a birdwatcher, and when he sees a new flying creature one day while on a walk, he does not need to discover that it flies, chirps, and eats worms and bugs to recognize that it is a bird. Allan is using _______________ to help him achieve cognitive economy and categorize his world. A. top-down processing B. schemas C. taxonomic hierarchies D. ad hoc reasoning Answer: B 164. The fact that individuals from Mexico easily categorize avocadoes as a fruit and Western Europeans do not reflects the idea that A. what we consider to be typical of a category depends on our cultural and social experience. B. categorizations are independent of previous knowledge and experience. C. familiarity with an item increases use of cognitive schemas and mental shortcuts. D. taxonomic hierarchies are dependent on basic features of a category and may result in mis-categorization. Answer: A 165. Because our snap judgments are probably “good bets,” the tendency to use heuristics and intuition might be considered A. a maladaptation. B. a failure of cognitive miserliness. C. adaptive. D. too risky to use. Answer: C 166. John Gottman and his colleagues were able to predict divorce rates of couples with startling accuracy using techniques related to the concept of A. linear regression. B. the availability heuristic. C. cognitive load. D. thin slicing. Answer: D 167. Larry is out at a local market canvassing people to contribute to an environmental cause. He comes across a woman who looks very aggravated and stressed-out, and decides not to approach her. According to the types of cognitive economies we use, Larry would be engaging in _______________ to make his decision. A. ad hoc categories B. fast and frugal thinking C. taxonomic hierarchies D. scripts Answer: B 168. Following a severe bus accident in British Columbia where all passengers and the driver were killed, Dwayne decides that it would be safer to drive than take the bus on his next several trips through the mountains. Dwayne is basing his decision on the A. representativeness heuristic. B. hindsight bias. C. confirmation bias. D. availability heuristic. Answer: D 169. Many people drew faulty conclusions about the relative safety of air travel compared to automobile travel in the wake of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. Such poor reasoning was the result of A. hindsight bias. B. mental sets. C. the availability heuristic. D. thin slicing. Answer: C 170. _______________ refers to the process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives. A. Mental set B. Decision making C. Heuristics D. Thin slicing Answer: B 170. Imagine that you see an advertisement for a new cell phone that gives you coverage across 80% of Canada. However, if you reword the offer, you realize that you would have no cellular coverage in 20% of Canada. This example highlights how _______________ influence(s) our decision making. A. mental set B. heuristics C. framing D. algorithms Answer: C 171. Which of the following is not a hurdle to solving problems? A. Functional fixedness B. Salience of surface similarities C. Mental sets D. Taxonomic hierarchies Answer: D 172. When attempting to solve a problem, we are often distracted by _______________ rather than focusing on the underlying reasoning needed to solve the problem. A. the hindsight bias B. thin slicing C. mental sets D. the salience of surface properties Answer: D 173. If I am given 10 math problems, and I can and do solve the first nine in the same way, I may struggle with the tenth problem if it requires a different method to solve it. This best illustrates the concept of A. the salience of surface properties. B. mental sets. C. thin slicing. D. hindsight bias. Answer: B 174. The tendency to perceive and approach problems in the same ways that have worked in the past is called A. the salience of surface properties. B. mental sets. C. thin slicing. D. hindsight bias. Answer: B 175. My exposure to the typical use of objects in my culture may render me less able to find novel solutions to problems. This is referred to as A. availability heuristic. B. mental sets. C. functional fixedness. D. salience of surface characteristics. Answer: C 176. Susan’s car gets stuck in the snow, and no matter what she tries, her tires just keep spinning as she can’t get any traction underneath her tires. She looks at the items in her trunk (crackers, her school books, some windshield washer fluid, and some kitty litter) and is frustrated because she doesn’t seem to have anything to help her out of her situation. Susan is displaying _______________ as she did not think of using kitty litter to sprinkle under her tires to help with traction. A. a mental set B. functional fixedness C. the availability heuristic D. the hindsight bias Answer: B 177. Tom is baking banana bread, and the recipe calls for half a cup of margarine. When he realizes that he does not have any margarine, he gives up baking rather than using a substitute. His method of thinking reflects A. an algorithm. B. mental set. C. surface salience. D. functional fixedness. Answer: A 178. _______________ are step-by-step learned procedures that are useful for problem solving but are not flexible to adaptation. A. Algorithms B. Mental sets C. Frames D. Schemas Answer: A 179. The most widely used analogy for our mind’s ability to process information, fill in gaps, and draw inferences has been the A. wax seal model. B. subterranean cavern model. C. language acquisition device. D. computer model. Answer: D 180. Which of the following is not one of the features of thought that our brains enable us to do? A. Generate creative solutions B. Assign tasks to pre-learned algorithms that can be re-run many times C. Attend to different aspects of a situation on different occasions D. Switch gears Answer: B 181. According to _______________, our knowledge is organized and accessed in a manner that enables us to simulate our actual experiences. A. artificial intelligence models B. schema models C. general cognitive processing models D. embodiment models Answer: D Critical Thinking Questions 1. The case of Genie allows us to draw few conclusions about language development. Discuss the obstacles to such understanding relevant to this case. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. Because Genie was reared in isolation, her case presents particular challenges. We cannot exclude rival explanations for her failure to learn to speak fluently. On one hand, her case supports the notion of a critical period of language development, as she was discovered at the age of 13, having had little exposure to language. Because she was not “activated” during this critical period, she never acquired a meaningful ability to speak or read. However, her lack of language development could also have stemmed from social isolation, as well as abuse. The case of Genie presents several obstacles to drawing conclusions about language development. First, her extreme social isolation and abuse may have led to atypical cognitive and linguistic development. Second, ethical considerations limit experimental manipulation and data collection. Finally, the complexity of language acquisition makes it difficult to isolate specific causes or generalize findings from such a unique and traumatic case. 2. Outline the nature of sign language, including the nature of its linguistic structures. Describe three common myths held by the general public with respect to sign language. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. Sign Language was developed by the deaf community to exchange visual rather than auditory messages, and is a linguistic system of communication with its own phonemes, words, syntax, and extralinguistic information. There are several forms of sign language, including American, French, Nicaraguan, etc., and they each consist of the regular components of real language. Many signs are iconic in nature (they resemble things to which they refer, e.g., drink). Myth 1: Deaf people can lip-read. Myth 2: Learning sign language will slow children’s ability to speak. Myth 3: Sign language is translated word-for-word from English. Sign language is a visual-gestural communication system used primarily by Deaf communities. It has complex linguistic structures with grammar, syntax, and semantics similar to spoken languages. Common myths include: 1) Sign language is universal, 2) Sign language is a simplified version of spoken language, and 3) All Deaf people are fluent in sign language. 3. Students asked to solve the “tumour problem” after exposure to the “fortress problem” often failed to do so without priming. Explain why this occurred. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. The salience of surface features distracted students from realizing the underlying similarities of the two problems. This occurred due to cognitive fixation or mental set, where students were anchored on the solution strategy used for the fortress problem. Without priming or a cue to shift their approach, they struggled to adapt their thinking to solve the different tumour problem effectively. Essay Questions 1. Compare and contrast the four theoretical accounts of language acquisition. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain a general reflection of the following main points for full credit. The Imitation Account. The simplest explanation of children’s language learning is that they learn through imitation. Babies hear language used in systematic ways and learn to use language as adults use it. This is certainly true in one sense, because babies learn the language they hear. Behaviourists took this account one step further by arguing that babies don’t just imitate what they hear, but imitate what they’re reinforced for saying (Skinner, 1953). But a purely imitation-based explanation can’t be completely right for one reason: Language is generative. Generativity means that language isn’t just a set of predefined sentences that we can pull out and apply in appropriate contexts. Instead, it’s a system that allows us to create an infinite number of sentences, producing new statements, thoughts, and ideas never previously uttered. The fact that even very young children use language in generative ways—producing sentences or combinations of words they’ve never heard—means they’re producing things for which they were never directly reinforced, refuting a purely behavioural view. The Nativist Account. The strongest nature view is the nativist account, which says that children come into the world knowing how language works. Nativists propose that children are born with syntactic rules that determine how sentences are constructed (Chomsky, 1972). Noam Chomsky, who essentially invented the field of contemporary linguistics, even hypothesized that humans possess a specific language “organ” in the brain that houses these rules. He called it the language acquisition device, and argued that it comes pre-programmed to enable children to use language. A key weakness of the nativist view is that many of its claims are unfalsifiable. Critics have pointed out that children learn syntax gradually and that even adults use grammatically incorrect sentences. The nativist could reply that different aspects of grammar take more or less time to “set,” and that ungrammatical sentences don’t imply lack of knowledge of grammar. These are certainly reasonable explanations, but the theory’s weakness is that it’s hard to think of an outcome that nativists couldn’t explain. As we’ve noted in earlier chapters, a theory that can explain every conceivable outcome in essence explains nothing. The Social Pragmatics Account. The social pragmatics account suggests that particular aspects of the social environment help structure language learning. According to this account, children use the context of a conversation to infer its topic from the actions, expressions, gestures, and other behaviours of speakers. Children can figure out word meaning in this type of situation as early as 24 months of age (Tomasello, Strosberg, & Akhtar, 1996). Still, this account has its weaknesses. Explaining child language on the basis of social understanding requires us to assume that infants understand an awful lot about how other people are thinking. In addition, we can explain most social pragmatic abilities without requiring as much insight on the part of the child (Samuelson & Smith, 1998). For example, social pragmatic theorists might say that children learn to infer meaning from pointing by inferring the speaker’s intentions. Alternatively, children might use a simpler process; they might notice that every time their caretakers point to a specific object, they utter the same word. In this way, children may infer that where someone is pointing is correlated with word meaning. This deduction doesn’t require children to take into account the social context or communicative intentions of others. The General Cognitive Processing Account. Another explanation for how children learn language is the general cognitive processing account. It proposes that children’s ability to learn language is a result of general skills that children apply across a variety of activities. For example, children’s ability to perceive, learn, and recognise patterns may be all they need to learn language. If so, there’d be no need to propose a language acquisition device as Chomsky did. Still, there are challenges to the general cognitive processing account. One is that children are better at learning languages than adults, whereas adults are better at learning things in general. Another is that specific areas of the brain (see Chapter 3), especially the left temporal lobe (see Figure 8.4), are more active in language processing than in other types of learning, memory, and pattern recognition activities (Gazzaniga, Ivry,&Mangun, 2002). This finding implies that at least some distinct cognitive processes occur during language, but not during other cognitive activities. The four theoretical accounts of language acquisition—behaviorism, nativism, interactionism, and sociocultural theory—differ in their emphasis on environmental input versus innate biological factors, as well as the role of social interaction. Behaviorism focuses on learning through reinforcement and imitation, while nativism emphasizes innate language structures. Interactionism integrates both environmental and biological factors, while sociocultural theory highlights the influence of social and cultural context on language development. The four theoretical accounts of language acquisition are behaviorism, nativism, interactionism, and social interactionism. Behaviorism emphasizes learning through imitation and reinforcement, while nativism posits innate biological mechanisms for language learning. Interactionism integrates environmental and biological factors, highlighting both interaction with caregivers and internal cognitive processes. Social interactionism emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in language development, focusing on joint attention and scaffolding by caregivers. 2. Theoretical perspectives seeking to explain the development of language fall within both nature and nurture orientations. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of the nature-based perspectives, as well as those based on nurture. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. • Nature: Children appear to have inborn ability for syntax and vocalisation, which supports the nativist account, specifically Chomsky's language acquisition device. Brain structures, such as Broca's area and Wernicke's area, are specific to language production and comprehension, respectively. Stages of language development, such as babbling appear to be relatively universal in terms of the developmental timeline. Also, children, unlike adults, appear to be able to recognise and produce phonemes from languages other than that of their parents. A weakness is the lack of falsifiability of the nativist account. • Nurture: Children mimic, especially if reinforced. Specifics of acquisition vary according to culture and native language exposure. Over time and unless they learn a second language, children lose the ability to recognise and produce phonemes from languages other than that used by their caregivers. The capacity in language for infinite generativity supports our use of language in novel ways that can vary according to circumstances. A key component in understanding language is the use of context to infer meaning. Nature-based perspectives, such as nativism, emphasize innate biological factors in language development, which can provide a robust explanation for the universality and rapidity of language acquisition. However, they may overlook the influence of environmental factors and cultural variability. Nurture-based perspectives, like behaviorism, highlight the role of environmental input and learning mechanisms, offering insights into how language skills can be shaped by social interactions. Yet, they might underestimate the contribution of innate language mechanisms and the speed of language acquisition. Nature-based perspectives (e.g., nativism) emphasize innate biological factors in language development, supported by evidence of universal grammar and critical periods. Strengths include explaining rapid language acquisition and cross-cultural similarities. Weaknesses include less focus on variability in individual language development and the influence of environmental factors. Nurture-based perspectives (e.g., behaviorism, social interactionism) emphasize environmental influences like reinforcement or social interaction. Strengths include accounting for cultural and environmental variability in language learning. Weaknesses include difficulty explaining innate language abilities and the speed of early language acquisition observed in children. 3. How might we apply the concept of generativity to investigations of plagiarism? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. • One key weakness of the imitation account of language is the principle of generativity. Humans do not merely mimic others and then respond to the consequence that the behaviour brings. • The symbol system of language allows people the opportunity to combine words in novel ways, producing sentences and even ideas never expressed in exactly the same way before. This concept is important as we consider plagiarism: The likelihood of spontaneously generating an identical sentence or passage is highly improbable. Applying the concept of generativity to plagiarism investigations involves recognizing the originality and creativity inherent in authentic work. By understanding that language and ideas can be generative, investigators can better identify instances of plagiarism by comparing the originality and uniqueness of a piece with existing sources. This approach helps distinguish between genuine creativity and instances of academic dishonesty. Generativity in the context of language refers to the ability to produce and understand an infinite number of novel utterances using a finite set of rules and elements. In investigations of plagiarism, generativity can be applied by examining whether the submitted work demonstrates originality and creativity in its expression. Plagiarism involves presenting someone else's ideas or work as one's own, thus lacking generativity as it does not contribute novel content or original thought. Analyzing whether a piece of work demonstrates generativity can help determine if it has been plagiarized by assessing if it adds new insights or simply reproduces existing material without proper attribution. 4. Discuss the differences between human and nonhuman animal communication. Identify the most frequent purpose for animal communication and provide two examples where nonhuman animal communication was used for purposes other than aggression or mating. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. The communication systems of different animal species differ in type and complexity. Some species use scent marking as their primary form of communication. Others rely on visual displays, such as baring their teeth or flapping their wings. Still others, like humans, use vocal communication. In most nonhuman animals, aggression and mating are the two circumstances in which communication most often takes place. For example, male songbirds, such as canaries and finches, produce a specific song to convey the message, “This is my territory, back off,” and another song to attract mates. Chimpanzees use a combination of vocalisations and visual displays, such as facial expressions and slapping the ground, to convey aggression Yet in contrast to most species, we’ve developed ways of communicating that move substantially beyond aggression and mating to allow for other kinds of information exchange. Precious few nonhuman animal communication systems accomplish this feat. A fascinating example of a nonhuman animal communication system that provides information exchange beyond aggression and mating is the waggle dance of honeybees. Bees use this dance to communicate with their fellow bees about the location of a food source (see Figure 8.5). Bees that locate a food source fly back to their hive and perform an intricate series of figure-eight movements, moving the hind segment of their bodies back and forth rapidly (waggling) as they walk. The direction the bee faces indicates which direction to fly, and the duration and intensity of the waggle indicate how far and how plentiful the food supply is. The waggle dance is a successful form of communication: bees who observe the dance, but haven’t visited the food source, leave the hive and fly directly to that source (von Frisch, 1967). The waggle dance is one of the few nonhuman examples of communication about something beyond the here and now. Another example comes from the vervet monkey. A number of bird and mammal species let out a specific vocalisation when a predator is nearby. What’s distinctive about vervet monkeys is their use of different alarm calls for different predators. They produce one type of call when they see a leopard, a second when they see a snake, and a third when they see a hawk or other flying predator. These alarm calls are the closest thing to words that scientists have observed outside of human language, because specific sounds correspond to specific meanings. Moreover, all vervets use the same “words” to communicate the same meanings. Human communication is characterized by complex language systems with syntax and semantics, allowing for abstract thought and diverse expression. Nonhuman animal communication, while also diverse, often relies on simpler signals for survival-related purposes. For instance, bees communicate through dance to indicate food sources, while vervet monkeys use distinct alarm calls to warn of different predators, demonstrating communication for survival beyond aggression or mating. Human communication is characterized by its complexity, involving language with grammar and syntax, as well as the ability for abstract thought and symbolic representation. In contrast, nonhuman animal communication typically involves simpler signals for immediate purposes such as survival, often focused on conveying threats, mating availability, or establishing dominance. However, animals also communicate for purposes like cooperation (e.g., honeybee dances indicating food sources) and navigation (e.g., bird calls for indicating migration routes). These examples highlight communication's diverse roles beyond aggression or mating in the animal kingdom. 5. What is linguistic determinism? Describe and explain the sources of evidence that provide reason for us to doubt linguistic determinism. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. The view that all thinking is represented linguistically is called linguistic determinism. One of the best-known examples of how language can influence thought is the belief that Inuits have about a thousand words for snow. Linguistic determinists argue that having so many words for snow enables Inuits to perceive incredibly subtle distinctions among types of snow. Reasons to doubt linguistic determinism: a) One of the earliest tests of linguistic determinism used a drug called curare, which paralyzes the muscles and skeleton but leaves the patient conscious. After his vocal tract was completely immobilized, but before the drug had taken complete effect, the subject could wrinkle his forehead in response to questions, confirming his ability to understand spoken speech. After the drug had worn off, he accurately reported events he’d observed, and could report thoughts and sensations he experienced while paralyzed. b) Later evidence was more conclusive. First, contrary to the predictions of linguistic determinism, children can perform many complex cognitive tasks long before they can talk about them. For that reason, psychologists have developed cognitive performance tests for infants and children that minimise testers’ reliance on verbal instructions and verbal responses. c) A third compelling argument against linguistic determinism comes from recent neuroimaging studies of problem solving, thinking, remembering, and reading (see Figure 8.10). These studies show that although language areas often become activated when people engage in certain cognitive tasks, such as reading, they aren’t activated during others, such as spatial tasks or visual imagery. These studies suggest that thought can occur without language. Linguistic determinism proposes that language determines the way we think and perceive the world. However, evidence from bilingual individuals who can switch between languages suggests that thought is not strictly bound by language. Additionally, studies of cultures with different languages but similar cognitive abilities challenge the notion of linguistic determinism, indicating that language may influence rather than dictate thought processes. Linguistic determinism is the idea that language shapes and determines our thoughts and perceptions of reality. Evidence challenging linguistic determinism comes from studies showing cognitive universals across languages, such as color perception and spatial orientation. Additionally, bilingual and multilingual individuals demonstrate cognitive flexibility, suggesting that language may influence rather than dictate thought. Neurological studies also reveal overlapping brain regions involved in language processing across different languages, indicating underlying universality in cognitive processes. 6. Identify and discuss the four things that children must realize before they are ready to learn to read. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. (1) Children must realize that writing is meaningful. Young children looking at books and signs may not realize that the seeming gobbledygook printed below pictures or on street signs is something more than scribbles. (2) Children must understand that writing moves in a particular direction (see Figure 8.13). Children learning English must learn that writing moves from left to right, children learning Hebrew must figure out that writing moves from right to left, and children learning Japanese must understand that writing moves from top to bottom. Children must also realize that breaks in the print separate distinct words. These aspects of writing are basic starting points for young prereaders. (3) Children must learn to recognize graphemes, the letters of the alphabet. This task is harder than it seems because children must figure out what basic features distinguish an N from an M, for example, despite the fact that they’ll see both N’s and M’s printed in a variety of confusingly different sizes and styles. (4) Children must learn that printed letters correspond to specific sounds. As we discussed earlier, the relation between sounds and letters isn’t anywhere near perfect, but figuring out what sounds an F, B, and L make is a crucial starting point. Experiments have shown that training children to be aware of sound-letter correspondences enhances reading. Before children are ready to learn to read, they must understand that spoken words can be broken down into smaller units like sounds, or phonemic awareness. They also need to grasp the concept that letters represent these sounds, known as alphabetic principle. Furthermore, children must recognize that words convey meaning, or understand the concept of semantics. Finally, they need to comprehend that text flows from left to right and top to bottom, known as print awareness. Before children are ready to learn to read, they must realize: 1. Print Awareness: Understanding that printed words convey meaning and that text is read from left to right and top to bottom. 2. Phonological Awareness: Recognizing and manipulating the sounds in spoken language, such as rhyming and segmenting words into syllables and phonemes. 3. Alphabet Knowledge: Knowing the names and sounds of letters in the alphabet, which prepares them to decode written words. 4. Concepts of Print: Understanding conventions of print, such as distinguishing between letters, words, and sentences, and understanding punctuation and spacing. 7. Cognitive economy serves an adaptive function for humans, but does so at a price. Discuss the benefits and potential liabilities of cognitive economy. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. • Benefits: The most significant benefit is that our tendency to be cognitive misers offers a tremendous advantage in speed of decision making. Also, by allowing us to categorise objects and ideas, we do not face each encounter with a new object in a vacuum. Our categorisation and schemas afford transference. The ability to make snap judgments, shows that we have a remarkable capacity for assessing information quickly based on top-down processing and access to previous experiences. In addition, we are able to restrict the focus of our attention to help us manage information in an efficient way that aids in decision making. • Liabilities: The downside of cognitive economy is that it is only a probable good choice, which means at times we suffer from poor judgment and make faulty decisions based on limited or no examination of alternatives. Various forms of bias can also cloud our decision making. These include confirmation bias and hindsight bias, as well as the availability heuristic. We also experience faulty reasoning due to mental sets and functional fixedness. Cognitive economy, or the tendency to conserve mental resources by simplifying complex information, allows for efficient processing and decision-making. It enhances cognitive efficiency, freeing up mental resources for other tasks. However, cognitive economy can lead to errors when oversimplification results in overlooking important details or making inaccurate judgments, potentially compromising decision quality or problem-solving abilities. Cognitive economy, or the tendency to use mental shortcuts and efficient cognitive processes, offers benefits such as conserving mental resources, enabling quick decision-making, and facilitating efficient problem-solving. This adaptive function allows humans to navigate complex environments and respond rapidly to stimuli. However, cognitive economy can also lead to potential liabilities. It may result in biases and errors in judgment, as shortcuts can overlook important information or lead to snap judgments based on limited data. Additionally, reliance on cognitive shortcuts can hinder creativity and deeper understanding of complex issues, as it prioritizes speed and efficiency over thorough analysis. In summary, while cognitive economy provides essential adaptive advantages in everyday life, its overreliance can sometimes result in cognitive biases and limitations that affect decision-making and problem-solving abilities. 8. Discuss the ways in which cognitive economy may be implicated in various forms of discrimination. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. • Because the principles of cognitive economy encourage us to conserve our cognitive abilities, we make generalisations based on previous experiences and knowledge and categorize, not just objects, but also persons. • Just as we do not have to treat each encounter with an object as completely new, we also do not approach other people without preconceived notions about them according to their characteristics. • Our tendency to categorize and develop schemas can make thinking very efficient, but it can also lead us to overgeneralize in ways that may lead to stereotyping and discrimination. Cognitive economy can lead to the use of stereotypes and heuristics, which simplify complex social information. This can result in unconscious biases and discrimination against certain groups based on superficial characteristics. By relying on mental shortcuts, individuals may inadvertently perpetuate systemic inequalities and prejudice, as cognitive economy prioritizes efficiency over accuracy in processing social information. Cognitive economy can contribute to discrimination by fostering reliance on stereotypes and heuristics, simplifying complex social judgments. These shortcuts lead to biases where individuals may categorize and judge others based on superficial characteristics like race or gender, rather than considering individual merits. Additionally, cognitive economy can reinforce existing social hierarchies by perpetuating biases through quick, effortless judgments, thus contributing to systemic discrimination in various contexts such as hiring decisions or interpersonal interactions. 9. What are the three hurdles to problem solving? Identify, briefly describe, and provide an example of each. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. 1. Salience of Surface Similarities. Salience refers to how attention-grabbing something is. We tend to focus our attention on the surface-level (superficial) properties of a problem, such as the topic of an algebra word problem, and to try to solve problems in the same way we solved problems that exhibited similar surface characteristics. 2. Mental Sets. Once we find a workable solution that’s dependable, we often get stuck in that solution mode; we have trouble generating alternatives. Psychologists term this phenomenon a mental set. 3. Functional Fixedness. Functional fixedness occurs when we experience difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another. That is, we become “fixated” on one conventional use for an object. The three hurdles to problem-solving are functional fixedness, mental set, and confirmation bias. Functional fixedness is the tendency to perceive objects only in terms of their familiar uses, hindering innovative solutions. For example, being unable to see a paperclip as a makeshift hook. Mental set refers to a tendency to approach problems with a mindset that has worked previously, potentially overlooking new solutions. An example is using the same strategy for solving different types of math problems. Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms preconceptions, ignoring contradictory evidence. For instance, only seeking evidence that supports one's political beliefs while disregarding opposing viewpoints. The three hurdles to problem solving are: 1. Functional Fixedness: Difficulty in seeing alternative uses for familiar objects or tools due to their usual function. For example, someone might struggle to use a book as a doorstop because they only see it as something for reading. 2. Mental Set: The tendency to approach problems using a familiar strategy that worked in the past, even if it's not the most efficient for the current problem. An example is using the same method to solve math problems without considering alternative approaches. 3. Confirmation Bias: The inclination to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms preconceptions, leading to overlooking contradictory evidence. For instance, in a debate, focusing only on arguments that support one's viewpoint and ignoring opposing viewpoints. Fill in the Blank Questions 1. _______________ is a system of communication that combines symbols according to rules and in a way that conveys meaning. Answer: Language 2. Social context and the use of gestures and facial expressions by the speaker are examples of _______________. Answer: extralinguistic information. 3. Because language is arbitrary, it allows great _______________ in conveying complex ideas and thoughts. Answer: flexibility 4. By the time they are roughly one year old, babies tend to use the _______________ of their native language when babbling. Answer: phonemes 5. _______________ means that there are an infinite number of unique sentences to be created by combining words in novel ways. Answer: Generativity 6. The social pragmatics account of language development emphasises the ability of the child to make _______________. Answer: inferences (based on social interaction). 7. The _______________ account holds that language is not a specialized ability, but rather an application of overall skills that children employ to navigate their world successfully. Answer: general cognitive processing 8. The vocalisations observed among animals that most closely resemble human referential communication are the _______________ of the vervet monkey. Answer: different alarm calls 9. In addition to the bonobo, the _______________ appears able to use language in a way that is more similar to human use than other animals. Answer: African parrot 10. Sign language requires the signer to use their face, hands, body, and _______________ to communicate. Answer: “sign space” 11. One problem encountered in studying sign language is that the majority of deaf babies are born to _______________. Answer: hearing parents 12. Spoken English and American Sign Language have _______________ syntactic structure. Answer: different 13. One explanation for the difficulty of second language acquisition among adults is that when someone learns a second language in adulthood, they use different _______________ than those who learn a second language in early childhood. Answer: brain areas 14. The different times at which children acquire vocabulary and ability to understand syntax suggests that the critical period is _______________. Answer: gradual. 15. A commonly held belief that the Inuit have 1000 words for snow is an example of _______________. Answer: linguistic determinism. 16. In most cases, adults use _______________ the majority of the time while reading words. Answer: whole word recognition 17. It may seem obvious to adults, but the first key to prereading for young children is that they understand that writing has ______________ Answer: meaning. 18. Robots tend to “learn” better than computers because robots are exposed to more _______________. Answer: interaction. 19. Researchers must be wary of _______________ bias, which causes them to ignore evidence that contradicts their views. Answer: confirmation Test Bank for Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven J. Lynn, Laura L. Namy, Nancy J. Woolf, Kenneth M. Cramer, Rodney Schmaltz 9780205896110, 9780133793048, 9780133870282