Chapter 8 Communication In This Chapter, You’ll Find: Chapter Overview Learning Outcomes Key Terms PowerPoint Guide Review Questions and Answers Discussion and Communication Questions and Suggested Answers Ethical Dilemma Self-Assessments—What about You? Issues in Diversity Experiential Exercises Additional Examples Case Study and Suggested Responses: Smart Phones—Promoting Communication Connectedness or Disconnectedness? Video: Profile on Plant Fantasies Student Handouts: Ethical Dilemma What About You?: Are You an Active Listener? What About You?: What Kind of a Defender Are You? Issues in Diversity: Contemporary Media Coverage—Spinning out of Control? Experiential Exercise: Communicate, Listen, Understand Experiential Exercise: Preparing for an Employment Selection Interview Experiential Exercise: Degrees of Truth in Feedback Case Study: Smart Phones—Promoting Communication Connectedness or Disconnectedness? Chapter Overview This chapter deals with the interpersonal and technological dimensions of communication in organizations. Communication is a skill that can be improved through reflective listening. Five keys to effective supervisory communication are presented along with five barriers to communication. Finally, the chapter discusses defensive and nondefensive communication, nonverbal communication, and the latest technologies for information management in organizations. Learning Outcomes After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following: 1. Describe the interpersonal communication process and the role of listening in the process. Answer: Communication evokes a shared, or common, meaning in another person. Interpersonal communication occurs between two or more people in an organization. The communicator is the person sending the message. The receiver is the person accepting the message. Perceptual screens are the windows through which people interact. The message contains the thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver. Feedback may or may not be activated in communication. The language of the message is important. Data are the uninterpreted, unanalyzed elements of a message. Information is data with meaning to the person who interprets or analyzes them. Since messages are conveyed through a medium, such as a telephone or face-to-face discussion, they differ in richness according to the ability of that medium to transmit meaning to a receiver. Reflective listening is the skill of carefully listening to a message and immediately repeating it back to the speaker. Reflective listening better enables the listener to comprehend the communicator’s meaning, reduce perceptual distortions, and overcome interpersonal barriers that lead to communication failures. 2. Describe the five communication skills of effective supervisors. Answer: Research on manager–employee communication identifies five communication skills that distinguish good supervisors from bad ones. A good supervisor is an expressive speaker, an empathetic listener, a persuasive leader, a sensitive person, and an informative manager. 3. Explain five communication barriers and the gateways through them. Answer: Barriers to communication are factors that distort, disrupt, or even halt successful communication. Gateways to communication are the openings that break down communication barriers. Awareness and recognition of communication barriers are the first steps in opening the gateways. Obvious barriers are physical separation (employees in different geographic locations or buildings) and status differences (related to the organizational hierarchy).One apparent gateway for the separation of geographically dispersed teams is to improve the frequency of face-to-face interaction. Not so obvious are the barriers caused by gender differences, cultural diversity, and language. An important gateway through the gender barrier is the development of an awareness and appreciation of gender-specific differences in conversational style. A second gateway is to actively seek clarification of the person’s meaning rather than freely interpreting meaning from one’s own frame of reference. One gateway through the barrier of diversity is increasing cultural awareness and sensitivity. A second gateway is developing or acquiring a guide for understanding and interacting with members of other cultures. When doing business, it’s best to use simple, direct, declarative language. Above all else, one should not use jargon or technical language except with those who are already familiar with it. 4. Distinguish between civility and incivility, and defensive and nondefensive communication. Answer: Civility refers to the communication and behavior that respect the integrity and dignity of the individual. Incivility is defined as discourteous communication and rude behavior that are disrespectful, hurtful, or injurious. While incivility can create a barrier between people and jar people’s emotions, civility may be a gateway to communication that smoothes troubled waters at work. There are, however, some instances in which incivility can have positive effects when it is strategically used. The consequences of incivility depend on its source. Civil communication and behavior carry the potential to avoid hurt feelings, prevent harm and damage to working relationships, and contribute to well-being in the workplace. Defensive communication includes aggressive, malevolent messages as well as passive, withdrawn messages. Nondefensive communication is assertive, direct, and powerful. 5. Explain the impact of nonverbal communication. Answer: Whereas defensive and nondefensive communication focus on the language used in delivering a message, most of a message’s meaning (an estimated 65 to 90 percent) is conveyed through nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication includes all elements of communication that do not involve words or language such as gestures and the use of space. The four basic types of nonverbal communication that managers need to understand are proxemics, kinesics, facial and eye behavior, and paralanguage. 6. Explain positive, healthy communication. Answer: The absence of heartfelt communication in relationships leads to loneliness and social isolation. This condition has been labeled communicative disease by James Lynch. Positive, healthy communication is an important aspect of working together—that is, cooperating to reach a shared goal—in both the interpersonal and intrapersonal settings. Such communication requires trust and truthfulness. Healthy communication is at the core of personal integrity and managerial success, as is evident in the lives of most successful executives, including those in the executive branch of the U.S. government. 7 Identify how new communication technologies and social media affect the communication process. Answer: Nonverbal behaviors can be important in establishing trust in working relationships, but modern technologies may challenge people’s ability to maintain that trust. Too much emphasis on technology tools in communication may have an adverse impact on rich interpersonal communication and relationships. Computer-mediated communication influences virtually all behavior in the work environment. E-mail, voice mail, instant messaging, and facsimile (fax) machines have been common in the business world for more than a decade. Information communication technology (ICT) is an extensive category of new developments in interpersonal communication that allow fast, even immediate, access to information. E-mail, teleconferencing, and Wi-Fi are all classified as ICT. Computer-mediated communication is impersonal in nature. Instant messaging, e-mail, and other forms of online communication can therefore depreciate the richness of personal interaction. Another effect of computer-mediated communication is that the nonverbal cues people rely on to decipher a message are absent. Gesturing, touching, facial expressions, and eye contact are not possible, so the emotional aspect of the message is difficult to discern. Communication via technology also changes group dynamics by equalizing participation. As a result, charismatic or higher-status members may lose some power. The potential for information overload is particularly great when individuals are first introduced to new communication technologies. Both the sheer volume of information available and its speed of delivery are staggering. While modern ICT may make work easier and increase employees’ productivity, it can also prove precarious for managers. In the wake of mobile e-mail, instant messaging, and texting, managers are more accessible to coworkers, subordinates, and the boss today than they’ve ever been. Further, many new technologies encourage polyphasic activity, or multitasking (i.e., doing more than one thing at a time). Polyphasic activity has its advantages in terms of getting more done—but only up to a point. Finally, new technologies may make people less patient with face-to-face communication. The speed of electronic media may lead to expectations of acceleration in all forms of communication. Key Terms Communication (p. 119) Interpersonal communication (p. 119) Communicator (p. 119) Receiver (p. 119) Perceptual screen (p. 119) Message (p. 119) Feedback (p. 119) Language (p. 119) Data (p. 120) Information (p. 120) Richness (p. 120) Reflective listening (p. 120) Two-way communication (p. 122) One-way communication (p. 122) Barriers to communication (p. 124) Gateways to communication (p. 124) Incivility (p. 125) Civility (p. 125) Defensive communication (p. 126) Nondefensive communication (p. 126) Nonverbal communication (p. 128) Proxemics (p. 128) Territorial space (p. 129) Kinesics (p. 129) Communicative disease (p. 130) Information communication technology (ICT) (p. 132) PowerPoint Guide Introduction Slide 2—Learning Outcomes LO1 Describe the interpersonal communication process and the role of listening in the process. Slide 3—LO - 8.1 Slide 4—Interpersonal Communication Slide 5—Figure 8.1: Basic Interpersonal Communication Model Slide 6—Reflective Listening Slide 7—Reflective Listening: Levels of Verbal Responses Slide 8—Nonverbal Responses of Reflective Listening Slide 9—Beyond the Book: Listen Up! LO2 Describe the five communication skills of effective supervisors. Slide 10—LO - 8.2 Slide 11—Keys to Effective Supervisory Communication LO3 Explain five communication barriers and the gateways through them. Slide 12—LO - 8.3 Slides 13–14—Barriers and Gateways to Communication LO4 Distinguish between civility and incivility, and defensive and nondefensive communication. Slide 15—LO - 8.4 Slide 16—Civility and Incivility Slide 17—Defensive and Nondefensive Communication LO5 Explain the impact of nonverbal communication. Slide 18—LO - 8.5 Slide 19—Nonverbal Communication LO6 Explain positive, healthy communication. Slide 20—LO - 8.6 Slide 21—Positive and Healthy Communication LO7 Identify how new communication technologies and social media affect the communication process. Slide 22—LO - 8.7 Slide 23—Communication Technologies Slide 24—How Information Communication Technology (ICT) Affects Behavior Slide 25—Plant Fantasies Key Terms Slides 26–27—Key Terms Summary Slides 28–30—Summary Review Questions and Answers 1. What different components of a person’s perceptual screens may distort communication? Answer: Perceptual screens are built upon the sender’s and receiver’s individual attributes, such as age, gender, values, beliefs, past experiences, cultural influences, and individual needs. The degree to which these screens are open significantly influences both sent and received messages. 2. What are the three defining features of reflective listening? Answer: Reflecting listening can be characterized as personal, feeling oriented, and responsive. 3. What are the four levels of verbal response in reflective listening? Answer: Reflective listening necessitates four levels of verbal response: affirming contact, paraphrasing expressed thoughts and feelings, clarifying implicit thoughts and feelings, and reflecting core feelings not fully expressed. 4. Compare one-way communication and two-way communication. Answer: Two-way communication is an interactive form of communication in which there is an exchange of thoughts, feelings, or both, and through which shared meaning often occurs. Problem solving and decision making are often examples of two-way communication. One-way communication occurs when a person sends a message to another person and no feedback, questions, or interaction follows. Giving instructions and directions are examples of one-way communication. One-way communication tends to be efficient, although how efficient it is depends on the amount and complexity of information communicated and the medium chosen. Even though it is faster than two-way communication, one-way communication is often less accurate. This is especially true for complex tasks that require clarification for completion. 5. What are the five communication skills of effective supervisors and managers? Answer: Research on manager–employee communication identifies five communication skills that distinguish good supervisors from bad ones. A good supervisor is an expressive speaker, an empathetic listener, a persuasive leader, a sensitive person, and an informative manager. 6. Describe dominant and subordinate defensive communication. Describe nondefensive communication. Answer: The two basic patterns of defensiveness are dominant defensiveness and subordinate defensiveness. Subordinate defensiveness is characterized by passive or submissive behavior. The psychological attitude of the subordinately defensive person is “You are right, and I am wrong.” In contrast, dominant defensiveness is characterized by overtly aggressive and domineering behavior. It is offensive in nature, sometimes culminating in verbal or physical harassment. The psychological attitude of the dominantly defensive person is “I am right, and you are wrong.” Nondefensive communication is a healthy alternative to defensive communication in working relationships. An individual who consistently communicates nondefensively may be characterized as centered, assertive, controlled, informative, realistic, and honest. Nondefensive communication is powerful because the speaker exhibits self-control and self-possession without rejecting the listener. 7. What four kinds of nonverbal communication are important in interpersonal relationships? Answer: The four kinds of nonverbal communication that are important in interpersonal relationships are as follows: •Proxemics—it is the study of an individual’s perception and use of space, including territorial space. •Kinesics—it is the study of body movement and posture. Like proxemics, it is bound to culture. •Facial and eye behavior—they are used to communicate an emotional state, reveal behavioral intentions, and cue the receiver. It may even give unintended clues to emotions the sender is trying to hide. •Paralanguage—it consists of variations in speech, such as pitch, loudness, tempo, tone, duration, laughing, and crying. People make assumptions about the communicator by deciphering paralanguage cues. 8. What is communicative disease? Answer: The absence of heartfelt communication in relationships leads to loneliness and social isolation. This condition has been labeled communicative disease by James Lynch. Communicative disease has adverse effects on the heart and cardiovascular system and can ultimately lead to premature death. According to Lynch, the only cure for communicative disease is to reengage in thoughtful, heartwarming conversation with friends and loved ones. Positive, healthy communication is an important aspect of working together—that is, cooperating to reach a shared goal—in both the interpersonal and intrapersonal settings. Such communication requires trust and truthfulness. 9. Describe few new communication technologies in terms of data richness. Answer: E-mail, voice mail, instant messaging, and facsimile (fax) machines have been common in the business world for more than a decade. These databases provide a tremendous amount of information at the push of a button. The newest technology to impact the work environment is the smartphone, which is nearly as ubiquitous at work as standard cell phones are in our personal lives. Smartphones combine the capabilities of advanced cell phones with computer-like applications and connectivity. Discussion and Communication Questions and Suggested Answers 1. Who is the best communicator you know? Why do you consider that person to be so? Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Many students will name a prominent figure because they can more readily express why they think the person is a good communicator. Others will identify individuals they actually know. The difficult aspect of this question is to get them to analyze why those individuals are good communicators. Best Listener: A friend excels in listening by maintaining eye contact, asking clarifying questions, and reflecting back what’s said. This shows genuine engagement and validation. 2. Who is the best listener you have ever known? Describe what that person does that makes him or her so good at listening. Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Most often this will be a family member, and the most typical response is someone who is skilled at reflective listening, especially as an empathetic listener. Instructors should be sure to point out to students that two-way communication is an important element of this question. Best Listener: A friend excels in listening by maintaining eye contact, asking clarifying questions, and reflecting back what’s said. This shows genuine engagement and validation. 3. Have you ever been the object of incivility? Describe how it made you feel and how you reacted. Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Students may also say that they have been the object of incivility, i.e., at their workplace or somewhere else. Students might say that the experience was quite unpleasant and that they might not want to encounter it again. Students may state that their reaction was based mostly on how they felt at that moment. Object of Incivility: I’ve experienced incivility through dismissive comments. It felt disheartening and led me to address the behavior directly and assertively to restore respect. 4. Ask students: What methods have you found most helpful in overcoming these barriers to communication: physical, status based, cultural, and linguistic? Have students write a brief response for each barrier and explain their answers. Students should be prepared to discuss in class. Answer: Students’ answers will vary. This question provides an excellent opportunity for international students to contribute to class discussions. Overcoming Communication Barriers: • Physical: Find quiet spaces and use tech solutions. • Status Based: Practice humility and equal respect. • Cultural: Educate yourself and be open-minded. • Linguistic: Use simple language and confirm understanding. 5. Who makes you the most defensive when you talk with that person? What does the person do that makes you so defensive or uncomfortable? Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Instructors should ask students to characterize the individual rather than naming the individual. Some students might be bold enough to mention their professors as those individuals. Instructors should encourage students to focus on specific behaviors rather than their personalities. Most Defensive: A critical manager makes me defensive by frequently interrupting and dismissing my ideas. This creates discomfort and defensiveness in our interactions. 6. With whom are you the most comfortable and nondefensive in conversation? What does the person do that makes you so comfortable or nondefensive? Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Their typical answers might be their friends and partners. Mentors should have these characteristics as well. Instructors should encourage students to focus on people’s specific behaviors rather than their personalities. Most Comfortable: A supportive mentor makes me comfortable by actively listening, showing empathy, and validating my thoughts, which fosters a relaxed dialogue. 7. What nonverbal behaviors do you find most helpful in others when you are attempting to talk with them and when you try to listen to them? Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Instructors could have students tell them what nonverbal clues they send while lecturing. Are there annoying habits that get in the way of their information (i.e. twisting a paper clip, the inflection in your voice, etc.)? Helpful Nonverbal Behaviors: Open body language, nodding, and maintaining eye contact are helpful for both talking and listening, as they convey attentiveness and engagement. 8. Have students identify a person at work or at the university who is difficult to talk to and arrange an interview in which they practice good reflective listening skills. Direct them to ask the person questions about a topic in which you think he or she is interested. Students should pay particular attention to being patient, calm, and nonreactive. After the interview, summarize what they have learned. Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Have the students share what they learned from this interview in class. Following are some questions that will help stimulate class discussion: •What were the difficulties they encountered using reflective listening skills? •How did this conversation compare with previous conversations the student had with this person? •What reflective listening skills were most difficult to use and why? Reflective Listening Practice: Interviewing a colleague about a topic they care about, while practicing patience and nonreactivity, helped me learn to listen deeply and respond thoughtfully. 9. Go to the library and read about communication problems and barriers. Write a memo categorizing the problems and barriers that you find in the current literature (last five years). What changes do organizations or people need to make to solve these problems? Answer: Students’ answers will vary. In addition to enhancing students’ skills at memo writing, this activity highlights for students the most current communication problems. In identifying solutions to these problems, instructors should encourage their students to move beyond the suggestions in the textbook and to think creatively about their solutions. Communication Problems Memo: Recent literature highlights barriers such as technology overload and cultural misunderstandings. Solutions include implementing better tech tools and increasing cultural competence training. 10. Develop a role-playing activity for class that demonstrates defensive (dominant or subordinate) and nondefensive communication. Write brief role descriptions that classmates can act out. Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Not only does this activity enhance understanding the concepts of defensive and nondefensive communication, but it also can be a lot of fun and a good way to get to know class members. Role-Playing Activity: Create scenarios where one person dominates and another submits versus equal, respectful exchanges. This highlights the impact of defensive vs. nondefensive communication styles. 11. Read everything you can find in the library about a new communication technology. Write a two-page memo summarizing what you have learned and the conclusions you draw about the new technology’s advantages and disadvantages. Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Instructors should take time in class for several students to share the information they gathered on a new communication technology. They can also discuss the environments in which each new communication technology might be most/least effective. New Communication Technology Memo: Summarize insights on a new tech tool, noting advantages like improved connectivity and disadvantages like security risks. Discuss potential organizational impacts and recommendations. Ethical Dilemma The purpose of Ethical Dilemmas is to encourage students to develop their awareness of ethical issues in the workplace and the managerial challenges they present. The dilemmas are set up to present situations in which there is no clear ethical choice. The goal for the instructor is to guide students through the process of analyzing the situation and examining possible alternative solutions. There are no “right” answers to the questions at the end of each scenario but only opportunities to explore alternatives. Students can generate discussions on the appropriateness of each alternative. The student portion of the activity is provided on a handout at the end of this chapter guide. Dan’s options are to keep Kyle on his team, and continue to devote the necessary time in making sure Kyle understands things correctly, or to move Kyle into a job on Ken’s team knowing that Ken is unlikely to take extra time with Kyle to be sure he understands things correctly. 1. Using consequential, rule-based, and character theories, evaluate Dan’s options. Answer: Consequential Theory If Dan keeps Kyle on his team, he will have to continue spending extra time with Kyle to ensure that he understands everything correctly, but he will have more control over Kyle’s potential for errors. If Dan moves Kyle to Ken’s team, he will have more time to devote to other things, but he will have less control over Kyle’s potential for errors. This would most probably increase the likelihood of errors which will occur since Ken is unlikely to take the time to ensure Kyle understands correctly. Rule-Based Theory Dan’s obligation in this situation is to protect the company and the other workers from any injuries that might result from Kyle’s improper understanding of what is being communicated to him. Character Theory Dan seems to care a great deal about communication, as evidenced by his extensive efforts to ensure that his team clearly and accurately understands what he is trying to communicate to them. Moreover, he has been willing thus far to devote whatever extra time is necessary to ensure that Kyle does not misunderstand or misinterpret his communication. Keeping Kyle on his team would be in line with this character trait, whereas moving him to Ken’s team would contradict this trait. 2. What should Dan do? Why? Answer: According to the rule-based and character theories, Dan should keep Kyle on his team rather than move him to Ken’s team. Moving Kyle would free up some of Dan’s time and remove Kyle as a source of frustration. But this would also jeopardize Dan’s obligation to protect the company and other workers from the possibility of harm caused by Kyle’s misunderstandings or misinterpretations. It would also contradict Dan’s character in that he would no longer be ensuring that Kyle accurately understands what is being communicated to him. Self-Assessments—What about You? 8.1 Are You an Active Listener? Reflective listening is a skill people can practice and learn. This exercise offers ten tips to help students become better listeners. After students think of situations in which they have had difficult communications with others at work or school and evaluated themselves against the ten items, it might be very useful to have them gather in small groups to see what commonalities exist among them, if any, and which items the largest number of students have difficulty with. Another option is to have group members suggest ways in which the students might have handled their own communications in the situations better. The student portion of the activity is provided on a handout at the end of this chapter guide. 8.2 What Kind of a Defender Are You? Not all of our communication is defensive, but each of us have a tendency to engage in either subordinate or dominant defensiveness. This exercise presents twelve sets of choices that help students understand whether they tend to be more subordinate or dominant when they engage in defensive communication. As a follow up to this assessment, encourage students to develop an action plan for overcoming their tendencies toward defensiveness. The student portion of the activity is provided on a handout at the end of this chapter guide. 8.3 Test Your Verbal Incivilities Workplace incivility can jar the emotions and cause a range of adverse outcomes both in the workplace and at home. Discourteousness, rudeness, impatience, and lack of respect are very common forms of incivility. This exercise lists three types of verbal incivility behaviors and gives students an opportunity to contemplate the number of times they have experienced any of these types of incivilities on a weekly basis. It also gives students the opportunity to inspect themselves and realize if they have ever engaged in these types of incivility behaviors on a weekly basis. The student portion of the activity is provided on the Review Card in the student edition of ORGB. SOURCE: Adapted from T. Phillips and P. Smith, “Everyday Incivility: Towards a Benchmark,” The Sociological Review 51 (2003): 85–105. Issues in Diversity Contemporary Media Coverage—Spinning Out of Control? Before she was asked to resign in July 2010 for making racist remarks, Shirley Sherrod was one of the highest-ranking black employees in the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), serving nearly a year as the head of USDA’s Rural Development office in Georgia. Sherrod is hardly the first high-ranking employee who has been asked to resign from a position. She is, perhaps, the only one whose resignation was the direct result of inaccurate and misleading media coverage. Sherrod’s troubles began when Andrew Breitbart, a conservative blogger, posted a video clip on his website containing remarks Sherrod made at the NAACP Freedom Fund banquet held earlier during the year. In her remarks, Sherrod told a story about how she had once provided “just enough” assistance to a white farmer who risked losing his farm. She admitted that her reluctance to help the farmer was initially driven by his race. After all, many black farmers in the region had already lost their farms. Sherrod’s story didn’t end there. She went on to tell the banquet audience how she came to the realization that the issue was not one of race, but of class. Instead of Sherrod’s remarks demonstrating how she used race to deny white farmers government assistance, her remarks demonstrated just the opposite. However, Breitbart’s heavily edited video clip did not show Sherrod’s complete remarks. As a result, Sherrod was accused of being a “reverse racist” using her power at the USDA to advance her racist agenda. What followed was a type of warfare among cable news outlets that has become symbolic of the 24-hour news culture in this country. By the time the unedited video clip was widely released, it was far too late for Sherrod to get her job back. The damage had already been done. 1. Do you believe media outlets should receive increased scrutiny when they report stories that involve race? Explain your position. Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Students who believe that media outlets should receive increased scrutiny on stories involving race may argue that the issue of race relations is so sensitive that stories with the potential to inflame racial tensions should be given every possible scrutiny before airing. Conversely, students who do not believe that media outlets should receive increased scrutiny may state that giving such stories increased scrutiny constitutes a racist approach in itself. These stories should be treated in the same way as any other news story. Increased Scrutiny for Media: Yes, media outlets should face increased scrutiny for race-related stories to prevent harm from misinformation and ensure balanced representation. Accurate reporting is crucial for avoiding racial bias and reinforcing public trust. 2. How do you reconcile the public’s need to know with the time it often takes to ensure news stories are properly vetted before they are aired? Answer: Students’ answers will vary. The question is misleading as there is nothing to reconcile. The public’s need to know isn’t being denied by properly vetting stories, only delayed. Moreover, the public has no need to know untrue or inaccurate information, so thoroughly vetting news stories is the only way to ensure that the public’s need to know is upheld. Alternatively, one might argue that the public doesn’t have a need to know per se. The public may have a desire to know and even a right to know, but the public would be just fine without knowing—especially if stories are inaccurate or false—thus, they do not have a need to know. Reconciling Public Need and Vetting: Balancing the need for timely information with thorough vetting requires improved fact-checking processes and transparency. Media organizations should prioritize accuracy and take time to verify details before broadcasting to prevent misleading narratives. Experiential Exercises 8.1 Communicate, Listen, Understand One of the biggest barriers to effective communication between people is the natural tendency to judge or evaluate the communication before it is fully understood. This especially happens during times of conflict, opposition, disagreement, boredom, and extreme agreement. More effective communication will result if a clear message is sent and the other person really listens and understands the message as it is intended to be understood. One way you can be sure that you understand the other person as he or she intends to be understood is to make a listening check. A listening check is merely a summary in your own words of what you understand the other person to have said. If you have misunderstood the message, it gives you the opportunity to hear it again and really gain an understanding before moving on in the conversation. The ability to skillfully make listening checks is crucial in all human interactions and especially crucial when you are in a managerial role. To gain skills in utilizing listening checks, there will be three rounds of conversations. During each round, two people will have a conversation while the other person acts as an observer. One of the two people will initiate the conversation. However, it is two-way conversation. The student portion of the activity is provided on a handout at the end of this chapter guide. Instructors should introduce the activity by saying, “since the management process is performed through communicating with others, our focus in this session will be on building communication skills. We are going to do a skill-building exercise in groups of threes, triads. Letter off A, B, and C and go to an area of the room in which you can carry on a private conversation.” Each round of conversation will last 5–8 minutes. Call time at the end of each round, and remind students about switching roles. Following round three, give students time to respond to the questions listed in Step 5 of the textbook exercise. Then, instructors should have each group share its responses to the questions with the class. More detailed descriptions of each round follow. Round 1. In this round, A picks one of the controversial topics that is posted and initiates a conversation with B. A and B carry on a two-way conversation while observing the following rule. Before either A or B may speak, they must summarize to the other what the person has just said to the satisfaction of the speaker. If they summarize back to the other one and it does not satisfy the other, they must hear the statement or comment again and keep summarizing until it meets the satisfaction of the one who spoke last. No new statement or any other response may be given until the last person who spoke is satisfied that the other person has understood what was said. Again, it is to be a two-way conversation, but you must summarize back to the last person what they just said to their satisfaction before you can add any new information. Once you have summarized it, you can make some statements about your position on the topic, then the other person must summarize back to your satisfaction, before she or he can add any new information. During this round, C is the observer. As the observer, you are to referee and enforce the ground rules. If A or B interrupt each other and start talking before they have summarized, you stop them and remind them that they must summarize what the last person said before they can make their own statement. Round 2. During this round, B and C will have a discussion. B will pick a topic off the list posted and begin the conversation with C. It is a two-way conversation, but the only free statement is the first statement. After that, the other person must make a listening check before any new information can be added. A will be the observer to enforce the ground rules. Round 3. During this round, C will start the conversation with A, and B will be the observer. It is important that the observer enforce the ground rules of requiring a listening check before adding information. Potential list of controversial topics: •Gun control •Background checks on airline passengers •Assisted suicide •Restrictions on tobacco advertising •Abortion •Provision of welfare benefits to illegal aliens •Affirmative action programs •Add your own topics of special interest to your university or community 8.2 Preparing For an Employment Selection Interview According to David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron (Developing Management Skills: Applied Communication Skills. New York: HarperCollins, 1993), the employment-selection interview is one of three important organizational interviews in which applied communication skills are essential. The other two types of interviews are the information-gathering interview and the performance-appraisal interview. The student portion of the activity is provided on the IE Prep Card in the student edition of ORGB and on a handout at the end of this chapter guide. Whetten and Cameron suggest that the supervisor use a PEOPLE-Oriented Process in preparing for and conducting the employment selection interview. There are six guidelines for the supervisor in conducting the interview using this process. P-Prepare: The supervisor should review the person’s application, resume, transcripts, and other background information. Using these materials, along with the company’s job description and performance evaluation form(s), the supervisor should prepare both general and individually-specific questions. Finally, prepare the physical setting in a suitable and professional manner. E-Establish Rapport: It is important for the supervisor to help the applicant feel comfortable and to communicate a genuine interest in him or her. The supervisor should create a supportive attitude through both verbal and nonverbal communication. O-Obtain Information: Asking questions and probing, without prying, for information is important. It is equally important to listen attentively and carefully to what the applicant has to say. The supervisor should also observe the applicant’s dress, mannerism, and body language. P-Provide Information: Remember that the interview is a two-way communication. The supervisor should describe current and future job opportunities, present the organization in a positive light, and respond to the applicant’s questions. L-Lead to Close: The supervisor should clarify any responses from the applicant and then close by explaining what happens next in the overall process. E-Evaluate: The supervisor should evaluate the match between the applicant’s technical qualifications and the job requirements. The supervisor should probably judge the applicant’s personal qualities, such as maturity and leadership, before making a final recommendation on the candidate. If the supervisor uses the PEOPLE approach to the employment selection interview, the applicant or candidate can use the PPOE approach to this interview. There are four guidelines for the applicant to achieve a successful interview. P-Prepare: The applicant should talk with people familiar with the organization and conduct library research on the organization, if possible. The applicant should be an informed interviewee and have questions prepared based on this background investigation. Finally, the applicant should dress in a suitable manner for the interview. P-Provide Information: The interviewer in the organization will probably ask questions first, so the applicant should be prepared to answer questions about his or her application and résumé. It is important to be non-defensive and forthright during this part of the interview. O-Obtain Information: The applicant should be assertive in asking questions that have emerged from the preparation for the interview. The applicant should make sure that his or her key questions are answered. E-Evaluate: The applicant should assess the degree of fit between the organization and his or her skills, abilities, values, and interests. The applicant should determine whether he or she wants any additional information. 8.3 Degrees of Truth in Feedback Instructor’s Notes The following incident is an avoidance situation between car-pooling work colleagues. The students are asked to decide how to respond to a direct question about Rachel’s potential as a manager. Jack runs through the possible answers mentally. Students are asked to provide the answer that they believe is most appropriate, as well as why the rejected answers would not be adequate. The guidelines below allow specific criticism for the rejected options available to Frank. The student portion of the exercise is provided on a handout at the end of this chapter guide. Giving Useful Feedback Give feedback with a constructive intent. Don’t punish in the name of feedback. If you want to be helpful, do so in a way that seems likely to work, but do not assume responsibility for how the receiver uses the feedback, nor for his or her feelings. Offer feedback as your gift that the receiver must accept, use, or ignore, as he or she prefers. Be descriptive rather than judgmental. Feedback is a chance to see yourself or your behavior through another’s eyes. Say, for example, “your illustration was very concrete” rather than “that was a great illustration.” Be specific rather than general. “When you said you were upset, I was surprised” is more specific than “I never know where you are coming from.” When you are specific, the other person knows how to “do it again” if they so choose. Give feedback in terms of your own perspective rather than an “absolute truth.” “I was pleased when you commented on my presentation.” The “I” statement is more accurate than the generalization “we all like to get comments on our presentations.” Give feedback as close as possible to the time the behavior takes place. If you believe it is necessary, let the receiver “cool off” a bit first. But remember that it is difficult to recall and reconstruct events, feelings, motives, etc., that occurred long ago. Give feedback when it is desired. Don’t waste feedback on people who are bent on resisting it. If you want to take care of yourself, confront the person instead. Give feedback on things that can be changed. Don’t waste time and emotional energy on things the person cannot change. SOURCE: Conrad Jackson, The University of Alabama, Huntsville. 8.4 MBTI® Exercise Exercise Learning Objectives a. Students will experience the different ways in which people view things. b. Students should understand that the different methods of “seeing the world” exist everywhere all the time. c. Students should understand that being “different” in the way we see and react to our environment is a strength. Exercise Overview a. Students should have taken the full MBTI instrument or the short version in Chapter 3 of the text. b. Students will be formed into groups of like-temperament types. c. Groups will be triads with two participants and one observer. d. The instructor should know how members of each temperament group function and react to the environment. Exercise Description 1. Ask the students to form a large group based on their temperament (NT, NF, SJ, SP). 2. Divide the large groups into triads if possible. (Dyads will also work, but the role of the instructor as an observer becomes more critical. Instructors will need to observe the entire group as well as individually observe the dyads.) 3. Ask each group to select an observer. The observer’s attention must be focused on the group process, i.e., how these individuals relate to one another. The observer should be able to answer questions such as: •How did the individuals in the group interact with one another? •What was the communication pattern among team members? •How did the group arrive at its conclusions? 4. Give each group a large piece of “flip chart” paper and at least four crayons or marking pens. 5. Ask each group to “draw a flower” without talking. Each participant takes turns drawing a stroke—the first participant puts down the first line and then must wait for the second participant to draw the second line. Remember NO TALKING. The OBSERVER watches the process and takes notes looking for nonverbal clues. 6. This exercise should last about 5 minutes. 7. Instructors should ask the observers to report their findings to the observed group. (Allow 5 minutes). Then, instructors should have each group hang up their pictures on the wall so that the entire class can see them. 8. Instructors should select a few observers to report to the entire group. Then, instructors should close this part of the exercise by reprocessing and highlighting the lessons learned. 9. The second phase of this exercise puts the students in unlike-temperament groups. Those who observed now become participants. Each participant should be regrouped with someone of a different temperament. 10. Instructors should assign observers to look at the communications process and to concentrate on the non-verbal interactions. 11. Instructors should rerun the exercise by having each group draw a flower without talking. 12. The observer should report to the group highlighting what was observed during the exercise. 13. Instructors should have participants hang up their pictures and select two or three observers to report their observations to the entire class. What the Instructor Should Expect a. During the first phase of this exercise, one might expect to see some minor differences in drawing the flower, but the participants should almost continue to “communicate” clearly without talking. Pens or crayons should be easily shared, and the flower should look as though one person drew it. b. In the second phase, one may expect the opposite effect. The observers should see evidence of stress (withholding crayons, flinging the crayons, using different parts of the paper, etc.). One may expect to see it as though two different people drew two different flowers. Instructor’s Summary Those people whose preference is “sensing (S)” usually demonstrate a need for details. These people focus on the present and trust known experiences. They learn sequentially (step-by-step). Additionally, they tend to be realistic, good at precise work, and like the concrete. Those people whose preference is “intuition (N)” usually demonstrate a need for patterns and relationships. These people focus on future possibilities and anticipate what might be. They trust theory more than experience and they learn by seeing the connections or patterns. Additional Examples The Effects of Extraversion and Neuroticism Current technological developments, in particular the Internet, have significantly increased the number of communication media and the way people communicate with others. A recent study focused on personality effects in the choice of communication media, especially extraversion and neuroticism. The research is based on data from two subsamples in Germany, in which one was composed primarily of university students and the other was recruited via the Internet. The subsamples were found to have virtually no differences on the main variable measures and so were combined into a single sample of 228. The investigators expected that the two personality variables would impact the choice of communication media. They further expected that social skills and social anxiety would moderate the effects of personality. The results did confirm that extraverts and those low in neuroticism preferred media with high-richness levels, such as face-to-face communication, while introverts and individuals high in neuroticism preferred media with low-richness levels, such as e-mail. These personality effects were moderated by the situation. Specifically, these effects were pronounced in threatening situations that required high social skills and entailed social anxiety or conflicts. By contrast, when challenges and potential threat of a communication situation were low, no significant personality effects occurred. The conclusion is that there are significant trait personality effects from extraversion and neuroticism in situations of social conflict. SOURCE: G. Hertel, J. Schroer, B. Batinic, and S. Naumann, “Do Shy People Prefer to Send E-Mail?” Social Psychology 39(4): 231–243. The Fame Model of Leadership Communication When AstraZeneca R&D was faced with a major and sustained change, the company decided to coach, equip, and support its leadership teams to engage employees through the challenging time. AstraZeneca R&D used a FAME model of leadership communication that is based on Focus, Articulate, Model, and Engage. First, effective leaders communicate a clear focus for what they want to help employees think, feel, and do in the midst of change. Second, leaders turn their vision into articulate words that employees can remember and repeat. Third, leaders model and provide an example for employees, using their own communication style strengths. Fourth, effective leaders help their employees see how they fit into the bigger picture and involve them effectively. Eye Contact and Voice Tone Probed to be Wind beneath His Wings Words are important, but up to 93 percent of the emotional meaning behind what is said comes through nonverbal communication. President Obama gave his inaugural address against the backdrop of a severe recession marked by massive layoffs, foreclosures, bankruptcies, and other economic difficulties. He achieved success using eye contact and tone of voice rather than more frequently used hand gestures. Rather than limiting his eye contact to particular places or segments in the audience, he intelligently used eye contact by constantly spanning the entire crowd from extreme left to extreme right. He also chose tone of voice as his most evocative and powerful nonverbal behavior. He altered it frequently to match his message, and his confident tone gave him an air of command and imparted strong meaning to his words. Case Study and Suggested Responses Smart Phones—Promoting Communication Connectedness or Disconnectedness Linkage of Case to Chapter Material This case focuses on the impact that Smart Phones have on interpersonal communications throughout the general population. Increasingly, people from all walks of life, young and old, all socio-economic strata, etc. have embraced the potential of Smart Phones for communicating with others, searching for information, doing work, playing games, and a myriad other applications. Particular emphasis is placed on how business people and college students use Smart Phones and the positive and negative effects of such usage. The case ties into chapter material regarding interpersonal communication and communicating through new technologies. Technology is viewed as a facilitator of interpersonal communication, but it still has disadvantages as well as advantages. Suggested Answers for Discussion Questions 1. Can the basic interpersonal communication model be used as an aid in understanding the impact of Smart Phone usage? If so, how? Answer: The interpersonal communication model shown in Chapter 8 has several components that are relevant to Smart Phone usage: •The communicator—he or she is the person originating the message. •The receiver—he or she is the person receiving the message. •The message—it contains the thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver. •Feedback—it occurs when the receiver provides a response to the communicator’s message. Smart Phones can be conceptualized as a technological device that facilitates interpersonal communication through e-mail capabilities, texting, documents and photographs, access to social networking sites, and the ability to search for and transfer information. Messages are transmitted from the communicator to the receiver through this technology. Each message contains information that the communicator wishes to share with the receiver. Feedback occurs through the receiver’s response to the communicator. Interpersonal Communication Model and Smartphones: Yes, the basic interpersonal communication model can aid in understanding smartphone impact by highlighting how smartphones alter sender-receiver dynamics, feedback, and noise, affecting the clarity and immediacy of communication. 2. How have Smart Phones transformed the way in which business people communicate with regard to fulfilling their job responsibilities? Answer: Smartphones and Business Communication: Smartphones have streamlined business communication by enabling instant access to emails, messages, and calls, facilitating real-time collaboration, and allowing for flexible work environments. Smart Phones have transformed the way people communicate within the workplace by shifting from heavy reliance on face-to-face communication to greater reliance on communication based on modern communication technologies. Gone are the days when communication primarily took place in person, by landlines, or through what is now called “snail mail.” In vogue are e-mail communication and instant messaging 24 hours a day, seven days a week around the globe; company and personal websites that invite communication from others; social networking websites; intranets to facilitate communication among employees; extranets to support communication with customers and suppliers; and online forums, blogs, and chat rooms where people can communicate with anyone who chooses to log on (and which can be done with impunity and anonymity). Nick Wingfield, writing in The Wall Street Journal, notes that “mobile workers have been ditching their desktop computers for laptops that they can take wherever they go. Now road warriors are starting to realize that they can get even more portabilityand lots of computing punchfrom [S]mart [P]hones.” Many business “travelers are now using [S]mart [P]hones the way they once used laptopsand laptops the way they once used desktop computers,” and some traveling business people are even “ditching their laptops entirely and doing all their mobile work from [S]mart [P]hones.” Smartphones and Business Communication: Smartphones have streamlined business communication by enabling instant access to emails, messages, and calls, facilitating real-time collaboration, and allowing for flexible work environments. 3. How have Smart Phones transformed the way in which college students communicate? Answer: Among college students, Smart phones have taken over the communication landscape. For example, texting is a dominant form of communicationand as most college students know, texting goes on at inappropriate times. Texting during classeven when it’s not allowedis an all-too-common occurrence. The rapidly expanding use of Smart Phones among college students has been accompanied by a decline in civility and empathy in interpersonal communication. “Recent research has shown a marked decline in empathy . A new University of Michigan study finds that empathy among college students has declined 40 percent in the past two decades. Researchers say one factor may be our reliance on social media. We’re more apt to be empathetic when we communicate face to face.” Smartphones and College Student Communication: Smartphones have transformed student communication by enhancing connectivity through social media, instant messaging, and group collaboration apps, making it easier to coordinate and share information. 4. Do you think that as people become more connected technologically they become less connected interpersonally? Why or why not? Answer: Students’ answers will vary. Smart Phones, despite all they can do to facilitate communication, have undermined verbal communication and promoted incivility in the communication process. Texting reigns supreme! As Joseph De Avila, reporting for The Wall Street, observes: “[F]riends hardly call each other. People resist protocols that call for verbal communication . People don’t like using their phones to make calls or listen to voice mails.” De Avila also notes there is a pervasive expectation that people have instant access to e-mail; rapid replies to one’s messages are expected too. Another reporter indicates that “[p]eople calling, texting and responding to e-mails at inappropriate times and places have become an issue in both a professional and business context.” However, some business people are rebelling against the intrusiveness of Smart Phones. Some executives eschew the short attention span that comes with instantly and continuously being “plugged in” through technology. “They have assistants that handle all their communication, prefer reading printed out e-mails, and don’t dip their toes in any social media.” Still, in today’s business culture these executives need to learn when to connect and when to disconnect. Technological Connectivity and Social Interaction: As people become more technologically connected, they may experience reduced face-to-face interactions and social skills, potentially leading to a more superficial form of communication. SOURCE: This case solution was written by Michael K. McCuddy, the Louis S. and Mary L. Morgal Chair of Christian Business Ethics and Professor of Management, College of Business Administration, Valparaiso University. Video Profile on Plant Fantasies Plant Fantasies owner Teresa Carleo doesn’t use e-mail, Facebook, or Twitter. At first glance, her preference for traditional communication methods seems out of touch with twenty-first century trends. However, leaders at Plant Fantasies desire communication that works, and that means matching the right communication channel with the right business situations. Some tasks at Plant Fantasies involve installing and maintaining gardens; other situations require collaboration with landscape designers or speaking with clients. Not all communication channels are equally suited for each situation. Discussion Questions and Solutions 1. Using the concept of information richness, explain why leaders at Plant Fantasies place a high value on face-to-face communication. Answer: Channel richness is the ability of a medium or channel to elicit or evoke meaning in the receiver. Different communication channels differ in their level of richness. Face-to-face discussion is considered the richest communication channel because it permits direct experience, multiple information cues, immediate feedback, and personal focus. In the video, the executive-level managers at Plant Fantasies discuss communication methods in the context of building customer relationships. In these business situations, low-richness channels such as e-mail, Twitter, or texting are too impersonal or one-way to enable relationships to be established and strengthened. Relationship building requires a rich medium. As seen in the video, Plant Fantasies reserves e-mail and texting for more routine situations and messages, such as coordinating daily itineraries for delivery trucks and laborers. 2. What impact might gender have on the communication styles of Teresa Carleo and Steve Martucci? Give examples. Answer: Research has shown that gender sometimes creates barriers to effective communication. In particular, gender has been linked to differences in conversational styles, and different conversation styles can lead to communication failures. Communication by women generally tends to focus on connection and the feeling of relative closeness. For women, conversation is a way to establish meaningful contact and to negotiate relationships—which may explain why Teresa Carleo prefers direct face-to-face communication. In the video, while commenting on Sales Director Steve Martucci, Carleo emphasizes the relational connection: “He knows me, knows what’s important to me—we’re good together.” Later in the video, Carleo relays a story about using hand-written letters to make personal connections with customers. In contrast, men tend to use verbal language to exhibit knowledge, pass on information, or assert power. When contrasting his own communication style with that of Teresa Carleo, Steve Martucci says that Carleo “tends to get into the relationship,” whereas he’s more into the specifics.” Martucci adds that the two “listen differently” and even form different perceptions of the same meeting. To prevent gender-related miscommunication, managers should develop an awareness of gender-specific differences in conversational style. In addition, they should seek clarification of the person’s meaning rather than interpreting meaning from their own frames of reference. 3. Although leaders at Plant Fantasies prefer face-to-face interaction, they use digital communication technologies in some situations. Which situations at Plant Fantasies require digital communication technology and why? Answer: Although face-to-face interaction is preferred at Plant Fantasies, electronic communication is part of the company’s overall communication strategy. Plant Fantasies uses electronic communication for coordinating routine labor-oriented tasks that are easily assigned and understood without the aid of nonverbal cues, reflective listening, persuasion, and sensitivity to feelings. For instance, if the company has 15 gardening jobs to fulfill in a given day, each job will require coordination of trucks, tools, plants, equipment, and laborers. To set the daily schedule, Teresa Carleo sends a batch of e-mail messages first thing in the morning. Then, as needed, landscape workers use cell phones and text messaging to address issues on site. Student Handouts Ethical Dilemma Dan Neville is the manager for a team of engineers at RFC, Inc. He is responsible for coordinating his team’s efforts on a daily, weekly, and monthly basis, as well as assuring that they are keeping on schedule with teams in other offices around the country. Dan regularly communicates with his own team via e-mail, attaching memos and instructions prior to their regular face-to-face meetings. Clear, consistent, and timely communication is an essential element of Dan’s job. Dan usually has no trouble in making his team members understand his instructions, except for Kyle Trenton. Kyle always seems to misunderstand or misinterpret Dan’s messages, even during face-to-face meetings. Kyle doesn’t seem to be deliberately obstinate; he honestly derives other meanings from Dan’s communication, and reads into the words that Dan chooses and comes up with implied ideas that Dan never intended. Inevitably, Dan has to meet with Kyle separately to ensure that Kyle understands the tasks at hand. If left to his own devices, Kyle wouldn’t come to Dan to question his interpretation of the message, because he sincerely believes that he “gets it.” However, Kyle is rarely clear about Dan’s meanings, and Dan must devote extra time and energy to reorient Kyle. Dan tries to be sympathetic, because Kyle is a nice person and a good worker, but Kyle requires twice as much time from Dan than everyone else, and this frustrates Dan. Dan sometimes worries that if Kyle misunderstands critical directions on a building project which are not corrected, someone could legitimately get hurt. Dan has an opportunity to move Kyle onto a new position, where he would no longer have to work with Dan’s current team and Dan would no longer have to communicate with Kyle. However, Dan knows that Ken Rothberg, the head of that team, is known for being a very poor communicator. And if Dan were to go ahead and move Kyle onto this position, he suspects that Ken wouldn’t take any additional time to ensure that Kyle understood his instructions and that could cause even more critical problems for the organization. Questions 1. Using consequential, rule-based and character theories, evaluate Dan’s options. Answer: Evaluation of Dan’s Options: • Consequential Theories: Moving Kyle may reduce Dan's frustration, but if Ken Rothberg fails to communicate effectively, it could jeopardize the project, leading to worse outcomes. • Rule-Based Theories: Ethically, Dan should ensure that any decision upholds principles of fairness and duty. It’s crucial to provide support for Kyle’s understanding, regardless of communication challenges. • Character Theories: Dan should act with integrity and compassion, balancing empathy for Kyle with his responsibility to the team's overall effectiveness. 2. What should Dan do? Why? Answer: Recommendation: Dan should not move Kyle if it means exposing him to poor communication conditions. Instead, Dan should consider additional training or support for Kyle to improve understanding, while exploring ways to address communication issues with Ken Rothberg. What about You? Are You an Active Listener? Reflective listening is a skill that you can practice and learn. Here are ten tips to help you become a better listener. 1. Stop talking. You cannot listen if your mouth is moving. 2. Put the speaker at ease. Break the ice to help the speaker relax. Smile! 3. Show the speaker you want to listen. Put away your work. Do not look at your watch. Maintain good eye contact. 4. Remove distractions. Close your door. Do not answer the telephone. 5. Empathize with the speaker. Put yourself in the speaker’s shoes. 6. Be patient. Not everyone delivers messages at the same pace. 7. Hold your temper. Do not fly off the handle. 8. Go easy on criticism. Criticizing the speaker can stifle communication. 9. Ask questions. Paraphrase and clarify the speaker’s message. 10. Stop talking. By this stage, you are probably very tempted to start talking, but do not. Be sure the speaker has finished. Think of the last time when you had a difficult communication with someone at work or school. Evaluate yourself in that situation against each of the ten items. Which one(s) do you need to improve on the most? SOURCE: From “Steps to Better Listening” by C. Hamilton and B. H. Kleiner. Copyright © February 1987. Reprinted with permission, Personnel Journal, all rights reserved. What about You? What Kind of a Defender Are You? Not all of our communication is defensive, but each of us has a tendency to engage in either subordinate or dominant defensiveness. The following table presents twelve sets of choices that will help you see whether you tend to be more subordinate or dominant when you communicate defensively. Complete the questionnaire by allocating 10 points between the two alternatives in each of the twelve rows. For example, if you never ask permission when it is not needed, but you do give or deny permission frequently, you may give yourself 0 and 10 points, respectively, in the third row. However, if you do each of these behaviors about equally, though at different times, you may want to give yourself 5 points for each alternative. Add your total points for each column. Whichever number is larger, identifies your defensive style. Subordinate Defensiveness Explain, prove, justify your actions, ideas, or feelings more than is required for results wanted. Answer: This behavior reflects a lack of confidence and an attempt to preempt criticism by over-explaining, which can undermine credibility and create unnecessary tension. Ask why things are done the way they are, when you really want to change them. Why don’t they …. ? Answer: This approach can signal a lack of assertiveness and clarity about one's intentions, leading to frustration and confusion rather than driving effective change. Ask permissions when not needed. Is it okay with you if …? Answer: • Asking for permission when not needed can undermine your authority and suggest a lack of confidence. Give away decisions, ideas, or power when it would be appropriate to claim them as your own. Don’t you think that …? Answer: • Giving away decisions or credit when you should claim them can diminish your influence and recognition. Apologize, feel inadequate, say I’m sorry when you’re not. Answer: • Apologizing unnecessarily can erode your credibility and convey insecurity. Submit or withdraw when it’s not in your best interest. Whatever you say …. Answer: • Submitting or withdrawing when it’s not in your best interest can compromise your position and rights. Lose your cool, lash out, cry where it’s inappropriate (turning your anger toward yourself). Answer: • Losing your cool or crying inappropriately can undermine your professionalism and emotional control. Go blank, click off, and be at a loss for words just when you want to have a ready response. I should’ve said … (afterwards) Answer: • Going blank or being at a loss for words can hinder effective communication and problem-solving. Use coping humor, hostile jocularity, or put yourself down when “buying time” or honest feedback would get better results. Why don’t you lay off? Answer: • Using coping humor or putting yourself down to buy time may mask underlying issues and prevent constructive feedback. Use self-deprecating adjectives and reactive verbs. I’m just a … I’m just doing what I was told. Answer: • Using self-deprecating adjectives and reactive verbs can diminish your perceived competence and self-confidence. Use the general you and they when I and personal names would state the situation more clearly. They really hassle you here. Answer: • Using general terms like "you" and "they" can obscure responsibility and fail to address specific issues clearly. Smile to cover up feelings or put yourself down since you don’t know what else to do and it’s nice. Answer: • Smiling to cover up feelings or putting yourself down can mask true emotions and hinder authentic communication. _____ TOTAL Subordinate Points Answer: To calculate the total subordinate points: 1. List all instances of subordinate defensiveness behaviors you've encountered or used. 2. Assign a point value to each behavior based on its severity or frequency (if a scale is provided). 3. Add up the points from each behavior. For example, if each behavior is worth 1 point and you identified 10 instances Dominant Defensiveness _____ Prove that you’re right. I told you so. Now see, that proves my point. _____ Give patient explanations but few answers. It’s always been done this way. We tried that before, but …. _____ Give or deny permission. Oh, I couldn’t let you do that. _____ Make decisions or take power as your natural right. The best way to do it is …. Don’t argue, just do as I say. _____ Prod people to get the job done. Don’t just stand there …. _____ Take over a situation or decision even when it’s delegated; get arbitrary. My mind is made up. _____ Lose your cool, yell, pound the desk where it’s inappropriate (turning your anger toward others). _____ Shift responsibility for something you should have taken care of yourself. You’ve always done it before. What’re you all of a sudden upset for now? _____ Use coping humor, baiting, teasing, hostile jocularity, mimicry to keep other people off balance so you don’t have to deal with them. What’s the matter, can’t you take it? _____ Impress others with how many important people you know. The other night at Bigname’s party when I was talking to …. _____ Don’t listen: interpret. Catch the idea of what they’re saying, then list rebuttals or redefine their point. Now what you really mean is …. _____ Use verbal dominance, if necessary, to make your point. Don’t let anyone interrupt what you have to say. _____ TOTAL Dominant Points Issues in Diversity Contemporary Media Coverage—Spinning Out of Control? Before she was asked to resign in July 2010 for making racist remarks, Shirley Sherrod, was one of the highest-ranking black employees in the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and served for nearly a year as the head of USDA’s Rural Development office in Georgia. Sherrod is hardly the first high-ranking employee who was asked to resign from a position. She is, perhaps, the only one whose resignation was the direct result of inaccurate and misleading media coverage. Sherrod’s troubles began when Andrew Breitbart, a conservative blogger, posted a video clip on his website that contained Sherrod’s remarks made at the NAACP Freedom Fund banquet held earlier during the year. In her remarks, Sherrod told the blogger a story about how she had once provided “just enough” assistance to a white farmer who risked losing his farm. She admitted that her reluctance to help the farmer was initially driven by his race. After all, many black farmers in the region had already lost their farms. But, Sherrod’s story didn’t end there. She went on to tell the banquet audience how she came to the realization that the issue was not one of race, but of class. Instead of demonstrating how she used race to deny white farmers government assistance, Sherrod’s remarks demonstrated just the opposite. However, Breitbart’s heavily edited video clip did not show Sherrod’s complete remarks. As a result, Sherrod was accused of being a “reverse racist” and used her power at the USDA to advance her racist agenda. What followed was a type of warfare among cable news outlets that has become symbolic of the 24-hour news culture in this country. By the time the unedited video clip was widely released, it was far too late for Sherrod to get her job back. The damage had already been done. Questions 1. Do you believe media outlets should receive increased scrutiny when they report stories that involve race? Explain your position. Answer: Yes, media outlets should receive increased scrutiny when reporting on race. Stories involving race can significantly impact public perception and individual reputations, making accuracy and context crucial. Increased scrutiny ensures that coverage is fair, comprehensive, and avoids perpetuating harmful stereotypes or misinformation. 2. How do you reconcile the public’s need to know with the time it often takes to ensure news stories are properly vetted before they are aired? Answer: Balancing the public’s need to know with proper vetting involves prioritizing transparency and accuracy. Media outlets should implement rigorous fact-checking and verification processes, even if it means delaying a story. While speed is important, the potential consequences of spreading misinformation justify a more thorough approach to ensure responsible journalism. SOURCE: D. Morgan, “Shirley Sherrod resigns from USDA over race remark furor,” CBS News.com; B. Shelter, “When race is the issue, misleading coverage sets off an uproar,” The New York Times (July 26, 2010). Experiential Exercise Communicate, Listen, Understand The following exercise gives students an opportunity to work within a three-person group to do a communication skill-building exercise. They can learn to apply some of the reflective listening and two-way communication materials from the early sections of the chapter, as well as some of the lessons managing difficult communication in a nondefensive manner. Step 1. The class is formed into three-person groups and each group designates its members “A,” “B,” and “C.” There will be three 5- to 7-minute conversations among the group members—first, between A and B; second, between B and C; third, between C and A. During each conversation, the nonparticipating group member is to observe and make notes about two communicating group members. Step 2. Your instructor will give you a list of controversial topics and ask A to pick a topic. A is then asked to discuss her or his position on this topic, with the rationale for the position, with B. B is to practice reflective listening and engage in listening checks periodically by paraphrasing what he or she understands to be A’s position. C should observe whether B is practicing good listening skills or becoming defensive. C should also observe whether A is becoming dominantly defensive in the communication. This should be a two-way communication. Step 3. Repeat Step 2 with B as communicator, C as listener, and A as observer. Step 4. Repeat Step 2 with C as communicator, A as listener, and B as observer. Step 5. After instructors have had all groups complete Steps 1 through 4, their three-person groups should answer the following questions: 1. Did either the listener or the communicator become visibly (or internally) angry or upset during the discussion? Answer: Yes, both listeners and communicators occasionally became visibly or internally upset, especially when the discussion touched on sensitive issues. 2. What were the biggest challenges for the listeners and for the communicator in the controversial communication? Answer: The biggest challenges included maintaining composure, avoiding defensive reactions, and ensuring accurate understanding of the other person's position. 3. What are the most important skill improvements (e.g., better eye contact or more patience) the listener and communicator could have made to improve the quality of understanding achieved through the communication process? Answer: Improvement areas include enhancing patience, practicing active listening with regular paraphrasing, maintaining eye contact, and managing emotional responses to foster clearer and more empathetic communication. Experiential Exercise Preparing For an Employment Selection Interview The purpose of this exercise is to help students develop guidelines for an employment selection interview. Such interviews are one of the more important settings in which supervisors and job candidates use applied communication skills. There is always the potential for defensiveness and confusion as well as lack of complete information exchange in this interview. This exercise allows students to think through ways to maximize the value of an employment selection interview, whether as the supervisor or the candidate, so that it is a productive experience based on effective applied communication. Form the class into groups of students. Each group should work through Steps 1 and 2 of the exercise. Step 1. Guidelines for the Supervisor Develop a set of guidelines for the supervisor in preparing for and then conducting an employment selection interview. Consider the following questions in developing your guidelines: a. What should the supervisor do before the interview? b. How should the supervisor act and behave during the interview? c. What should the supervisor do after the interview? Step 2. Guidelines for the Employee Develop another set of guidelines for the employee in preparing for and then being involved in an employment selection interview. Consider the following questions in developing your guidelines: a. What should the employee do before the interview? b. How should the employee act and behave during the interview? c. What should the employee do after the interview? Once each group has developed the two sets of guidelines, lead the class in a general discussion in which groups share and compare their guidelines. Ask students to consider the following questions during this discussion: 1. What similarities are there among the groups for each set of guidelines? Answer: • Most groups emphasized the importance of preparation, clear communication, and timely follow-up for both supervisors and employees. 2. What unique or different guidelines have some of the groups developed? Answer: • Some groups suggested additional specifics, such as using a scoring system for evaluating candidates or preparing a list of company values for employees to review before the interview. 3. What are the essential guidelines for conducting an employment-selection interview? Answer: • Essential guidelines include thorough preparation, clear and unbiased questioning, active listening, and timely communication of decisions. Both parties should be well-prepared, respectful, and focused on ensuring a mutually beneficial exchange of information. Experiential Exercise Degrees of Truth in Feedback For the scenario described below, consider the appropriateness of the feedback examples provided. Jack and Rachel have been carpooling for about a year. Although they do not socialize much outside of work (nor interact much at work), they have a very friendly relationship during the half hour or so when they are together each morning and each evening. Jack thinks of Rachel as a friend, and apparently Rachel feels the same way, as they often share insights about how they feel about their jobs, families, etc. Jack sees Rachel as a nice person, though perhaps overly rigid about how other people look at the world. Rachel has often said that she feels that her boss “doesn’t treat her like someone who is being considered for promotion to a supervisory job.” She asks Jack “do you see me as supervisor material?” Critique each of the following responses Jack might give in terms of the guidelines for useful interaction: a. Hey, I think you would make a great supervisor. I’m sure it would be a challenge to anyone, but you’d do just fine. Why don’t you go in there and tell your boss that you want to know when you are going to be promoted? b. I really don’t know. If you’re not happy now, you should certainly give it a try. But don’t worry about it until you have to cross that bridge, though. c. Look, Rachel, I’m your friend, so I’ll tell you straight. You’re too neurotic about things. People don’t like the way you come on strong all the time. Nobody’s going to understand where you’re coming from like I do because they don’t spend the time with you that I do. d. I think I would feel comfortable working for you. Just this afternoon I’ve given my opinion about the merger and about the NAFTA decision and you didn’t try to tell me I was wrong about either, even though you obviously disagree. But I must admit that you didn’t ask for my opinion about either one. e. Well, I think you sometimes seem a bit opinionated. Of course everyone usually has opinions, and yours are probably as good as anyone’s. But maybe you’d be better off if on occasion you would ask for other people’s opinions more. Case Study Smart Phones—Promoting Communication Connectedness or Disconnectedness? In early 2007, Anjali Athavaley, writing in The Wall Street Journal, observed that “[w]ireless email devices used to be largely the domain of harried executives and professionals. Now, the so-called CrackBerry effect is beginning to afflict the masses. The BlackBerry has become ingrained in daily life, much like the cellphone and computer.” Indeed, since this observation was penned, Smart Phones, like the BlackBerry, have become ubiquitous in the general population. Increasingly, people from all walks of life, young and old, all socio-economic strata, etc. have embraced the potential of Smart Phones for communicating with others, searching for information, doing work, playing games, and a myriad other applications. “[E]veryone from stay-at-home parents to college students depend on BlackBerrys or similar devices for basic daily tasks, such as to check sports scores, find directions, email the children’s baseball coach and keeping in up-to-the-minute touch with their friends.” “They talk on mobile phones, check email on handheld computers or integrated communicators, or get an instant or a text message on either device. Some listen to music and play games on personal game consoles, while others check sports scores, watch replays, or even make dinner reservations. Regardless of the age, gender, national identity, or socio-economic status factors, broad mobile device adoption seems to know no bounds.” There are numerous potential applications for Smart Phones like the BlackBerry. Nick Wingfield, writing in The Wall Street Journal, notes that “mobile workers have been ditching their desktop computers for laptops that they can take them wherever they go. Now, road warriors are starting to realize that they can get even more portabilityand lots of computing punchfrom [S]mart [P]hones.” Many business “travelers are now using [S]mart [P]hones the way they once used laptopsand laptops the way they once used desktop computers,” and some traveling business people are even “ditching their laptops entirely and doing all their mobile work from [S]mart [P]hones.” Interestingly, with the increased popularity of Smart Phones and all that they can do to facilitate communication, they have also undermined verbal communication and promoted incivility in the communication process. “[F]riends hardly call each other. People resist protocols that call for verbal communication . People don’t like using their phones to make calls or listen to voice mails.” Texting seems to be the preferred mode, especially for younger people, when communicating with others. Among college students, texting is a dominant form of communicationand as most any college student knows, texting goes on at inappropriate times. For instance, texting during classeven when it’s not allowedis an all-too-common occurrence. “In a survey of 1,043 college students at the University of New Hampshire, almost half said they feel guilty about texting during class when it’s not allowed. Even so, texting is quite common: 65 percent said they send at least one text message during a typical class.” “People calling, texting and responding to e-mails at inappropriate times and places have become an issue in both a professional and business context.” Joseph De Avila, reporting for The Wall Street Journal, notes that there is a pervasive expectation that people have instant access to email, and rapid replies to one’s messages are also expected. Incivility in interpersonal communication is also manifested in the level of empathy that people display toward each other. “Recent research has shown a marked decline in empathy . A new University of Michigan study finds that empathy among college students has declined 40 percent in the past two decades. Researchers say one factor may be our reliance on social media. We’re more apt to be empathetic when we communicate face to face.” Yet there is some backlash to the pull of technological connectivity. “In an increasingly connected world, some CEOs prefer to kick it old school, thereby avoiding the short attention span that comes with being plugged in. They have assistants who handle all of their communication, prefer reading printed out e-mails, and don’t dip their toes in any social media. That level of isolation is unrealistic for most executives, but learning when to connect and when to disconnect is essential in today’s business culture.” As people in all walks of life are becoming more connected technologically, are they becoming increasingly disconnected interpersonally? Discussion Questions 1. Can the basic interpersonal communication model be used as an aid in understanding the impact of Smart Phone usage? If so, how? Answer: Yes, the basic interpersonal communication model can aid in understanding the impact of smartphone usage. Smartphones facilitate various components of this model, including the sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback. Smartphones enable real-time communication and feedback through multiple channels (text, email, social media), enhancing or complicating interpersonal interactions depending on the context. 2. How have Smart Phones transformed the way in which business people communicate with regard to fulfilling their job responsibilities? Answer: Smartphones have transformed business communication by enabling instant connectivity, facilitating remote work, and allowing quick access to emails, documents, and collaboration tools. This has increased productivity but also blurs work-life boundaries and can lead to constant interruptions. 3. How have Smart Phones transformed the way in which college students communicate? Answer: Smartphones have transformed communication among college students by enabling constant connectivity through texting, social media, and group chats. This fosters more immediate and frequent interaction but can also lead to distractions and a reliance on digital communication over face-to-face conversations. 4. Do you think that as people become more connected technologically, they become less connected interpersonally? Why or why not? Answer: Yes, people can become less connected interpersonally as technological connectivity increases. While technology facilitates communication, it can also lead to superficial interactions and reduced quality of face-to-face conversations, potentially weakening personal bonds and reducing emotional depth in relationships. SOURCE: This case was written by Michael K. McCuddy, The Louis S. and Mary L. Morgal Chair of Christian Business Ethics and Professor of Management, College of Business Administration, Valparaiso University. A. Athavaley, “The New BlackBerry Addicts; Ubiquitous Professional Device Becomes Staple of Private Lie; Emailing the Kids’ Coach,” The Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition) (January 23, 2001): D1. A. Athavaley, “The New BlackBerry Addicts; Ubiquitous Professional Device Becomes Staple of Private Lie; Emailing the Kids’ Coach,” The Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition) (January 23, 2001): D1. E.D. Wagner and P. Wilson, “Disconnected,” T + D 59(12) (December 2005): 40 (4 pages). N. Wingfield, “Technology (A Special Report); Why It May Be Time to Leave the Laptop Behind; For More Mobile Workers, Phone Increasingly Give Them Much of What They NeedWith a Lot Less Hassle,” The Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition) (October 27, 2008): R4. N. Wingfield, “Technology (A Special Report); Why It May Be Time to Leave the Laptop Behind; For More Mobile Workers, Phone Increasingly Give Them Much of What They NeedWith a Lot Less Hassle,” The Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition) (October 27, 2008): R4. J. De Avila, “The Unused Cellphone App: ‘Calling’,” The Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition) (February 24, 2010): D1. Anonymous, “College Kids Often Feel Guilty About Texting in Class: Survey; Half feel bad about messaging when it’s banned, but two-thirds do it,” HealthDay News, http://consumer.healthday.com/mental-health-information-25/behavior-health-news-56/college-kids-often-feel-guilty-about-texting-in-class-survey-650256.html (accessed February 19, 2014). B. Pachter, “Mind Your Business Manners: Etiquette Suggestions for Success,” CPA Practice Management Forum 6(5) (May 2010): 16 (3 pages). J. De Avila, “The Unused Cellphone App: ‘Calling’,” The Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition) (February 24, 2010): D1. J. Zaslow, “Keeping Your Foot Away From Your Mouth,” The Wall Street Journal (Eastern edition) (July 7, 2010): D1. A. Chapin, “Wired CEOs Learn to Tune Out, Turn Off,” Canadian Business 84(1) (Summer 2011): 127. Solution Manual for ORGB Organizational Behavior Debra L. Nelson, James Campbell Quick 9781305663916, 9781337148443
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