Chapter 8 Cognitive Development in Early Childhood 8.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. During what age range are children typically in the stage of preoperational thought? A) birth to 2 years B) 3 to 6 years C) 7 to 10 years D) 10 to 14 years Answer: B) 3 to 6 years 2. The stage in Piaget's theory during which children's thought is characterized by the use of mental representations and intuitive thought is called A) preoperations. B) concrete operations. C) sensorimotor. D) formal operations. Answer: A) preoperations. 3. Kwame is a normally developing 4-year-old. He remembers playing with a toy fire engine at his cousin's house the previous day. Although he didn't have his favorite stuffed animal with him when he played with the fire engine, Kwame can imagine putting the bear on the fire engine and giving it a ride. These thoughts and memories demonstrate A) conservation. B) egocentrism. C) preoperational thought. D) scaffolding. Answer: C) preoperational thought. In preoperational thought, the child can remember what the toy looked like yesterday, imagine playing with it in a way they have never tried before, and even imagine what it tastes like without needing to put it in their mouths. 4. Piaget called logical processes that can be reversed A) operations. B) animism. C) egocentrism. D) all of the above Answer: A) operations. 5. Language development, according to Piaget, is based on what ability in young children? A) egocentrism B) intuitive thought C) metacognition D) mental representation Answer: D) mental representation Language development is based on children’s mental representational ability. 6. There is an explosive increase in children’s language ability after the age of A) 1. B) 2. C) 3. D) 4. Answer: B) 2. 7. Piaget viewed language as a(n) ________ system. A) conservation B) symbol C) operational D) animism Answer: B) symbol Language development is based on children’s mental representational ability—their ability to let a symbol stand for an object in the environment. 8. Tiffani, age 4, drew a circle with eyes, nose and a mouth. She made 4 lines coming out of the circle for arms and legs. Tiffani proudly presented it to her father, saying "I drew a picture of you!" Her art is evidence that she has developed A) egocentrism. B) animism. C) mental representation. D) sensorimotor skills. Answer: C) mental representation. At age 4, the child draws the person as a happy head with arms and legs, which shows her mental representation. 9. Piaget believed children demonstrated mental representation by what kind of play? A) sensorimotor B) sociocultural C) conservation D) symbolic Answer: D) symbolic In symbolic play, children use one object to stand for another. 10. Three-year-old Isabella is pretending to feed her doll. She puts three wooden blocks on a toy plate. Using the blocks as food demonstrates A) symbolic play. B) sensorimotor play. C) animism. D) intuitive play. Answer: A) symbolic play. In symbolic play, children use one object to stand for another. 11. Thought and logic based on one's personal experience is called A) conservation. B) intuitive thought. C) concrete operations. D) scaffolding. Answer: B) intuitive thought. Intuitive thought is thought and logic that is based on a child’s personal experience rather than on a formal system of rules. 12. The text gives an example of a boy of 3½ years describing a foggy morning as "froggy." Their child explained that "when all the frogs breathe out they make the air froggy." This is an example of A) egocentrism. B) conservation. C) private speech. D) intuitive thinking. Answer: D) intuitive thinking. Intuitive thought is thought and logic that is based on a child’s personal experience rather than on a formal system of rules. 13. Which of the following is a characteristic of preoperational thought? A) operations B) animism C) conservation D) mediation Answer: B) animism The idea that inanimate objects have conscious life and feelings is animism. 14. The term Piaget used to refer to a young child's inability to take another person's perspective is A) egocentrism. B) animism. C) artificialism. D) conservation. Answer: A) egocentrism. The child’s inability to take another person’s perspective is egocentrism. 15. Four-year-old Clinton is talking to his grandmother on the phone. He looks out of the window as he talks and sees a bird in a tree. Clinton says "Look at the bird, Granny! What kind is it?" His belief that his grandmother sees what he sees is called A) processing capacity. B) egocentrism. C) private speech. D) animism. Answer: B) egocentrism. The child’s inability to take another person’s perspective is egocentrism. 16. Piaget used the three-mountain task to demonstrate which characteristic of preoperational thought? A) artificialism B) conservation C) animism D) egocentrism Answer: D) egocentrism The child’s inability to take another person’s perspective is egocentrism. 17. After a windy night, 5-year-old Tori notices a broken branch on a tree. She says "The tree is crying because its branch got broke." This is an example of A) conservation. B) artificialism. C) animism. D) private speech. Answer: C) animism. The idea that inanimate objects have conscious life and feelings is animism. 18. A child who believes that rain is caused by God crying demonstrates which characteristic of preoperational thinking? A) artificialism B) conservation C) egocentrism D) metacognition Answer: A) artificialism. The notion that natural events or objects are under the control of people or of superhuman agents is artificialism. 19. The three basic properties of an object are volume, weight, and A) liquid B) number C) mass D) height Answer: C) mass 20. In Piaget's theory, the understanding that basic properties of objects remain the same even when their physical appearance changes is called A) preoperations. B) conservation. C) overregularization. D) animism. Answer: B) conservation. 21. Four-year-old Jacob is shown two identical glasses of juice. While he watches, one glass of juice is poured into a short, wide glass. Piaget used this to test children's understanding of A) animism. B) accommodation. C) assimilation. D) conservation. Answer: D) conservation. The understanding that some basic properties of objects remain the same even when a transformation changes the physical appearance is called conservation. 22. In Piaget's classic test of conservation of liquid, preoperational children focus on either the height or the width of the liquid in the container. This focus shows A) lack of reversible thinking. B) centration. C) egocentrism. D) metacognition. Answer: B) centration. Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at a time instead of taking several aspects into consideration. 23. With Joshua watching, an experimenter pours the contents of one beaker into a taller and skinnier beaker. When asked if the two beakers have the same amount, Joshua, age 4, would say A) they are the same. B) the first one holds more. C) the taller one holds more. D) there is not as much liquid. Answer: C) the taller one holds more. Younger children typically claim that the taller beaker has more liquid than the shorter beaker. 24. When young children focus on the static end points in a conservation task rather than the transformation itself, they are demonstrating A) operations. B) reversibility. C) preoperational thinking. D) animism. Answer: C) preoperational thinking. Young children focus on the static endpoints of the transformation rather than considering what happened in the transformation itself. 25. Ms. Chen, a kindergarten teacher, shows her students two identical balls of Play Dough. She then flattens one into a "pancake" and asks them whether the ball or pancake has more Play Dough. Some say the pancake because it is wider; some say the ball because it's taller. All of the children's answers exhibit A) lack of reversibility. B) zone of proximal development. C) egocentrism. D) metacognition. Answer: A) lack of reversibility. Children at this stage lack a grasp of reversibility. 26. Four-year-olds generally can't understand that subtraction undoes addition, as in 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 - 2 = 3. This is because their cognitive structures are A) artificial. B) assimilated. C) not reversible. D) internalized. Answer: C) not reversible. If we have 4 and take 2 away, we need to understand that we can return to 4 by adding 2 back. 27. First graders think more concretely, and it would be unrealistic to ask them to tackle national abstract issues. Which topic would work best with this age group? A) family B) other cultures C) the jungle D) the desert Answer: A) family First graders think more concretely and have difficulty thinking beyond their home, family, and friends. 28. In a "Professional Perspective: Meet a Constructivist Teacher," which theory does the teacher use in her teaching? A) Abecedarian B) Vygotsky's C) ZPD D) Piaget's Answer: D) Piaget's 29. Which of the following statements about Piaget's legacy is FALSE? A) Piaget's theory led to more passive types of teaching and learning. B) Piaget changed psychology's view of young children. C) Piaget influenced education to be more active and "hands on." D) Piaget's stages have shaped guidelines for when certain types of learning should be introduced. Answer: A) Piaget's theory led to more passive types of teaching and learning. The notion of the child as an active and curious organism led to the design of interactive and hands-on curricula. 30. Mr. Sanchez teaches second grade. He presents his students with puzzles and conflicting answers to challenge their cognitive structures. Mr. Sanchez is using A) scaffolding. B) Piaget's theory. C) Vygotsky's theory. D) information processing. Answer: B) Piaget's theory. They do this by deliberately presenting children with puzzles, debates, and conflicting opinions to intentionally challenge children’s existing cognitive structures. 31. What kind of theory did Vygotsky have? A) sociocultural B) metacognitive C) information processing D) scaffolding Answer: A) sociocultural 32. What is the central theme in Vygotsky's theory? A) Children go through distinct stages in their cognitive development. B) Children learn from their culture and from social interactions. C) Children learn from a theory of mind. D) Children process information like a computer. Answer: B) Children learn from their culture and from social interactions. Vygotsky is one theorist who gave the role of social interaction and culture a central place in his account of cognitive development. 33. A young Vygotsky faced predjudice, discrimination, and strict governmental restrictions because his family was ______. A) Russian B) Jewish C) Marxist D) wealthy Answer: B) Jewish 34. Vygotsky called what we hear as people talk around us A) overregularized speech. B) private speech. C) social speech. D) the ZPD. Answer: C) social speech. 35. Vygotsky received his early education from A) the University of Moscow B) a private tutor C) his father D) Moscow’s Psychological Institute Answer: B) a private tutor 36. The Soviet government saw the influence of foreigners as A) competition. B) undesirable. C) desirable. D) inaccurate. Answer: B) undesirable. Officials in the Soviet government saw the influence of foreigners as undesirable. 37. Vygotsky’s ideas were heavily influenced by A) his family background. B) his level of education. C) his religion. D) his belief in the philosophy of the communist Soviet Union. Answer: D) his belief in the philosophy of the communist Soviet Union. 38. Tony, who is 3, often talks to himself while playing with his toys. Vygotsky called this A) private speech. B) social speech. C) internalization. D) conservation. Answer: A) private speech. Private speech is speech that children say aloud to themselves. It is later internalized to form inner speech and mental activity. 39. When young children are learning new or difficult tasks they often use A) conservation. B) theory of mind. C) the ZPD. D) private speech. Answer: D) private speech. Private speech is speech that children say aloud to themselves. It is later internalized to form inner speech and mental activity. 40. Rachel is learning to tie her shoes. As she tries to tie her sneaker laces she says out loud "cross over and pull—now make bunny ears and put one under the other." Rachel is using A) conservation. B) processing capacity. C) private speech. D) overregularized speech. Answer: C) private speech. Private speech is speech that children say aloud to themselves. It is later internalized to form inner speech and mental activity. 41. It is the language (speech) that carries the concepts and cognitive structures to the child, and these concepts become the _____ that the child will use. A) psychological tools B) physical tools C) emotional tools D) social skills Answer: A) psychological tools. It is the language (speech) that carries the concepts and cognitive structures to the child, and these concepts become the psychological tools that the child will use. 42. As children grow older, their private speech is not out loud, but in their mind. This process is called A) theory of mind. B) internalization. C) egocentrism. D) ZPD. Answer: B) internalization. 43. Children who use private speech _____ tend to be the ones who perform best in difficult tasks. A) the least B) the most C) selectively D) not at all Answer: B) the most 44. Which of the following is a function of private speech? A) to distract their attention B) to help them be hands-on C) planning problem solving D) to assist intuitive thought Answer: C) planning problem solving 45. The process whereby adults or more advanced peers introduce new concepts, knowledge, and skills to a child is called A) processing efficiency. B) fast mapping. C) information processing. D) mediation. Answer: D) mediation. 46. Sam is helping his younger brother put a puzzle together. He teaches him strategies such as matching colors and starting with the corners. The process Sam is using to teach his brother is called A) mediation. B) theory of mind. C) centration. D) private speech. Answer: A) mediation. Mediation is the process of introducing concepts, knowledge, skills, and strategies to the child. 47. When a skilled teacher works with a child learning to read, the teacher typically highlights reading strategies such as sounding out the letters in a word. In Vygotsky's theory, this teaching process is A) metacognition. B) internalization. C) mediation. D) animism. Answer: C) mediation. 48. The key to making mediation effective is A) using processing capacity. B) tailoring it to the learner. C) focusing on overregularization. D) introducing all of the strategies right in the beginning. Answer: B) tailoring it to the learner. The key to making mediation effective is to tailor it to an appropriate level for the individual child. 49. Vygotsky termed the distance between a learner's maximum independent performance and the tasks the learner can perform with assistance A) internalization. B) processing efficiency. C) mediation. D) the ZPD. Answer: D) the ZPD. 50. You volunteer as a tutor with your college's community outreach program. Before you try to tutor the child assigned to you, Vygotsky would advise you to A) determine the child's ZPD. B) assess the child's stage of cognitive development. C) see if the child has developed theory of mind. D) test the child's processing efficiency. Answer: A) determine the child's ZPD. The ZPD refers to the range of problems a child can solve if given some assistance. 51. The bottom level of the ZPD is A) the easiest problems a child can solve alone. B) the problems a child cannot solve, even with help. C) the most challenging problems a child can already solve independently. D) a measure of their processing efficiency. Answer: C) the most challenging problems a child can already solve independently. 52. Six-year-old Seamus is learning addition and subtraction. No matter how much his mother explains it, Seamus does not understand division, however. Division would be at what part of Seamus' ZPD? A) bottom B) top C) middle D) not there at all Answer: B) top The top boundary of the ZPD consists of problems that the child cannot solve, no matter how much support others may offer. 53. Tasks inside a child's ZPD require mental functions that the child has A) not yet mediated. B) completely internalized. C) no sociocultural experiences of. D) not yet completely internalized. Answer: D) not yet completely internalized. The tasks within this zone require mental functions that the child is in the process of internalizing but has not yet completely internalized. 54. When children have effective mediation in learning a new skill, A) they acquire conservation. B) they stop using social speech. C) the boundaries of their ZPD move up. D) the boundaries of their ZPD move down. Answer: C) the boundaries of their ZPD move up. The boundaries move up as the natural result of effective mediation within the ZPD. 55. Which of the following, according to Vygotsky's theory, would be the most effective way to teach children? A) Give them challenging tasks and help. B) Give them easy material to start with. C) Make them work independently. D) Partner them with someone else just learning the material. Answer: A) Give them challenging tasks and help. The most effective instruction involves giving children challenging material, along with help in mastering it. 56. The most informative assessments are A) written tests. B) demonstrations. C) tests of independent performance. D) tests of assisted performance. Answer: D) tests of assisted performance. The most informative assessments are tests of assisted performance. 57. The support given to children as they learn a new skill is called A) processing capacity. B) scaffolding. C) centration. D) executive processes. Answer: B) scaffolding. 58. Ms. Miller is teaching Joseph to play the clarinet. At his first lesson, she places his finger in the proper position on the clarinet. This is an example of A) internalization. B) scaffolding. C) fast mapping. D) social speech. Answer: B) scaffolding. Scaffolding is support given to a child as he or she develops a new mental function or learns to perform a particular task. 59. Children working together to help each other solve problems is called A) collaborative learning. B) internalization. C) executive processes. D) ZPD. Answer: A) collaborative learning. 60. An example of scaffolding is A) doing part of the task for the child. B) simplifying difficult parts. C) talking the child through the task. D) all of the above. Answer: D) all of the above. Scaffolding can take many different forms such as doing part of a task for the child, simplifying difficult parts, talking the child through the task, or giving reminders. 61. Your child development instructor breaks the class down into small groups and assigns each child in the group to teach the rest of the group a section of Chapter 8. What technique is your instructor using? A) encoding B) theory of mind C) collaborative learning D) metacognition Answer: C) collaborative learning. Collaborative learning is the process where children work together to help one another solve problems, share their knowledge and skills, and discuss their strategies and knowledge. 62. Vygotsky emphasized that cognitive development is driven by A) social interaction. B) parental encouragement. C) physical growth. D) emotional growth. Answer: A) social interaction. 63. The information processing theory of cognitive development is based on comparing thinking processes to A) the ZPD. B) computers. C) code switching. D) synaptogenesis. Answer: B) computers. 64. The approach to cognitive development that looks at how individuals store, retrieve, and transfer information is the A) theory of mind. B) collaboration approach. C) information processing approach. D) Vygotskyian computer model. Answer: C) information processing approach. 65. The "software" that an individual uses to transform information is/are A) automatic. B) social rules of discourse. C) strategies. D) scaffolds. Answer: C) strategies. Much of cognitive development consists of developing strategies for making the most of our limited capacity. 66. Which of the following is an important assumption of the information processing approach? A) Humans are limited in their capacity to process information. B) Human thought is as accurate as a computer. C) Short-term memory is comparable to a CD-ROM or hard drive on a computer. D) Cognitive development progresses in stages. Answer: A) Humans are limited in their capacity to process information. 67. According to the information processing theorists, most of the cognitive development A) is limited to short-term memory. B) consists of developing strategies to maximize processing capacity. C) consists of fast mapping of the social rules of discourse. D) is a balance of assimilation and accommodation. Answer: B) consists of developing strategies to maximize processing capacity. 68. Both computers and humans are systems that manipulate A) sounds. B) symbols. C) letters. D) pictures. Answer: B) symbols. 69. At which of the following mental activities are older children better than young children? A) processing small amounts of information B) processing information slower C) controlling their attention D) egocentrism Answer: C) controlling their attention 70. The amount of information a person can remember or think about at one time is what type of processing? A) efficiency B) automaticity C) capacity D) scaffolding Answer: C) capacity 71. What cognitive function is measured by presenting a series of bits of information quickly and counting how many items the person can remember in exact order? A) processing efficiency B) automaticity C) metacognition D) processing capacity Answer: D) processing capacity Processing capacity is the amount of information a person can remember or think about at one time. 72. Pablo is taking a test with a cognitive researcher. The researcher says a series of numbers and Pablo is to repeat them in the exact order they were presented. What is the researcher measuring? A) Pablo's processing capacity B) Pablo's processing efficiency C) Pablo's cognitive scaffolding D) Pablo's metacognition Answer: A) Pablo's processing capacity. Processing capacity is the amount of information a person can remember or think about at one time. 73. "Operating space" is an area where A) storage of information occurs. B) actual manipulation of information takes place. C) automaticity occurs. D) leftover processing efficiency takes place. Answer: B) actual manipulation of information takes place. 74. Adults remember about _____ times as much as 2-year-olds when asked to recall numbers in a specific order. A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 Answer: B) 3 75. The place for storing and remembering the information we are manipulating is called A) operating space. B) emotional space. C) storage space. D) efficiency. Answer: C) storage space. Storage space is a place for storing and remembering the information we are manipulating. 76. Zach is a teenager. His ability to listen to his iPod, do his homework, and watch TV at the same time demonstrates that he has achieved ________ in many of his activities. A) automaticity B) metacognition C) collaborative learning D) theory of mind Answer: A) automaticity 77. The speed and accuracy with which a person can process information is referred to as A) metacognition. B) processing capacity. C) scaffolding. D) processing efficiency. Answer: D) processing efficiency. 78. The ability to focus on a specific piece of information without distraction is called A) bootstrapping. B) overregularization. C) attention. D) metacognition. Answer: C) attention. Attention is the ability to focus on a particular stimulus without becoming distracted by other stimuli. 79. Marta is able to focus for a longer period of time than her younger sister. Her ability is based on development of which skill? A) metacognition B) attention C) mediation D) conservation Answer: B) attention. Attention is the ability to focus on a particular stimulus without becoming distracted by other stimuli. 80. Neuroscience research with adults has identified specific brain areas (specifically, the anterior cingulated gyrus and the lateral _____ areas) that are involved in being alert to stimuli. A) Broca’s area B) cortex C) dendrite D) prefrontal Answer: D) prefrontal 81. The understanding children develop about their own thought processes is termed A) automaticity. B) scaffolding. C) metacognition. D) processing capacity. Answer: C) metacognition. 82. Misbah knows that repeating her spelling words out loud and writing them down will help her learn them for the spelling test. What kind of skill is she using? A) perspective taking B) attentive C) automatic D) metacognitive Answer: D) metacognitive. Simply repeating something will help you remember it for a short time. 83. Which of the following is a metacognitive skill? A) knowledge about computers B) knowledge about cars C) knowledge about people D) knowledge about clothes Answer: C) knowledge about people 84. The integrated understanding of what the mind is, how it works, and why it works that way is called the A) mediation of collaborative learning. B) ZPD. C) theory of mind. D) internalization of schemes. Answer: C) theory of mind. 85. Knowing that a long list of words will be more difficult to remember than a short list is called A) a cognitive task. B) a strategy. C) knowledge about people. D) attention. Answer: A) a cognitive task. Metacognition includes cognitive tasks (such as knowing that a long list of words will be more difficult to remember than a short list), knowledge about cognitive strategies (such as knowing that simply repeating a telephone number will help you remember it for a short time), and knowledge about people (such as knowing that there are limits to what a person can remember). 86. Knowing that there are limits to what a person can remember is called A) a cognitive task. B) a strategy. C) knowledge about people. D) attention. Answer: C) knowledge about people. Metacognition includes knowledge about people (such as knowing that there are limits to what a person can remember). 87. Metacognitive skills improve rapidly after the age of ____. A) 3. B) 4. C) 5. D) 6. Answer: C) 5. 88. Children as young as _____ years old know that mental objects are different from real objects. A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 Answer: B Answer: B) 3 89. Mimi is shown a toy monkey. Then she is shown the monkey in doll clothing with a human-looking mask. Although its tail and ears are visible, Mimi thinks the monkey has become a child doll. This demonstrates the A) theory of mind. B) ZPD. C) automaticity. D) internalization of schemes. Answer: A) theory of mind. To 3-year-olds the change in appearance changed the underlying reality. 90. To be able to understand the thoughts of other people, children must understand A) the appearance–reality distinction. B) that other people's thoughts are different from their own. C) the ZPD. D) the processing capacity. Answer: B) that other people's thoughts are different from their own. To understand the beliefs and desires of other people, children must first understand that other people's thoughts are different from their own. 91. Children have developed the appearance–reality distinction by the age of A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 Answer: D) 5 92. Justin is shown a picture and describes how it makes him feel. Then he is asked how the picture would make his mother feel. Justin gives the same response as his own. Justin's lack of differentiation shows he has not yet developed A) appearance–reality distinction. B) theory of mind. C) processing capacity. D) attention. Answer: B) theory of mind. Five-year-olds, for example, believe that two people looking at the same picture will have the same thoughts about that picture. 93. Language plays an important role in the development of A) conservation. B) processing efficiency. C) ZPD. D) theory of mind. Answer: D) theory of mind 94. Recent evidence suggests that the basic mirror neuron system is present as early as A) birth. B) 1 month. C) 3 months. D) 6 months. Answer: A) birth. 95. Neurons that fire when an individual produces an action and when the individual observes someone else making the action are called A) sensory neurons. B) motor neurons. C) glial cells. D) mirror neurons. Answer: D) mirror neurons. 96. A typical child goes from a 200-word vocabulary at age 2 to how many words at age 6? A) 1,000 B) 5,000 C) 7,500 D) 10,000 Answer: D) 10,000. A typical 6-year-old speaks approximately 10,000 words. 97. Todd is 2. His older brother shows him a picture of an elephant and tells Todd it is an elephant. With just this one exposure to this new word, Todd partially understands what an elephant is. This is the process of A) fast-mapping. B) overregularization. C) bootstrapping. D) metacognition. Answer: A) fast-mapping. Children use fast-mapping to learn new words after only one or two exposures. 98. A child between the ages of 2 and 6 gains about _____ words per week. A) 17 B) 27 C) 37 D) 47 Answer: D) 47 99. Children have been found to use syntax to give them cues about word meaning. This is called syntactical ______. A) processing. B) bootstrapping. C) rules of discourse. D) overregularization. Answer: B) bootstrapping. 100. One study followed children from birth to 3 years and found a fast increase in vocabulary after _____ of age. A) 6 months B) 12 months C) 18 months D) 24 months Answer: C) 18 months 101. Two-year-olds produce questions by putting what in front of a noun? A) a helping verb B) an adjective C) a wh- question D) a pronoun Answer: C) a wh- question. They begin to produce wh- questions by first simply placing the wh-word before a noun. 102. An example of a helping verb is A) where. B) kitty. C) is. D) no Answer: C) is. Later they include a helping verb but not in the correct order, producing such questions as “Where kitty is?” 103. By _____ years of age, children’s grammatical knowledge has already developed to the point that they are able to produce complex sentences. A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 Answer: B) 3 104. Stacey is 4 years old. She most likely has achieved which of the following language development milestones? A) answer-obviousness B) operations C) embedded sentences D) reversibility Answer: C) embedded sentences Children of that age produce embedded sentences (i.e., sentences within sentences.) 105. Matt says "I falled down and hurted my foots." This demonstrates A) syntactical bootstrapping. B) overregularization. C) mediation. D) fast-mapping. Answer: B) overregularization. Overregularization is the incorrect application of the linguistic rules for producing past tenses and plurals. 106. An example of a conjunction is ____. A) girl B) ran C) hot D) and Answer: D) and 107. By age _____, children are quite good at producing complex and grammatically correct sentences. A) 2 B) 4 C) 6 D) 8 Answer: C) 6 108. Overregularization shows that children have progressed in their knowledge of ________. A) grammar. B) code switching. C) social rules of discourse. D) all of the above Answer: A) grammar. Overregularization is the incorrect application of the linguistic rules for producing past tenses and plurals. 109. Sometime by the age of _____, most children begin adding word endings such as –s, -ing, or –ed. A) 3 B) 4 C) 5 D) 6 Answer: A) 3 110. The conventions people follow when having a conversation are called A) operations. B) syntax. C) social rules of discourse. D) fast-mapping. Answer: C) social rules of discourse 111. Instances of overregularization occur in less than _____ percent of the instances when children use irregular words. A) 8 B) 12 C) 16 D) 20 Answer: A) 8 112. The earliest social rule of communication children learn is A) answer-obviousness. B) turn taking. C) looking in the speaker's eyes. D) motherese. Answer: B) turn taking. 113. When a child has a language and then learns a second one, what type of bilingualism is it? A) subtractive B) simultaneous C) syntactical D) additive Answer: D) additive 114. Around the age of _____ children acquire the answer-obviousness rule. A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 5 Answer: D) 5 115. An example of a question that a 6-year-old would interpret as a request or a demand instead of a question would be A) What did you eat for lunch? B) How are you today? C) Do you have to jump on your bed? D) Did you feed the dog? Answer: C) Do you have to jump on your bed? The child, who has acquired the answer-obviousness rule, understands that his mother is not really interested in whether or not he feels a need to jump on the bed. 116. What constitutes an “obvious” answer depends on the particular culture. _____, for example, do not use question-demands as frequently as white Americans. A) African Americans B) Native Americans C) Asian Americans D) Hispanic Americans Answer: A) African Americans African Americans, for example, do not use question-demands as frequently as white Americans, so African American children might interpret the question about jumping on the bed as a true request for information rather than a demand. 117. Rules for turn taking differ by culture as well. Many _____ children learn at home that they must take their turn and keep their audience’s attention, rather than waiting until someone else finishes and they are given a turn. A) African Americans B) Native Americans C) Asian Americans D) Hispanic Americans Answer: A) African Americans 118. Danny is Navajo. He learned the Navajo language when he was very young from his grandmother. When he started school he had to learn English and his ability to speak Navajo had declined by third grade. This is an example of A) subtractive bilingualism. B) additive bilingualism. C) code switching. D) syntactical bootstrapping. Answer: A) subtractive bilingualism. In subtractive bilingualism, a person loses fluency in the first language as a result of acquiring a second language. 119. In bilingualism, if people see the second language as superior and the first as inferior in some way, children will be more likely to _____ their first language. A) add to B) learn a third language C) subtract D) refuse to learn the new language Answer: C) subtract On the contrary, if people see the second language as superior and the first as inferior in some way, children will be more likely to subtract their first language. 120. When a child “misarticulates” sounds, parents should A) ask the child to repeat the “misarticulated” word(s). B) not correct the child, as it will lower the child’s self-esteem. C) make the sound correctly themselves. D) ignore it, as correct articulation will come with cognitive development. Answer: C) make the sound correctly themselves. 121. Parents should read to their children A) during preschool years only. B) at bedtime only. C) beyond preschool years. D) during infancy, toddlerhood, preschool years, and beyond. Answer: D) during infancy, toddlerhood, preschool years, and beyond. 122. Dieter's father is German and his mother Iranian. Each parent has spoken to him in their native language since Dieter was born. What type of bilingualism does Dieter most likely have? A) successive B) additive C) simultaneous D) subtractive Answer: C) simultaneous. Simultaneous bilingualism develops when a child learns two languages at the same time, starting from infancy. 123. In sequential bilingualism, a child A) learns two languages at the same time. B) learns three languages, one right after the other. C) learns one language, then forgets it when the child learns a second language. D) learns one language first, and then begins learning the second. Answer: D) learns one language first, and then begins learning the second. 124. Arnold Schwarzenegger has a distinctive Austrian accent, even though he speaks English well. His accent is probably due to A) code switching. B) slow language acquisition. C) simultaneous bilingualism. D) not learning English until later in childhood. Answer: D) not learning English until later in childhood. Most older learners never acquire a native-sounding accent. 125. When they are learning two languages simultaneously, research shows that children A) learn the vocabulary and grammar of each language separately. B) get confused. C) they mix up the grammar and vocabulary of the two languages. D) are not cognitively developed to learn two languages simultaneously. Answer: A) learn the vocabulary and grammar of each language separately. 126. Children who begin learning a second language by about the age of _____ usually become just as fluent in the second language as in the first. A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 Answer: C) 3 127. Neuroscientists have found different neural patterns within the same child in response to words from the dominant versus non-dominant language as early as _____ months of age. A) 15 B) 17 C) 19 D) 21 Answer: C) 19 128. Researchers have found that bilingual children score higher than monolingual children on A) concept formation. B) IQ. C) conservation tasks. D) social rules of discourse. Answer: A) concept formation. Researchers have found that bilingual children score higher than monolingual children on measures of such things as concept formation. 129. The family in “Meet A Bilingual Family” has a son named Patrick. Why is Patrick fluent in English but not in Spanish? A) This is additive bilingualism. B) This is subtractive bilingualism. C) This is simultaneous bilingualism. D) This is sequential bilingualism. Answer: B) This is subtractive bilingualism. In subtractive bilingualism, a person loses fluency in the first language as a result of acquiring a second language. 130. Which children are at a greater risk of performing poorly in school? A) boys B) bilingual children C) poor/disadvantaged children D) children who have been in daycare Answer: C) poor/disadvantaged children. Children living in poor and disadvantaged areas, especially children in ethnic minority groups, are at a higher-than-average risk for performing poorly in school. 131. Of the following, which is a central purpose of early childhood education programs? A) improve children's desire to attend formal schooling B) make sure children have lunch every day C) improve their learning and performance in school D) provide child care while the mother works Answer: C) improve their learning and performance in school. Early indications are that these programs can help all children improve their learning and performance in school. 132. _____ schools emphasize several fundamental principles, including the ideas that movement and thought are closely interrelated. A) Montessori B) Reggio Emilia C) High/Scope Perry Preschool D) Abecedarian Answer: A) Montessori. Montessori schools emphasize several fundamental principles, including the ideas that movement and thought are closely interrelated. 133. _____ schools emphasize respect for the natural curiosity, resourcefulness, and competence of children. A) Montessori B) Reggio Emilia C) High/Scope Perry Preschool D) Abecedarian Answer: B) Reggio Emilia Reggio Emilia schools emphasize respect for the natural curiosity, resourcefulness, and competence of children. 134. Urie Bronfenbrenner was a member of the committee that designed the _____ program. A) Montessori B) Reggio Emilia C) High/Scope Perry Preschool D) Abecedarian Answer: C) High/Scope Perry Preschool. Urie Bronfenbrenner was a member of the committee that designed the Head Start program. 135. Fifty-one percent of children in Head Start are _____ -year-olds. A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 Answer: D) 4 136. The federally funded, comprehensive program to improve academic achievement and opportunity for children aged 3 to 5 is A) High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. B) Project Head Start. C) The Kindergarten Readiness Program. D) Project Fast-Mapping. Answer: B) Project Head Start. 137. Children at high risk for problems in cognitive development entered the Abecedarian Project program at _____, on average. A) 4½ months B) 8½ months C) 12 months D) 24 months Answer: A) 4½ months 138. The _____ program included weekly home visits to teach parents how to support their children’s educational progress. A) High/Scope Perry Preschool Program B) Project Head Start C) The Kindergarten Readiness Program D) Project Fast-Mapping Answer: A) High/Scope Perry Preschool Program 139. Troy, who is 3, is enrolled in an early childhood education program. What effects can his parents expect from this type of program? A) Troy will have poorer health from exposure to other children. B) Troy will have higher reading and math scores. C) Troy will become more violent from having to stick up for himself. D) Troy will start talking back to his parents. Answer: B) Troy will have higher reading and math scores. Children in an early childhood education program score higher on reading and mathematics achievement tests. 140. Children in the Abecedarian program showed superiority to control subjects in all of the following EXCEPT A) income as an adult. B) reading achievement. C) math achievement. D) IQ. Answer: A) income as an adult. 141. Children in early intervention show an immediate gain of about _____ IQ points when compared with children who are not in such programs. A) 2 B) 4 C) 6 D) 8 Answer: D) 8 142. Children who had attended the _____ were more likely to attend college than those in matched control groups. A) Montessori program B) Reggio Emilia program C) High/Scope Perry Preschool program D) Abecedarian program Answer: D) Abecedarian program. 143. Participants in the _____ were less likely to have been arrested. A) Montessori program B) Reggio Emilia program C) High/Scope Perry Preschool program D) Abecedarian program Answer: C) High/Scope Perry Preschool program. Children who had attended the High/Scope Perry Preschool program were less likely to have been arrested. 144. Children who had attended the _____ were more likely to report having an active lifestyle including regular exercise. A) Montessori program B) Reggio Emilia program C) High/Scope Perry Preschool program D) Abecedarian program Answer: D) Abecedarian program. 145. In general, programs such as the High/Scope Perry Preschool and Abecedarian projects show greater and longer-lasting benefits than A) Montessori programs. B) Reggio Emilia programs. C) Head Start. D) speech therapy. Answer: C) Head Start. 146. The comprehensive services and community and parent involvement are hallmark strengths of the A) Montessori program. B) Head Start. C) High/Scope Perry Preschool program. D) Abecedarian program. Answer: B) Head Start. 147. Which of the following statements about Head Start is TRUE? A) There is widespread agreement that the program should continue to be under federal management. B) Program sites must meet program requirements in exactly the same way. C) Some people have questioned whether the benefits of Head Start are worth the cost. D) Parents are left out of the communication loop. Answer: C) Some people have questioned whether the benefits of Head Start are worth the cost. Some have questioned whether the benefits of Head Start are worth the immense cost of the program. 148. In a national survey, what percentage of students were rated by teachers as ready for kindergarten? A) 50% B) 65% C) 75% D) 90% Answer: B) 65% 149. Which of the following factors affect children's kindergarten readiness? A) friendliness B) shyness C) number of parents in the home D) aggressiveness Answer: C) number of parents in the home 150. Corey's mother was advised that he should wait another year before starting kindergarten. Since he was old enough, she enrolled him anyway. If Corey fits the profile of other children who were recommended to be held back a year, he A) is likely to have poor social skills. B) is likely to be bullied by the other children. C) will score below his classmates on achievement tests. D) will score just as well as his classmates on achievement tests. Answer: D) will score just as well as his classmates on achievement tests. Children who were recommended for delay, transition classes, or retention but were promoted anyway scored just as well on achievement tests as their classmates. 151. An important activity for exploring symbolic and representational thought is A) music. B) art. C) math D) science Answer: B) art. Art and play are important activities for exploring symbolic and representational thought. 152. In the preoperational thought stage children put marks on a paper to represent people and things during A) language. B) art. C) play. D) music. Answer: B) art. 8.2 True/False Questions 1. Children in Stage 2 of Piaget's theory are able to use full logic in their thinking processes. Answer: False 2. Children under 18 months seldom show symbolic play. Answer: True 3. The idea that inanimate objects have consciousness and feelings is called artificialism. Answer: False 4. In Piaget's theory, children in the preoperational stage lack an understanding of reversibility. Answer: True 5. Piaget believed children cannot skip stages in their cognitive development. Answer: True 6. Vygotsky's theory focused on the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development. Answer: True 7. According to Vygotsky's theory, only autistic children use private speech. Answer: False 8. In Vygotsky's theory, the ZPD of an individual is always changing. Answer: True 9. A cognitive scaffold is meant to be permanent. Answer: False 10. Collaborative learning is NOT a type of mediation. Answer: False 11. Vygotsky's theory reflects the Marxist philosophy of the Soviet Union during his lifetime. Answer: True 12. Information processing psychologists believe the human mind is as logical and accurate as a computer. Answer: False 13. The automaticity of cognitive skills is important for increasing processing efficiency. Answer: True 14. Metacognitive skills do not improve until after age 10. Answer: False 15. Three-year-old children do not understand mental activity as different from physical activity. Answer: False 16. In early childhood, children acquire about 7 new words per day. Answer: True 17. There are cultural differences in rules for social discourse. Answer: True 18. The rate of language acquisition is faster for bilingual children. Answer: False 19. Most states now fund some type of educational program before kindergarten for disadvantaged children. Answer: True 20. Although Head Start has positive effects on children's development, the effects have not been consistently found to be long lasting. Answer: True 8.3 Short Answer Questions 1. In Stage 2, Piaget called logical processes that can be reversed ________. Answer: operations 2. In ________ play, children use an object to represent something else. Answer: symbolic 3. Pilar, a 7-year-old, knows that even though liquid poured from one glass into a bowl looks different, it is still the same amount of liquid. Pilar has achieved ________ in her thinking. Answer: conservation 4. The ________ boundary of the ZPD is problems the child cannot solve, no matter how much help is given. Answer: top 5. Jamey has learned to add two numbers in kindergarten. In first grade, her teacher helps her learn to add three numbers together. The help her teacher has given is called ________. Answer: scaffolding 6. Collaborative learning fits with Vygotsky's belief in the importance of ________ interaction to the learning process. Answer: social 7. Humans are _____ in their capacity to process information. Answer: limited 8. Part of processing capacity is used for operating space and part for ________ space. Answer: storage 9. Young children can comprehend ________ words than they can produce. Answer: more 10. The ________ Project was designed to provide full-time, high-quality education to children, primarily African American, living in poverty. Answer: Abecedarian 11. Studies have shown that the child's ________ upon entering kindergarten is not a good predictor of success. Answer: age 8.4 Essay Questions 1. Explain the following characteristics of preoperational thought: intuitive thinking, egocentrism, animism, and artificialism. What are two of the main limitations of preoperational thinking? Answer: Include the following characteristics: • Intuitive thought is thinking and logic based on personal experience, not a formal system of rules. • Egocentrism is the child's inability to take another's perspective. • Animism is the idea that inanimate objects have conscious life and feelings. • Artificialism is the notion that natural events or objects are controlled by people or superhuman agents. Include two of the following limitations of preoperational thinking: • centration • focus on static endpoints • lack of understanding of reversibility 2. Your niece is three years old. How would you explain her cognitive development, according to Piagetian theory, to her parents? Answer: Description of preoperational thought: • Preoperational thinking is characterized by the use of mental representations (symbols) and intuitive thought. Characteristics of preoperational thought: • animism • egocentrism • artificialism • lack of reversibility • use of symbols 3. Explain the main tenets of the information processing approach to cognitive development. Answer: • Thinking processes are compared to computer processing. • Humans are limited in their capacity to process information. Specific concepts in the theory: • Processing capacity is the amount of information a person can remember or think about at one time. • Processing efficiency is the speed and accuracy with which a person can process information. • Automaticity is the ability to carry out a process with little or no conscious effort. • Attention is the ability to focus on a particular stimulus without becoming distracted. • Metacognition is the understanding about one's own thought processes. • Theory of mind is an integrated understanding of what the mind is, how it works, and why it works that way. 4. What are the main ideas in Vygotsky's sociocultural view of cognitive development? How did his theory reflect his own background? Answer: Include the following main ideas: • Social speech is what we hear around us. • Private speech is what children say aloud to themselves to guide their actions and mental activity. • ZPD is the Zone of Proximal Development or the distance between the current maximum independent performance level of a child and the tasks the child can perform if guided by an adult or more capable peer. • Mediation is the process adults or more skilled peers use to introduce concepts and cognitive structures to a learner. • Scaffolding is the support given to a child to develop a new mental function or learn a task. • Collaborative learning is a process where children work together to help each other solve problems, share their knowledge and skills, and discuss their strategies and knowledge for each of the ways Vygotsky's background was reflected in his theory: • His Jewish background taught him the importance of culture. • He was taught by a tutor using the Socratic dialogue method. • Vygotsky's theory reflects the collectivist philosophy of Marxism/Communism in the Soviet Union. 5. You are tutoring a classmate in algebra. Explain how you would determine the student's ZPD and then use mediation and scaffolding to teach algebra. Answer: Include: • To determine ZPD, give algebra problems of different difficulty levels and see which the student can do alone, can do with help, and can't do even with help. • For mediation, choose the concepts, skills, and strategies to teach the algebraic concepts. • To scaffold, the tutor can talk the student through the steps of the problem and give reminders of how to do a particular step. 6. Your cousin is 2½. His parents ask you what they can do to facilitate his language development. What suggestions, after reading Chapter 8, could you give them? Answer: Include the following: • Provide good language models. • Talk about events in the child's life. • Read to him. • Provide him with writing materials. • Play sound and word games. • Be an active listener. • Follow the child's lead. 7. Define bilingualism. What are the different forms of bilingualism? How does bilingualism affect language development? Answer: Definition: • Bilingualism is fluency in two languages. Types of bilingualism: • Additive is learning a second language while maintaining the first. • Subtractive is losing fluency in the first language as a result of learning the second. • Simultaneous is when both languages are learned concurrently. • Sequential is when one language is learned, followed by a second language. How does it affect language development? • Code switching is mixing the words and grammar from the two languages. • Bilingualism may slow the rate of language development, but it is beneficial to cognitive development. 8. Describe two of the main goals of early childhood education programs. Discuss the debate over the successes and drawbacks of Project Head Start as an early childhood program. . Answer: Goals: • Improve young children's readiness to benefit from formal schooling. • Increase children's success in school. • Improve the quality of young children's lives (includes health and nutrition goals). Main points of the debate: • Which children should be targeted? • Is the benefit worth the cost? • Does the program lead to long-term gains or only short-term gains? • Is it ethical to limit the choices of poor children to just Head Start? • Is Head Start outdated? • Should the federal government administer Head Start or should states take over? 8.5 MyDevelopmentLab Questions 1. After watching the video “Kindergarten: Ready for Success?” name the two skills parents should teach their children to prepare them for kindergarten and discuss why these two skills are the most important. Answer: The two most important skills are teaching them to do things independently and to open a book. However, based on general principles of kindergarten readiness, two important skills parents should teach their children to prepare them for kindergarten are: 1. Social Skills: Teaching children how to interact positively with peers and adults, share toys, take turns, and follow simple social rules prepares them for the cooperative and interactive nature of kindergarten classrooms. These skills help children build friendships, resolve conflicts, and participate actively in group activities, fostering a positive learning environment. 2. Pre-Reading and Language Skills: Introducing children to books, storytelling, and vocabulary building activities helps develop early literacy skills essential for kindergarten. This includes recognizing letters and their sounds, understanding basic concepts of print (like left-to-right directionality), and developing listening comprehension. These skills lay the foundation for learning to read and write, enhancing communication abilities and academic readiness. These two skills are crucial because kindergarten curriculum often emphasizes social interaction and early literacy as foundational for academic success. By cultivating social skills and early literacy skills at home, parents can support their children's confidence, engagement, and readiness to thrive in kindergarten and beyond. 2. In the video “Teaching in a Bilingual Classroom,” the teacher states that the best way to teach the rules is by demonstration and by _____. “They’ll see how the rules are by watching other kids who might know the rules already”. A) practice B) watching C) listening D) observing Answer: A) practice 3. In the video “Bilingual Family,” the father in the video wanted his son to be involved with other children to start experiencing the _____, the language, and “everything.” A) weather B) culture C) stereotyping D) wealth Answer: B) culture Test Bank for The World of Children Joan Littlefield Cook, Greg Cook 9780205953738
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