CH-8 Attitude Change And Interactive Communications – Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being : Book Guide

Chapter 8 Attitude Change And Interactive Communications CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When students finish this chapter they should understand that: •Understand that the communications model identifies several important components for marketers when they try to change consumers’ attitudes toward products and services. •Understand that the consumer who processes a message is not necessarily the passive receiver of information marketers once believed him or her to be. •Understand that several factors influence the effectiveness of a message source. •Understand that the way a marketer structures his or her message determines how persuasive it will be. •Understand that the elaboration likelihood model outlines how consumers will process a given message once it is received. •Understand that audience characteristics help to determine whether the nature of the source or the message itself will be relatively more persuasive. CHAPTER SUMMARY •Persuasion refers to an attempt to change consumers’ attitudes. The communications model specifies the elements needed to transmit meaning. These include a source, a message, a medium, a receiver, and feedback. •Two important characteristics that determine the effectiveness of a source are its attractiveness and its credibility. Although celebrities often serve these purposes, their credibility is not always as strong as marketers would like. •Some elements of a message that help to determine its effectiveness are whether it is conveyed in words or pictures, whether an emotional or a rational appeal is used, the frequency with which it is repeated, whether a conclusion is drawn, whether both sides of the argument are presented, and whether the message includes fear, humour, or sexual references. Advertising messages often incorporate elements from art or literature such as drama, lecture, metaphor, and resonance. •The relative influence of the source versus that of the message depends on the receiver’s level of involvement with the communication. The elaboration likelihood model specifies that a less-involved consumer will more likely be swayed by source effects, while a more-involved consumer will more likely attend to and process components of the actual message. LECTURE/DISCUSSION IDEAS IX. CHANGING ATTITUDES THROUGH COMMUNICATION – To wear or not to wear fur? o What influences people to change their minds or comply with a request? •Reciprocity – give if they receive •Scarcity – items more attractive if scarce •Authority – believe an authoritative source more readily •Consistency – try not to contradict themselves •Consensus – often take into account what others are doing Class Interaction Opportunity: Have the class think of an attitude that one or both of their parents have. Ask them to think of a way they could persuade them to change their attitude. A. Decisions, Decisions: Tactical Communications Options – Active attempts to change attitudes •Traditional communication model: Source, message, medium, receiver, and feedback B. The Elements of Communication – Source, encoding, message, medium, decoding, receivers, and feedback Class Interaction Opportunity: Provide an illustration of the communications model. What are the strengths and weaknesses of this model? How can the source be a more effective communicator? II. AN UPDATED VIEW: INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATIONS A. Uses and Gratifications – Consumers are an active (not passive), goal-directed audience B. Consumer Interactivity – Customer co-creation, innovation and engagement C. Who’s in Charge of the Remote – Consumer input and information seeking D. New Message Format – New ways to transit information •Social media platforms (blogs, vlogging, podcasts, virtual worlds, social networks, widgets) E. Levels of Interactive Response – First-order (directly yields transaction) and second-order (no immediate transaction) responses Class Interaction Opportunity: Ask students how they are attempting to control their own web or internet environment. 1. Persuasion knowledge model (PKM) – Consumers develop knowledge about persuasion and use the knowledge to deal with persuasive attempts o Topic knowledge o Agent knowledge o Persuasion knowledge III. THE SOURCE – Credibility and attractiveness (likeable and trustworthy) A. Source Credibility – Source is perceived as an expert, objective, and trustworthy  In one study, the brand attitudes of subjects whose level of physiological arousal was elevated through physical exertion (which decreases one’s ability to process cognitive information) were more influenced by the status of a product endorser, while those who were not aroused were more influenced by argument strength.i 1. The sleeper effect – An effective source can be obnoxious or disliked 2. Building credibility – Link source qualifications to the product (e.g., ball players and athletic shoes) 3. Source biases – Knowledge bias (knowledge is not accurate); reporting bias (‘hired gun’ or possibility of being compromised) Class Interaction Opportunity: Can you think of some company spokespersons who do not seem to fit the image of the company? B. Hype versus Buzz: The Corporate Paradox – The more involved a company appears to be in the dissemination of news about its products, the less credible it becomes •Buzz building – Recognizing the power of word-of-mouth C. Source Attractiveness – Source is perceived as having ‘social value,’ halo effect 1. What is beautiful is good – ‘Beautiful people are smarter;’ beauty as a source of information; halo effect 2. Star power: Celebrities as communications sources – well known and admired (e.g., Lebron James, Katy Perry, and Bono) celebrities can differentiate among similar products; product credibility; consumers may distrust motives; must have clear and popular image o Match-up hypothesis – Celebrity and product image must be similar Class Interaction Opportunity: Ask students to give an example of the halo effect. Class Interaction Opportunity: Ask students to give an example of a celebrity that they perceive to be an illustration of the match-up hypothesis.  McDonald's strategy includes the use of MTV-style commercials to convey the message that the old favourites now taste better and that there are health conscious choices.ii  Marketers who appropriate the images of celebrities are vulnerable to lawsuits.  One exception to the rule that highly credible sources are more persuasive is when speakers with low credibility advocate a position incongruous with their own interests. For example, a drug dealer, while not well-regarded by many, might be very effective in an anti-drug campaign.iii 3. YouTube and amateur advertising – Some companies encourage consumers to create the product message 4. Non-human endorsers – e.g., cartoon characters, mascots and virtual models, such as virtual avatars Class Interaction Opportunity: Ask students to name an avatar that a company currently uses in association with a product, service, or website. IV. THE MESSAGE – Should stress uniqueness or customer benefit A. Sending the Message – Framing, chunking, dual-component model •Words versus pictures o Words to stress facts and reason (high involvement) o Pictures to achieve emotional responses (low involvement) o Visual images help us ‘chunk’ and remember o Verbal materials decay more rapidly in memory Class Interaction Opportunity: Ask students to think of examples when words, pictures, and both, would be the best suggestions for influencing attitudes.  Both the size and colour of illustrations can have a strong impact on responses to an ad and in causing attitude change. The use of one-colour newspaper ads in a field study resulted in 41 percent more sales volume than when the same ads were run in black-and-white. Many newspapers have moved to using more colour in their daily editions.iv 1. Vividness – Powerful descriptions and graphics help us remember  Attempts to influence attitudes by highlighting the behaviour of other people in the same situation are more successful when put into concrete terms. For example, a commercial that features five people explaining their product choice is more vivid than the abstract claim that four out of five consumers chose Brand X.v 2. Repetition – Repetition helps us remember but ads ‘wear out’ o Two factor theory – Fine line between familiarity and boredom B. Constructing the Argument – What is the best way to persuade? 1. One-sided versus two-sided arguments o Supportive argument is one-sided and most often used o Two-sided messages give positive and negative information and are seldom used o Refutation arguments raise a negative issue and dismiss it 2. Drawing conclusions – Should the advertiser draw conclusions or leave it to the consumer to decide Class Interaction Opportunity: Do you think it is smarter to draw conclusions in an ad for your customers or to let them do it themselves? 3. Comparative advertising – Compares two specifically named products and seems to be effective for new products  Direct comparative ads are most effective when they encourage differentiation between the two brands, especially when they lower consumer's perceptions of the comparison brand. This effect is particularly robust when the attribute in question is typical of the product category.vi C. Types of Message Appeals – The same idea can be encoded in many ways 1. Emotional versus rational appeals – Emotional appeals try to bond the consumer with the product (e.g., Hallmark); ads that make you think are easier to recall 2. Sex appeals – Ranges from subtle hints to blatant displays of skin o Does sex work? Men like sexual ads more, like products advertised in them more, and are more likely to buy those products than women are Class Interaction Opportunity: Do you find more nudity in ads in men's or women's magazines? 3. Humourous appeals – What is funny to one maybe be offensive to another o Does humour work? It gets attention but the humour can cause distraction; subtle appropriate humour is usually better Class Interaction Opportunity: What are some of your favourite ads that use humor? Do you buy those products or products from their competition? 4. Fear appeals – Highlights negative consequences o Does fear work? Usually in moderate amounts (e.g., mechanic says ‘pay me now or pay me later’) Class Interaction Opportunity: What are some products that use fear to attract consumers? Is this an effective appeal? Why or why not?  Research on the effectiveness of fear appeals has yielded mixed results. One reason may be due to the assumption that a specific type of message will uniformly generate a high level of fear among all consumers.vii D. The Message as Art Form: Metaphors Be With You – Mr. Goodwrench, the Jolly Green Giant, California Raisins, Merrill Lynch bull ‘a breed apart’ •Metaphor involved in explicit comparison (A is B) •Resonance combines a play on words with a relevant picture (unfinished furniture store is called the ‘The Unvarnished Truth’ 1. Forms of story presentation – Can be told in words or pictures, lecture (speaks to audience); drama (similar to play or movie) IV. THE SOURCE VERSUS THE MESSAGE: SELL THE STEAK OR THE SIZZLE – Highly involved consumers look for the ‘steak’ and less involved consumers are more affected by the ‘sizzle’  When a consumer is more motivated to process an ad because it is relevant to his or her goals, the impact of central processing on brand attitudes is increased and that of peripheral cues is decreased.viii A. The Elaboration Likelihood Model – Assumes that once customers receive a message they begin to process it 1. The Central Route to persuasion – If the message is relevant, it either generates cognitive responses or counterarguments in the mind of the receiver  During a persuasive message, advertisers may attempt to provide distractions to reduce the amount of counter-arguing a person is able to do. This strategy is effective when the argument for choosing the product is fairly weak. A similar result can sometimes be obtained by embedding the message in an involving program. The viewer is distracted as he or she processes the show’s contents, so the commercial message is more easily accepted.ix 2. The Peripheral Route to persuasion – If receivers are not motivated to think about the argument, they analyze the source and the message and decide if they should consider the argument 3. Support for the ELM – A thought-listing technique using three independent variables •Message-processing involvement: high or low •Argument strength: use strong or weak arguments in ads •Source characteristics: viewed as positive or negative by receiver Class Interaction Opportunity: Illustrate the ELM with a series of print ads that illustrate either the central or peripheral route to persuasion. Show them to the class and ask them which route is most dominant. Also ask students to point out cognitive cues and peripheral cues in either type of ad. END-OF-CHAPTER SUPPORT MATERIAL Summary of Special Feature Boxes 1. Marketing Insight I: Sock Puppeting This box discusses the increasing presence of sock puppeting, which involves a biased source (potentially from a company) posing as someone else and touting his or her organization in social media in hopes of creating positive attitude change towards the organization. Examples are discussed, along paid influencer programs, and these types of techniques are drawn back to the underlying issue of credibility in what consumers read/hear. 2. CB As I See It Peter Darke, York University, conducts research on consumer suspicion and distrust and finds that generalized suspicion makes consumers more negative toward products even in the long-term (as opposed to when they see the ad), which is driven by a defensive feeling by consumers that they might be fooled by advertisers in the future. Firms might choose to use trust cues (reputation, customer ratings) to overcome consumer suspicion, and will want to be sure to not overstate claims. 3. Marketing Insight II: Celebrity Endorsement Celebrities are often used to endorse products, and this box shows examples of how celebrities try to control their brand image through different endorsements in different countries. 4. Consumers in Focus I: Consumer-Created Ads This box discusses consumer-created advertising, how it gained popularity and why it might not always be the best idea. 5. Marketing Insight III: Pandora and Preferences This box describes the Pandora music site. Pandora creates playlists based upon their consumer’s initial preferences for certain artists. The site uses a music intelligence algorithm to dissect the characteristics of favourite songs and serve up others that are similar. Pandora’s engineers constantly tweak the playlists as they experiment with variations of the experience. Review Questions 1. List three psychological principles related to persuasion. Answer: The psychological principles include reciprocity, scarcity, authority, consistency, liking, and consensus. 2. Describe the elements of the traditional communications model, and explain how the updated model is different. Answer: The traditional model of communication includes the components of source, channel, message, receiver, and feedback. The updated model (interactive model), recognizes that there are multiple senders and multiple receivers, all sending and receiving information simultaneously through a central medium. 3. What is source credibility, and what are two factors that influence whether we will perceive a source to be credible? Answer: Source credibility refers to a source’s perceived expertise, objectivity, or trustworthiness. Factors affecting source credibility are: 1) whether the sources qualifications are viewed as relevant, and 2) whether or not there is a bias associated with the source. 4. What is the difference between buzz and hype? How does this difference relate to the corporate paradox? Answer: Buzz is word of mouth that is viewed as authentic and generated by customers. In contrast, hype is dismissed as inauthentic—corporate propaganda planted by a company with an axe to grind. 5. What is a halo effect, and why does it happen? Answer: The halo effect occurs when persons who rank high on one dimension are assumed to excel on others as well. 6. What is an avatar, and why might an advertiser choose to use one instead of hiring a celebrity endorser? Answer: An avatar is the manifestation of a Hindu deity in superhuman or animal form. In the computing world it means a cyberspace presence represented by a character that you can move around inside a visual, graphical world. The advantages of virtual avatars compared to flesh-and-blood models include the ability to change the avatar in real time to suit the needs of the target audience. From an advertising perspective they are likely to be more cost-effective than hiring a real person. From a personal selling and customer service perspective they have the ability to handle multiple customers at any one time, they are not geographically limited, and they are operational 24/7, thus freeing up company employees and sales personnel to perform other activities. 7. When should a marketer present a message visually versus verbally? Answer: Because it requires more effort to process, a verbal message is most appropriate for high-involvement situations, such as in print contexts in which the reader is motivated to really pay attention to the advertising. Because verbal material decays more rapidly in memory, these messages require more frequent exposures to obtain the desired effect. Visual images, in contrast, allow the receiver to chunk information at the time of encoding. Chunking results in a stronger memory trace that aids retrieval over time. Visual elements may affect brand attitudes in one of two ways. First, the consumer may form inferences about the brand and change his beliefs because of an illustration’s imagery. For example, people in a study who saw an ad for a facial tissue accompanied by a photo of a sunset were more likely to believe that the brand came in attractive colors. Second, brand attitudes may be affected more directly; for example, a strong positive or negative reaction to the visual elements will influence the consumer’s attitude toward the ad (Aad) that will then affect brand attitudes (Ab). 8. How does the two-factor theory explain the effects of message repetition on attitude change? Answer: The two-factor theory explains the fine line between familiarity and boredom by proposing that two separate psychological processes are operating when a person is repeatedly exposed to an ad. The positive side of repetition is that it increases familiarity and thus reduces uncertainty about the product. The negative side is that over time boredom increases with each exposure. At some point the amount of boredom incurred begins to exceed the amount of uncertainty reduced, resulting in wear-out. 9. When is it best to present a two-sided message versus a one-sided message? Answer: Under the right circumstances, the use of refutational arguments, in which a negative issue is raised and then dismissed, can be quite effective. This approach can increase source credibility by reducing reporting bias. Also, people who are skeptical about the product may be more receptive to a balanced argument instead of a “whitewash.” 10. Do humorous ads work? If so, under what conditions? Answer: Humor is more likely to be effective when the brand is clearly identified and the funny material does not “swamp” the message. This danger is diverting attention from copy points. Subtle humor is usually better, as is humor that does not make fun of the potential consumer. Finally, humor should be appropriate to the product’s image. An undertaker or a bank might want to avoid humor, whereas other products may adapt to it quite well. 11. Should marketers ever try to arouse fear in order to persuade consumers? Answer: Negative fear appeals are usually most effective when only a moderate threat is used, and when the ad presents a solution to the problem. Otherwise, consumers will tune out the ad because they can do nothing to solve the problem. This approach also works better when source credibility is high. 12. Why do marketers use metaphors to craft persuasive messages? Give two examples of this technique. Answer: Metaphors allow the marketer to activate meaningful images and apply them to everyday events. In the stock market, “white knights” battle “hostile raiders” using “poison pills”; Tony the Tiger equates cereal with strength, and the Merrill Lynch bull sends the message that the brokerage is “a breed apart.” 13. What is the difference between a lecture and a drama? Answer: A lecture is like a speech in which the source speaks directly to the audience in an attempt to inform them about a product or persuade them to buy it. A drama is similar to a play or movie. 14. Describe the elaboration likelihood model, and explain how it is related to the relative importance of what is said versus how it’s said. Answer: The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) assumes that once a consumer receives a message she begins to process it. Depending on the personal relevance of this information, the receiver will follow one of two routes to persuasion. Under conditions of high involvement, the consumer takes the central route to persuasion. Under conditions of low involvement, s/he takes a peripheral route instead. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR CHALLENGE Discussion Questions 1. What are the pros and cons of using rational versus emotional appeals (i.e. trying to persuade consumers by focusing on what they know as opposed to what they feel)? When should marketers use one type or the other? Answer: Rational appeals are better when objectives are oriented around the cognitive, as in the case of recall. However, for building relationships between the consumer and the brand, emotional appeals have the advantage. Emotional strategies are also effective when consumers do not detect significant differences between brands. 2. A flog is a fake blog a company posts to build buzz around its brand. Is this ethical? Answer: This is another one of those “gray area” tactics that most students will see as just another way of doing business. However, if one focuses on the basic tenet of the AMA’s code of ethics dealing with deceptive practices, then flogging is unethical. It is, by nature, deceptive. In fact, such will only work if the consumer is deceived. 3. The sleeper effect implies that perhaps we shouldn’t worry too much about how positively people evaluate a source. Similarly, there’s a saying in public relations that “any publicity is good publicity.” Do you agree? Why or why not? Answer: There will certainly be exceptions to this. The good thing about publicity is that it’s free. Thus, when a company of any kind is getting publicity, they are getting free promotion. The extent to which negative publicity will have positive effects on consumer perceptions simply depends. One of the best-case scenarios is when the negative publicity is controversial and offends people who are not part of the target group, while being perceived in a positive manner by those who are part of the target group. 4. Discuss some conditions where it would be advisable to use a comparative advertising strategy. Answer: Comparative advertising may be effective for low-involvement products, like convenience goods, new brands that have advantages over existing brands, and for brands that are experiencing decreased sales using non-comparative advertising. For new product introductions, comparative ads benefit from the association they form between established products and new, unknown products. Students should recognize that repositioning an older established brand also would be a viable situation for comparative advertising. The discussion also might include an analysis of conditions when it would not be advisable to use comparative ads. Students should be encouraged to list ads they have seen or heard and to describe the aspects of each ad that would make the use of comparative advertising advisable or inadvisable. 5. A marketer must decide whether to incorporate rational or emotional appeals in its communications strategy. Describe conditions that are more favourable to using one or the other. Answer: Students' responses should include the issues of product involvement and complexity. Emotional appeals can be used with low involvement products to increase the level of consumer's involvement with the products. Emotional appeals also are appropriate for homogeneous or commodity-type products. Alternatively, rational appeals are recommended when there are significant differences between product alternatives. Rational appeals are more effective when consumers need detailed information and are making informed, logical decisions, such as with high-involvement purchases like electronics. Emotional appeals work better for low-involvement or impulse buys, where feelings and brand connections drive decisions, such as with luxury goods or lifestyle products. 6. Many, many companies rely on celebrity endorsers as communication sources to persuade. Especially when targeting younger people, these spokespeople are often “cool” musicians, athletes, or movie stars. In your opinion, who would be the most effective celebrity endorser today and why? Who would be least effective? Why? Answer: This question is open to a wide variety of responses. As a “take-home” question, it is very effective, especially when it is combined with the idea of matching the celebrities with specific products or services. Today, Zendaya could be an effective celebrity endorser due to her broad appeal among younger audiences, her strong social media presence, and her association with fashion and cultural trends. Conversely, a less effective endorser might be someone with limited relevance to the target demographic, such as an older celebrity whose career and image don't align with contemporary trends or values. 7. Swiss Legend, a watch brand, gets famous people to wear its colourful timepieces. One way it does this is to give away its products at awards shows. Publicists call this common practice “gifting the talent”: Companies provide stars with “goody bags” full of complimentary products. What do you think about the practice of “gifting the talent” to accumulate endorsements? Is this a sound strategy? Is it ethical for celebrities to accept these gifts? Answer: Although this may be considered by some to be a grey area promotional technique, it does not carry with it the level of deception that flogging does. Many fans and viewers are aware that when stars are wearing things at events, they have been given those items or are even paid to wear such. For those that are not aware of this, there is no information given that implies that the star bought the apparel or accessory item of their own volition. As far as whether it is a sound strategy, at the most basic level, it is a minimal investment and could potentially provide very effective coverage. Experiential Exercises 8. A government agency wants to encourage the use of designated drivers by people who have been drinking. What advice could you give the organization about constructing persuasive communications? Discuss some factors that might be important, including the structure of the communications, where they should appear, and who should deliver them. Should fear appeals be used? If so, how? Answer: Steps the government agency should take: The target market(s) should be established. (teenage drivers) Both the source and the message must be considered.
The source must be both credible and attractive to the target audience. Make a list of possible sources for the message. One of the largest target markets would be teenage drivers, thus making it necessary for the source to be aligned with that group. Such a person, or organization, would also have to be perceived as having social value, or having source attractiveness, in order to have the greatest persuasive impact. Likewise, the structure of the communication would need to be tailored to meet the processing needs and likes of the target market. Recall that uninvolved consumers will respond to peripheral cues best, and therefore the use of celebrity endorsers and other non-product-related aspects will have a greater effect. Fear appeals should be used judiciously and only with moderate emphasis on the negative aspects. [The instructor may elect to provide samples of public issue advertisements, or encourage students to collect some advertisements that can be used to stimulate discussion of issues relevant to the design of this form of advertising. Possible Field Project Idea.] Use clear, impactful messaging that emphasizes the benefits of designating a driver and the consequences of not doing so. Place these communications in high-traffic areas and use relatable influencers or testimonials. Fear appeals can be effective if they are balanced with strong, positive reinforcement and actionable steps to mitigate risks. 9. Why would a marketer consider saying negative things about his or her product? When is this strategy feasible? Can you find examples of it? Answer: The use of two-sided arguments is effective when the audience is well educated and not loyal to the product. These conditions exist for many new product introductions and brand extensions. When the advertised product is complex, something negative can be said about the minor attribute without producing an overall negative affect, as long as positive descriptions of major attributes of the product also are included. For example, Curtis Mathis long advertised that its televisions were very expensive (a negative attribute) while countering with information about the superb quality, workmanship, and service provided. 10. Collect ads that rely on sex appeal to sell products. How often are benefits of the actual product communicated to the reader? Answer: Students will be able to find examples of products that use sex appeals in almost any magazine, but magazines targeted toward either men or women are the best sources. (Possible Field Project Idea) Ads using sex appeal often prioritize provocative imagery to attract attention, but they frequently communicate limited information about the actual product's benefits. The focus tends to be more on evoking desire and emotional response rather than detailing practical features or advantages of the product itself. 11. Watchdog groups have long decried product placements because they blur the line between content and advertising without adequately informing viewers. The networks themselves appear to be divided on how far they want to open the gate. According to one study, the effectiveness of product placement varies by product category and type of placement. Consumers indicate that product placements have the most influence on their grocery, electronics, and apparel purchases. The most common platform for a placement is to get a brand shown on a T-shirt or other piece of an actor’s wardrobe. What do you think about this practice? Under what conditions is product placement likely to influence you and your friends? When (if ever) is it counterproductive? Answer: Student opinion will vary. Having grown up on reality TV many students may simply see this as a natural extension. They have watched Survivor contestants fight in contest for food rewards (bags of Doritos and Sprite). They have watched singing competitions that are filled with references to products and services (Ford, Coke). Some may actively embrace this form while others may openly talk about how it is something to be avoided. Product placement can be effective when it feels natural and seamlessly integrated into the content, especially for products related to personal lifestyle choices like groceries or electronics. It influences viewers when it aligns with their interests and appears genuine. However, it can be counterproductive if the placement feels forced or excessively promotional, detracting from the content and appearing insincere. 12. One of the most controversial intersections between marketing and society occurs when companies provide “educational materials” to schools. Many firms, including Nike, Hershey, Crayola, Nintendo, and Foot Locker, provide free book covers swathed in ads. Standard art supplies, blocks, trucks, and dolls get supplemented with Milton Bradley and Care Bears worksheets, Purell hand cleaning activities, and Pizza Hut reading programs. Clearasil provides sample packets of its acne medication along with brochures to educate high school students about proper skin care; the handouts also direct students to the Clearasil website, where they can register for music downloads and iPods. Other companies contract with schools to run focus groups with their students during the school day in order to get reactions to new product ideas. Some schools encourage kids to practice their math as they count Tootsie Rolls, and the kids use reading software that bears the logos of Kmart, Coke, Pepsi, and Cap’n Crunch cereal. Many educators argue that these materials are a godsend for resource-poor schools that otherwise could not provide computers and other goodies to their students. However, a California law bans the use of textbooks with brand names and company logos. This legislation was prompted by complaints from parents about a middle-school math book that uses names such as Barbie, Oreos, Nike, and Sony PlayStation in word problems. What is your position on these practices? Should corporations be allowed to promote their products in schools in exchange for donations of educational materials, computers, and so on? Answer: Opinions will vary. Students clearly understand that education costs are high as they constantly complain about the cost of tuition and books. Many may openly embrace this sort of approach especially if there is a net benefit to their bottom line. However, others will see the other argument and point to the issue of influencing a captive market. While corporate donations to schools can provide valuable resources, their promotional practices often blur educational objectives with commercial interests. Such practices can lead to undue influence on students and may compromise educational integrity. To balance benefits and concerns, schools should implement clear guidelines to ensure that educational content remains unbiased and free from excessive commercial influence. 13. Collect examples of ads that rely on the use of metaphors or resonance. Do you feel these ads are effective? If you were marketing the products, would you feel more comfortable with ads that use a more straightforward, “hard-sell” approach? Why or why not? Answer: Make sure students review the section of the text that describes how metaphors and resonance are used in advertising before they go in search of ads. Encourage students to discuss both the positive and the negative aspects of metaphors or resonance. (Possible Field Project) Ads using metaphors or resonance often create memorable and emotionally engaging messages by associating products with broader concepts, such as freedom or success. For example, an ad might use a metaphor of soaring eagles to promote a car’s performance. These ads can be effective by forging strong emotional connections, though they may be less direct. A straightforward, "hard-sell" approach might be preferred for clear, immediate communication of product benefits, especially for high-involvement purchases where detailed information is crucial. 14. Create a list of current celebrities whom you feel typify cultural categories (e.g. clown, mother figure, etc.). What specific brands you feel each could effectively endorse? Answer: Lots of room for student thinking and creativity. 1. Zendaya (Innovator) - Could effectively endorse fashion brands like Chanel or H&M due to her trendsetting style and influence on youth culture. 2. Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson (Hero) - Ideal for endorsing fitness products like Under Armour or GNC due to his athletic persona and motivational presence. 3. Oprah Winfrey (Mother Figure) - Effective for endorsing wellness and lifestyle brands like Weight Watchers or HomeGoods due to her nurturing image and trustworthiness. 4. Ryan Reynolds (Clown) - Suitable for endorsing casual and playful brands like Mint Mobile or Deadpool-themed merchandise due to his humorous and charismatic personality. 15. Conduct an “avatar hunt” by going to commerce websites, online video game sites, and online communities, like The Sims that let people select what they want to look like in cyberspace. What seem to be the dominant figures people are choosing? Are they realistic or fantasy characters? Male or female? What types of avatars do you believe would be most effective for each of these different kinds of websites and why? Answer: Students are the experts on this one, and instructors should draw their focus beyond descriptions of what people are choosing, and instead dig for explanations on why they think different types are effective. Dominant avatars online often include fantasy characters like superheroes or mythical beings, alongside stylized versions of real people. These avatars are frequently more idealized or exaggerated than realistic. For commerce sites, realistic and relatable avatars can enhance user engagement, while fantasy avatars work well on gaming sites, creating immersive experiences. Gender representation varies, but a balance of male and female avatars can cater to diverse user preferences. CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTES 1. How are consumers persuaded when it comes to food products? What routes to persuasion are most important in this context? Answer: Persuasion, or the active attempt to change attitudes, is the central goal of most marketing communications. According to the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), once consumers receive a message, he or she is likely to process it. In the context of Cobs Bread, one of two routes to persuasion will be followed. Although the central route to persuasion will generate cognitive responses, beliefs and strong attitudes in the consumer, it only takes effect under conditions of high involvement. Under conditions of low involvement, the peripheral route is taken. As is often the case with food products, the consumer is not motivated to think about the arguments presented because they are short-term and relatively inexpensive purchases. Instead, the consumer is likely to be influenced by other cues found in the message. These peripheral cues might include the product’s package, the attractiveness of the source or the context in which the message is presented. These extraneous sources of information are critical in persuading consumers. 2. What advertising/promotional tactics do you recommend to Aaron with respect to changing consumer attitudes about Cobs Bread? Answer: Given that low-involvement consumers are more affected by the peripheral cues in advertising/promotions, Aaron should focus her efforts here. For example, by developing emotional versus rational appeals that associate Cobs Bread with the family (i.e., family meals together) there would likely be a positive attitude formed. Aaron should look to leverage all touch-points with the consumer and thereby build attitude change over time. 3. Is there a role to play for social media in meeting this challenge? Can Cobs Bread leverage their efforts in this area to change consumer attitudes? Answer: Social media enables users to create content and share it with a large number of others online. Cobs Bread can leverage social media platforms such as video blogs (i.e. YouTube), microblogs (i.e. Twitter) and social networks (i.e. Facebook) to interact with consumers and change their attitudes about Cobs Bread products from high-quality, occasional purchases to everyday purchases incorporated into family meals. Because consumers of food products often exhibit low-involvement, they are likely to respond to attractive peripheral cues such as a credible source. For example, celebrity chefs (or other opinion leaders in the food space) whose brand image revolve around cooking are likely to enhance the impact of YouTube videos, Tweets and Facebook posts about Cobs. In addition, by leveraging social media, Cobs Bread could increase engagement by developing a direct relationship with end-consumers. One possible outcome is customer co-creation activities. Similar to how some of Jones Soda flavours and labels have been developed by customers, social media could be leveraged by Cobs Bread in a parallel fashion. Consumers could post and share their own experiences with the brand, thereby becoming more involved. 4. In attempting to change attitudes, do you feel there is any danger to other customer segments? In other words, in seeking to address the attitudes of one segment, might Cobs inadvertently change attitudes of another? How? What might be done to alleviate this danger, if present? Answer: There is definitely a danger here. Cobs might inadvertently impact the attitudes of a loyal market segment of highly-involved shoppers who think actively about the brand. These consumers might prefer ads and promotions that emphasize the nutritional value, artisan-craftsmanship or freshness of Cobs’ food products rather than ads that use peripheral cues. In order to alleviate this danger, Cobs Bread should try to ensure that its high and low-involvement ad messaging is consistent with one another. As noted, in Question 2, ads that create an emotional appeal (perhaps by associating Cobs food products with the family) can also ensure that messaging on the high-quality and freshness of the products is also achieved. The same communication theme can be delivered by both central and peripheral cues, depending on its relation to the attitude object. FIELD PROJECT IDEAS Individual Assignments 1. Have students visit an ad agency and interview an advertising executive. Ask the executive about one of the advertising campaigns he/she has developed and how (or whether) it was designed to change consumers' attitudes toward the product, service, or company. Have students summarize the interview with the class. Answer: Interview an ad agency executive about a campaign designed to shift consumer attitudes, summarizing how it was tailored and its effectiveness. 2. Ask students to interview three people and have each respondent identify an advertisement that they have a positive attitude toward and an ad that they have a negative attitude toward. Be sure to inquire to find out how their attitudes toward the ads influence their attitudes toward the products. Answer: Interview three people to identify ads they like and dislike, and discuss how these attitudes affect their views on the products. 3. Have students select an existing product or service and design a couple of ads (print or electronic media) which make use of the principles discussed in this chapter. Students should explain why he or she thought these particular ads would be effective. Answer: Design ads for a chosen product using principles from the chapter, and explain their expected effectiveness. 4. Have students select a product brand and look up advertisements for it over the past 20 years or so. [Good library sources include Canadian Geographic, Chatelaine, Reader's Digest, and Globe and Mail. Coke, Pepsi, Miller Beer, Hallmark and others have excellent videos of their old ads and the students tend to enjoy watching these.] Do these ads reflect your perceptions of changes in consumer attitudes? Answer: Review a brand's ads over 20 years to see if they align with changes in consumer attitudes. 5. Ask students to read some ads from a print media or view or listen to ads on the broadcast media. Find out to what extent the following message appeals appear to be used: (a) emotional, (b) rational, (c) sex, (d) humorous, (e) fear. Which do they feel is most powerful? Which is most persuasive? Which is most credible? Answer: Analyze ads for the use of emotional, rational, sex, humorous, and fear appeals to determine which are most powerful and credible. 6. Have students bring in three television ads that employ humor. Then ask students to analyze the ads and explain what makes the ads funny and what causes them to wear out. What types of products can change your attitude by using humour in the message? Answer: Analyze three humorous TV ads to understand what makes them funny and how humor affects product attitudes. 7. Negative attitudes are often difficult to change. Ask students to think of a company that has had some bad press. How has the company handled the news? Have they been successful in turning the situation around? What techniques did they employ (or are they employing)? What suggestions do they have for the company? Answer: Examine how a company with negative press has managed the situation and suggest strategies for improvement. 8. Ask students to identify several spokespeople in recent TV ads. Speculate on the ages of the spokesperson and the age of the target audience. Do companies seem to let a spokesperson age along with the target audience or do they seem to find a new spokesperson? Why do they suppose certain spokespersons were selected for these roles? Answer: Assess if TV ad spokespersons age with their target audience or are replaced, and analyze the reasons for these choices. Team Assignments 9. Bring in a number of print or television ads that use celebrity endorsers or have students do it. Ask the class how effective they think the ads are. By evaluating the spokesperson as either “good” or “poor,” determine whether the class likes the celebrity. Do they find the ads believable or contrived? Probe to find out why they feel this way. Answer: Evaluate ads with celebrity endorsers by discussing their effectiveness and believability. Determine if the celebrity is perceived as a good or poor fit and explore reasons behind these opinions. 10. Bring in a number of print or television ads that rely on the use of metaphors or resonance (or have your students do it.) What are your students’ initial reactions to the ads? How effective do they think they are? Do they think some other approach would be more convincing? Why? Answer: Analyze ads using metaphors or resonance, and discuss initial reactions and effectiveness. Consider whether a more direct approach might be more convincing and why. Individual or Team Assignments 11. Ask a team of students to interview several of their friends to find out which eco-friendly (or non-eco-friendly) products they use. Did they formerly use an non-eco-friendly product? If so, see if you can determine why they changed their buying decision. Have them explain their attitude toward the environment in general. Find out what other measures they take to protect the environment. Answer: Interview friends about their use of eco-friendly products and reasons for any changes from non-eco-friendly options. Explore their general environmental attitudes and additional measures they take to protect the environment. 12. Have students make a list of all the commercials shown on evening or late news on each of the major television channels. Then ask them to categorize each ad according to product category, and whether it used drama or argument to persuade the viewer. Also have them record the number of minutes during the 30-minute news programs allotted for ads. Answer: List and categorize commercials from evening or late news by product type and persuasive approach (drama or argument). Record the total ad time within a 30-minute news segment. 13. Encourage students to compare and contrast high-involvement processing and low-involvement processing as found in the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion in. Have students relate these stages to the processes they followed on a recent purchase. See if any of the stages were reversed in the mind of the student. Answer: Compare high-involvement and low-involvement processing from the Elaboration Likelihood Model with students' recent purchase experiences. Analyze if any stages were reversed or mixed. 14. There is probably a pub near campus that many students avoid due to its lack of cleanliness. Ask students or a team to take charge of this establishment and develop a promotional campaign that would change consumers’ attitude toward this pub. What is the difference between atmosphere and cleanliness? Could a manager clean the place up “too much?” Explain. Answer: Develop a campaign to improve the pub’s image by emphasizing cleanliness and atmosphere. Discuss how atmosphere differs from cleanliness and whether excessive cleanliness could impact the pub’s character or appeal. 15. Have student groups collect ads that demonstrate the literary devices of allegory, metaphor, simile, and resonance. Have them discuss the effectiveness of such with the class. Answer: Collect ads using allegory, metaphor, simile, and resonance, and evaluate their effectiveness in creating impactful and memorable messages. 16. Using the most recent federal or provincial election as a backdrop, evaluate which candidate did the best job of changing attitudes among voters. Explain your reasoning. Give examples if possible. How did this “attitude change attempt” figure into the outcome of the election? Answer: Analyze the most recent federal or provincial election to determine which candidate most effectively changed voter attitudes. Provide examples and explain how these efforts influenced the election outcome. 17. Pick a controversial figure. The group’s assignment is to design a public relations campaign that will change the public’s image about the figure you have chosen. What principles from the chapter did your group use to accomplish your mission? Present your campaign to the class. Measure whether the image of your chosen figure was improved or not. Answer: Design a PR campaign for a controversial figure using principles from the chapter, such as strategic messaging and image repair. Present the campaign and assess whether the figure's public image improved. 18. Each group of students should generate a list of at least 20 current celebrity endorsers (this should not be too difficult and they can use outside sources for help). Which of these companies are getting the most bang for their buck and why? Which of the celebrities are benefiting the most from the boost of the company image and why? Answer: List 20 current celebrity endorsers and evaluate which companies and celebrities benefit the most from their endorsements. Consider factors like impact on brand image and celebrity appeal. 19. Have groups of students to take a common consumable product and apply a fear appeal to promoting the product. Have the students critique the effort with respect to the material presented in the chapter on using fear appeals. Have them do the same for applying a humor appeal to a commonly serious product. Answer: Apply a fear appeal to promote a common product and critique its effectiveness. Similarly, use a humor appeal for a serious product and analyze how it affects the message. eLAB Individual Assignments 1. Go to www.virgin.com. Pick a product from the huge portfolio of Virgin. This product should be one that you do not use and against which you have a negative attitude. Design a brief advertising campaign that would persuade you to use the product. Explain the process that you went through and the principles from the chapter you used in your campaign. Answer: Virgin Product Campaign: For Virgin Galactic, design an ad focusing on the excitement of space travel and its exclusivity. Use principles like emotional appeal to spark curiosity and aspiration. Address the negative attitude by showcasing testimonials from thrilled astronauts and the cutting-edge technology behind the experience. 2. Go to https://www.adbusters.org/spoofads. This is a website of spoof advertisements. Just how outrageous are these ads given the reality of what consumers are faced with? Discuss a few of the ads in relation to concepts from the text. Answer: Adbusters Spoof Ads: Spoof ads on Adbusters exaggerate corporate messaging to critique consumer culture. For example, an ad might mock a luxury brand’s overemphasis on status symbols. These ads highlight the absurdity of some real-world marketing tactics by using satire to question the value and ethics of consumerism. 3. Go to www.georgeforeman.com. George Foreman has made a comeback, more than once. But long after his boxing career is over, he has been making a fortune as a brand spokesperson. What contributes to his popularity? For what products is he most successful (how many endorsed products can you name)? Should any of these companies be worried that George is endorsing too many products? Explain. Answer: George Foreman's popularity stems from his charismatic persona and successful boxing career, which lend credibility to his endorsements. He is most successful for endorsing the George Foreman Grill, which has become iconic. Additionally, he has endorsed various products, including fitness equipment and food items. While his broad endorsement portfolio helps maintain his public profile, companies might worry that overexposure could dilute his brand's impact or credibility. eLAB Team Assignments 1. Go to www.philipmorris.com and www.rjrt.com. Your group’s assignment is to critically evaluate both of these websites with respect to public relations efforts toward changing the public’s view regarding the company and its products. Notice that beer, alcohol, and cigarettes are controversial products. What techniques are used? How do the companies overcome fear appeals used by their detractors? How do the companies attempt to reach consumers beyond their normal target markets? Evaluate the success of both companies. Explain your reasoning. Do legislative restrictions and lawsuits seem to have affected the companies’ normal business operations? If so, how? Answer: Philip Morris and R.J. Reynolds use their websites to project a positive corporate image and emphasize their efforts in harm reduction and social responsibility. Techniques include promoting initiatives for reduced-risk products and community involvement. They address fear appeals by highlighting innovations and regulatory compliance. Both companies attempt to broaden their reach through educational campaigns and partnerships. Legislative restrictions and lawsuits have led to increased transparency and shifts in marketing strategies, impacting their operations by constraining traditional advertising methods and increasing focus on product safety and regulatory compliance. PROFESSORS ON THE GO! Chapter Objectives
When students finish this chapter they should understand why: •The communications model identifies several important components for marketers when they try to change consumers’ attitudes toward products and services Have students choose an ad from any medium and apply both the traditional and the interactive communication models to identify the communication processes. •The consumer who processes a message is not necessarily the passive receiver of information marketers once believed him/her to be • Ask students to interview three people and have each respondent identify an advertisement that they have a positive attitude toward and an ad that they have a negative attitude toward. Be sure to inquire to find out how their attitudes toward the ads influence their attitudes toward the products and likelihood of purchase. Have students produce an example of some type of promotion used for each of the principles of reciprocity, scarcity, authority, consistency, liking, and consensus. Pick a controversial figure. Your group’s assignment is to design a public relations campaign that will change the public’s image about the figure you have chosen. What principles from the chapter did your group use to accomplish your mission? Present your campaign to the class. Measure whether the image of your chosen figure was improved or not. •Several factors influence the effectiveness of a message source Many, many companies rely on celebrity endorsers as communications sources to persuade. Especially when targeting younger people, these spokespeople often are “cool” musicians, athletes, or movie stars. In your opinion, who would be the most effective celebrity endorser today and why? Who would be the least effective? Why? People hate the ad, but still find that they purchase the product. Have students generate and discuss a list of products that have had success from annoying campaigns. Why is this the case? Corporations love the buzz. Have students describe three examples of companies that have achieved positive PR benefits from the “buzz.” Why did this happen? Have the students also generate a list of three companies that have flopped based on hype. What was the difference between these situations? •The way a marketer structures a message determines how persuasive it will be What are the pros and cons of using rational versus emotional appeals, that is, trying to persuade consumers by focusing on what they know as opposed to what they feel? When should marketers use one type or the other? Discuss some conditions where it would be advisable to use a comparative advertising strategy. A government agency wants to encourage the use of designated drivers by people who have been drinking. What advice could you give the organization about constructing persuasive communications? Discuss some factors that might be important, including the structure of the communications, where they should appear, and who should deliver them. Should fear appeals be used, and if so, how? Have students conduct a simple content analysis by examining either print or broadcast ads. They may find such ads in real sources such as magazines, newspapers, or by watching television. They may also find such ads online at websites that maintain archives of advertisements. Students should view numerous ads and analyze which of the following message appeals appear to be used: emotional, rational, sex, humorous, or fear. Does the medium or specific media vehicle have an effect on which appeals are used most commonly? After conducting this analysis, have students explain which appeal(s) is most powerful, most persuasive, and most credible. Why would a marketer consider saying negative things about his or her product? When is this strategy feasible? Can you find examples of it? •The elaboration likelihood model outlines how consumers will process a given message once it is received Describe the elaboration likelihood model and tell how it is related to the relative importance of what is said versus how it’s said? •Audience characteristics help to determine whether the nature of the source or the message itself will be relatively more persuasive Have students bring examples of advertisements that they would consider themselves highly involved in and less involved in. Discuss what aspects of the message there are influenced by (e.g., the elaboration likelihood model specifies that a less-involved consumer will more likely be swayed by source effects, while a more-involved consumer will more likely attend to and process components of the actual message). ENDNOTES i David M. Sanbonmatsu and Frank R. Kardes, "The Effects of Physiological Arousal on Information Processing and Persuasion," Journal of Consumer Research 15 (December 1988): 379-85. ii Shirley Leung, “McDonald’s Serves Better Results,” The Wall Street Journal Europe, January 28, 2004: A7. iii Brian Sternthal, Ruby Dholakia, and Clark Leavitt, "The Persuasive Effects of Source Credibility: Tests of Cognitive Response," Journal of Consumer Research 4 (1978) 4: 252-60. iv Andrew A. Mitchell and Jerry C. Olson (1981), "Are Product Attribute Beliefs the Only Mediator of Advertising Effects on Brand Attitude?" Journal of Marketing Research 18 (1981) 3: 318-32; R. Sparkman and L.M. Austin, "The Effect on Sales of Color in Newspaper Advertisements," Journal of Advertising 9 (1980): 39-42. v Michael R. Solomon, Sarah Drenan, and Chester A. Insko, "Popular Induction: When is Consensus Information Informative?" Journal of Personality 49 (1981) 2: 212-24. vi Cornelia Pechmann and S. Ratneshwar, "The Use of Comparative Advertising for Brand Positioning: Association Versus Differentiation," Journal of Consumer Research 18 (September 1991): 145-60. vii Herbert J. Rotfeld, "Fear Appeals and Persuasion: Assumptions and Errors in Advertising Research," Current Issues and Research in Advertising 11 (1988) 1: 21-40. viii Scott B. MacKenzie and Richard A. Spreng, "How Does Motivation Moderate the Impact of Central and Peripheral Processing on Brand Attitudes and Intentions?" Journal of Consumer Research 18 (March 1992): 519-29. ix Punam Anand and Brian Sternthal, "The Effects of Program Involvement and Ease of Message Counterarguing on Advertising Persuasiveness," Journal of Consumer Psychology 1 (1992)3: 225-38. Solution Manual for Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being Michael R. Solomon, Katherine White, Darren W. Dahl 9780133958096