This Document Contains Chapters 8 to 9 Chapter 8 Motivation: From Concepts to Applications Chapter Overview This chapter builds on the last chapter and focuses on applying motivational concepts in the workplace. Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Describe the job characteristics model and the way it motivates by changing the work environment. 2. Compare the main ways jobs can be redesigned. 3. Explain how specific alternative work arrangements can motivate employees. 4. Describe how employee involvement measures can motivate employees. 5. Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programs can increase employee motivation. 6. Show how flexible benefits turn benefits into motivators. 7. Identify the motivational benefits of intrinsic rewards such as employee recognition programs. Suggested Lecture Outline I. INTRODUCTION Simply knowing about motivational theories is not enough to make managers effective. Managers must be able to apply these theories in the workplace to increase worker motivation. This chapter will review the job characteristics model, discuss some ways jobs can be redesigned, and then explore some alternative work arrangements. II. MOTIVATING BY CHANGING THE NATURE OF THE WORK ENVIRONMENT A. The Job Characteristics Model (JCM). 1. Designed by Hackman and Oldham, the JCM proposes that any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions: a. Skill Variety: described as the degree to which the job requires a variety of different activities so the worker can use a number of different skills and talents. b. Task Identity: this is the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. c. Task Significance: the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. d. Autonomy: the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Jobs that possess autonomy give employees a feeling of personal responsibility for the results. e. Feedback: the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. Jobs that provide feedback lets employees know how effectively they are performing. 2. Exhibit 8-1 presents the job characteristics model. a. The first three dimensions—skill variety, task identity, and task significance—combine to create meaningful work the incumbent will view as important, valuable, and worthwhile. b. Jobs with high autonomy give incumbents a feeling of personal responsibility for the results and that, if a job provides feedback, employees will know how effectively they are performing. c. From a motivational standpoint, the JCM proposes that individuals obtain internal rewards when they learn (knowledge of results) that they personally (experienced responsibility) have performed well on a task they care about (experienced meaningfulness). 1) The more these three psychological states are present, the greater will be employees’ motivation, performance, and satisfaction, and the lower their absenteeism and likelihood of leaving. d. As Exhibit 8-1 shows, individuals with a high growth need are more likely to experience the critical psychological states when their jobs are enriched—and respond to them more positively. e. Much evidence supports the JCM concept that the presence of a set of job characteristics—variety, identity, significance, autonomy, and feedback—does generate higher and more satisfying job performance. f. A few studies have tested the JCM in different cultures, but the results are not consistent. The fact that the JCM is relatively individualistic suggests job enrichment strategies may not have the same effects in collectivistic cultures as in individualistic cultures. B. How Can Jobs Be Redesigned? 1. Job Rotation (or Cross-Training). a. Helpful when employees suffer from excessively routine work. This technique is the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another. 1) Strengths. The strengths of job rotation are: a) it reduces boredom, b) it increases motivation through diversifying the employee's activities, and c) it helps employees understand how their work contributes to the organization. d) International evidence from Britain, Italy, and Turkey shows that job rotation is associated with higher levels of organizational performance in manufacturing settings. 2) Costs. a) Job rotation increases training costs and reduces productivity by moving a worker into a new position just as that worker is becoming efficient in the old position. b) There may be social disruptions: members of the workgroup have to adjust to the new employee and supervisors have to spend more time monitoring the newly-rotated employees. 2. Job Enrichment. This refers to the vertical expansion of jobs. It increases the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work. a. Purpose. The purpose is to allow the worker to complete an entire activity, which increases the employee's freedom, independence, and responsibility. 1) In order for job enrichment to work there must be sufficient feedback so employees will be able to assess and correct their own performance. 2) JCM Guidelines for Job Enrichment: 3) Combining tasks: takes existing and fractionalized tasks and reforms them into a new larger module of work. 4) Forming natural work units: the tasks are combined to create an identifiable and meaningful whole work unit for the employee. 5) Establishing client relationships: creating a direct linkage between workers and their clients. Note: this includes internal as well as external clients. 6) Expanding jobs vertically: allow employees some of the responsibilities and control formerly reserved for management. 7) Opening feedback channels: allows employees to know how well they are performing their jobs. b. Some newer versions of job enrichment concentrate specifically on improving the meaningfulness of work. 1) One method is to relate employee experiences to customer outcomes, by providing employees with stories from customers who benefitted from the company’s products or services. 2) Another method is providing employees with mutual assistance programs. c. The evidence on job enrichment shows it reduces absenteeism and turnover costs and increases satisfaction, but not all job enrichment programs are equally effective. 1) A review of 83 organizational interventions designed to improve performance management showed that frequent, specific feedback related to solving problems was linked to consistently higher performance, but infrequent feedback that focused more on past problems than future solutions was much less effective. 2) Some recent evidence suggests job enrichment works best when it compensates for poor feedback and reward systems. 3. Relational Job Design. a. While redesigning jobs on the basis of jobs characteristics theory is likely to make work more intrinsically motivating, contemporary research is focusing on how to make jobs more prosocially motivating to people. 1) In other words, how can managers design work so employees are motivated to promote the well-being of the organization’s beneficiaries (customers, clients, patients, and employees)? 2) This view of job design shifts the spotlight from the employee to those whose lives are affected by the job that employee performs. b. One way to make jobs mores prosocially motivating is to better connect employees with the beneficiaries of their work by relating stories from customers who have found the company’s products or services to be helpful. 1) In some cases, managers may be able to connect employees directly with beneficiaries. 4. Alternative Work Arrangements. a. Another means of increasing motivation in the workplace is to alter the typical work arrangements. There are three major ways to accomplish this. b. Flextime. 1) Flextime refers to the use of "flexible work time." 2) Flextime allows employees some discretion over when they arrive at work and when they can leave. 3) Employees have to work a specific number of hours per week, but they are free to vary the hours of work within certain limits. 4) Flextime has become popular outside the United States in countries such as Germany where 73 percent of businesses offer flextime, and Japan. c. Core Period. 1) Typically, all workers must be in the office during a core period. 2) This core period may be as long as six hours, with the remaining two work hours scheduled at the employee's convenience. d. Benefits. They include: 1) reduced absenteeism, 2) increased productivity, 3) reduced overtime expenses, 4) reduced hostility toward management, 5) reduced traffic congestion around work sites, elimination of tardiness, and 6) increased autonomy and responsibility for employees, any of which may increase employee job satisfaction. e. Research Results. 1) Most evidence seems to back up the listed benefits of flextime. 2) The use of this technique is not applicable to every job. a) It does work well for clerical tasks, where interaction with outside individuals is limited, but b) It is inappropriate for jobs with comprehensive service demands during predetermined hours. 5. Job Sharing. a. This scheduling innovation allows two or more individuals to split a single traditional 40-hour-a-week job among them. b. Only about 12 percent of large organizations offer job sharing, a significant decline from 18 percent in 2008. c. Reasons it is not more widely adopted include the difficulty of finding compatible pairs of employees to job share and the historically negative perceptions of individuals not completely committed to their jobs and employers. d. However, decreasing job sharing for these reasons may be short sighted. 1) Job sharing allows an organization to draw on the talents of more than one individual for a given job. It opens the opportunity to acquire skilled workers – for instance, women with young children and retirees – who might not be available on a full-time basis. 2) From the employee’s perspective, job sharing can increase satisfaction and motivation. e. An employer’s decision to use job sharing is sometimes based on economics and national policy. 1) Two part-time employees sharing a job can be less expensive than one full-time employee, but experts suggest this is not the case because training, coordination, and administrative costs can be high. 2) In the United States, the national Affordable Care Act may create an incentive for companies to increase job sharing arrangements in order to avoid the fees employers must pay the government for full-time employees. 3) Many German and Japanese firms have been using job sharing – but for a different reason. Germany’s Kurzarbeit program has kept employment levels from plummeting through economic crises by switching full-time workers to part-time job sharing workers. f. Ideally, employers should consider each employee and job separately, seeking to match up the skills, personalities, and needs of each employee with the tasks required for the job to look for potential job sharing matches. 6. Telecommuting (or Working from the Virtual Office). a. This refers to employees who do their work remotely for at least two days a week using a computer linked to their office. A closely related term – the virtual office – describes working from home on a relatively permanent basis. 1) While telecommuting would seem to mesh with a transition to knowledge work, it has been a popular topic lately not for its potential, but rather for reconsideration. a) Recently, large companies such as Yahoo! and Best Buy have eliminated this form of flexible work. 2) For most companies, the movement toward telecommuting continues to grow. a) The U.S. Department of the Census estimated there was a 25 percent increase in self-employed home-based workers from 1999-2005 and a 20 percent increase in workers who work exclusively from home. b. Appropriate Jobs. The three most appropriate categories for telecommuting are: 1) jobs that deal with routine information-handling tasks, 2) mobile activities, and 3) professional and other knowledge-related tasks. c. Benefits. 1) For organizations telecommuting results in a larger labor pool, higher productivity, less turnover, improved morale, and reduced office-space costs. 2) For employees, telecommuting can result in a great cost savings. The hours and gas used in commuting and dry cleaning bills for office clothes may see significant reduction. d. Drawbacks. 1) For organizations: managers with telecommuting workforces have far less direct supervision of their employees. Telecommuting may make teamwork more difficult. 2) For employees: employees with high social needs may feel isolated and have reduced job satisfaction as a result of telecommuting. There is also a danger that because they are not in the office environment on a daily basis, they will be overlooked for promotions and perhaps receive lower performance assessments. III. EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT A. Employee Involvement: a participative process that uses the input of employees to increase their commitment to the organization's success. B. The logic behind employee involvement is that by involving workers in decisions that affect them and by increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will become more motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive, and more satisfied with their jobs. C. Employee involvement programs differ among countries. Research shows that it is important to modify practices to reflect culture. D. Examples of employee involvement programs. 1. Participative Management. Participative management is the use of joint decision making in an organization. a. Requirements. b. In order for this type of decision making to be effective, followers must have trust and confidence in their leaders. Leaders should refrain from coercive techniques and instead stress the organizational consequences of decisions to their followers. c. Research Results. 1) The findings on the use of this technique have been mixed. 2) It appears that participation in decision making only has a modest influence on employee productivity, motivation, and job satisfaction. 2. Representative Participation. a. This technique from Western Europe is a legislated form of participation. b. Representatives of employees are legally mandated to be placed on an organization's board (or on works councils who must be consulted regarding management’s personnel decisions) to represent the interests of the workers. c. Purpose is the desire to redistribute power within an organization by giving the interests of labor more of an equal footing with those of management and stockholders. d. Research 1) From results thus far, it appears that this mandatory form of employee involvement has minimal impact on the employees. 2) It may be motivational for those employees selected to represent the other workers, but it does not appear to motivate workers in general. E. Linking Employee Involvement Programs and Motivation Theories 1. Employee involvement draws on a number of the motivation theories we discussed in Chapter 7. a. Theory Y is consistent with participative management and Theory X with the more traditional autocratic style of managing people. 1) In terms of two-factor theory, employee involvement programs could provide intrinsic motivation by increasing opportunities for growth, responsibility, and involvement in the work itself. 2) The opportunity to make and implement decisions—and then see them work out—can help satisfy an employee’s needs for responsibility, achievement, recognition, growth, and enhanced self-esteem. 3) And extensive employee involvement programs clearly have the potential to increase employee intrinsic motivation in work tasks. IV. USING REWARDS TO MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES A. Introduction 1. While pay is not a primary factor driving job satisfaction, it does motivate people—and contribute to turnover, especially of top performers. 2. There are four strategic reward decisions that need to be made in order to establish an effective pay and rewards system: a. what to pay employees, b. how to pay them, c. what benefits to offer, and d. how to recognize them. B. What to Pay: Establishing a Pay Structure 1. Setting pay levels can be a complex activity and entails balancing the following two values. a. Internal Equity: the worth of the job to the organization, usually established through a technical process called job evaluation. b. External Equity: the external competitiveness of an organization's pay relative to pay elsewhere in the industry, normally established through pay surveys. c. Some organizations pay above the market, while some lag the market because they cannot afford market rates or because they are willing to bear the costs of paying below market. d. Establishing internal and external equity is strategically important, because relative pay can make a great difference in the skill level of employees that are attracted to the organization and turnover rate, therefore affecting both training and replacement costs. C. How to Pay: Rewarding. Individual Employees Through Variable-Pay Programs 1. Rather than paying a person only for time on the job or seniority, a variable-pay program bases a portion of an employee’s pay on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance. 2. These programs attempt to tie pay directly to productivity and performance. 3. There are seven major types of variable-pay programs: a. Piece-Rate Pay. 1) In these programs, workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed. 2) These plans may or may not have a base salary attached to them. b. Merit-Based Pay. 1) These individual plans modify pay based on performance appraisal ratings. 2) Advantages. a) The advantage of these plans is that employers can differentiate pay based on performance, so that high performers are given bigger raises. 3) Disadvantages. a) However, it should be noted that these plans are only as valid as the appraisals they are based on. b) Additionally, the pay raise pool from which the merit pay monies are taken may be too low to provide a sufficient level of incentive pay. c. Bonuses. 1) Bonuses, extra money paid for a specific event or organizational achievement, are becoming more common even in the lower levels of organizations. 2) One advantage of using bonuses is that they reward employees for recent performance rather than historical performance. 3) However, employees may prefer base pay increases to the variable bonuses. d. Skill-Based Pay (competency-based or knowledge-based pay). 1) These plans are an alternative to job-based pay. They pay workers for increasing their skill set at the job, rather than for advancements in position or job titles. 2) Advantages. This pay scheme increases workforce flexibility and makes management's job far easier when it comes to replacing or changing employees for a specific task. Communication throughout the organization also benefits. 3) Disadvantages. Employees can "top out" when they learn all the relevant skills in the program. They may not see any immediate need for the skills and management will be forced to pay for them anyway. e. Profit-Sharing Plans. 1) These are organization-wide programs to distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a company's profitability. Rewards can be given in the form of cash, or for top management, allocations of stock options. f. Gainsharing. 1) This is a formula-based group incentive plan. 2) Group productivity improvements from one period to another determine the total amount of money that is to be allocated—even when the organization is not profitable. 3) Gainsharing is different from profit sharing because rewards are tied to productivity gains, not profitability. g. Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs). 1) These are company-established benefit plans in which employees can acquire stock, often at below-market prices, as part of their benefits. 2) Research has shown that these plans do increase employee satisfaction, but their impact on performance is less clear. 3) In situations where the employees do feel like owners, the impact on organizational performance can be quite dramatic. 4. Evaluation of Variable Pay. a. Variable-pay plans may increase motivation and productivity. b. Organizations with profit-sharing plans tend to be more profitable and those with gainsharing tend to have greater productivity and better employee attitudes. c. It does appear that pay does increase productivity, but it does not appear that everyone responds positively to variable-pay plans. d. While intuitively, it would appear that individual variable pay programs work better in individualistic countries and group incentives work better in collectivistic cultures, there is not enough research to make a clear statement. V. USING BENEFITS TO MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES A. As with pay, benefits are both an employee provision and an employee motivator. 1. A flexible program turns the benefits package into a motivational tool. B. Flexible Benefits: Developing a Benefits Package 1. Consistent with expectancy theory’s thesis that organizational rewards should be linked to each individual employee’s goals, flexible benefits individualize rewards by allowing each employee to choose the compensation package that best satisfies his or her current needs and situation. 2. These plans replace the “one-benefit-plan-fits-all” programs designed for a male with a wife and two children at home that dominated organizations for more than 50 years. 3. Fewer than 10 percent of employees now fit this image: a. About 25 percent are single, and one-third are part of two-income families with no children. 4. Flexible benefits can accommodate differences in employee needs based on age, marital status, spouse’s benefit status, number and age of dependents, and the like. 5. Today, almost all major corporations in the United States offer flexible benefits, and they are becoming the norm in other countries and in small companies, too. VI. USING INRINSIC REWARDS TO MOTIVATE EMPLOYEES A. We have discussed motivating employees through job design and by the extrinsic rewards of pay and benefits. We also need to consider intrinsic rewards organizations can provide such as employee recognition programs. B. Employee Recognition Programs 1. Organizations are increasingly recognizing: a. Important work rewards can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. b. Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee recognition programs and extrinsic in the form of compensation systems. 2. Employee recognition programs range from a spontaneous and private thank-you to widely publicized formal programs in which specific types of behavior are encouraged and the procedures for attaining recognition are clearly identified. 3. Some research suggests financial incentives may be more motivating in the short term, but in the long run it’s nonfinancial incentives. a. A few years ago, 1,500 employees were surveyed in a variety of work settings to find out what they considered the most powerful workplace motivator. 1) Recognition, recognition, and more recognition. 4. An obvious advantage of recognition programs is that they are inexpensive because praise is free! a. It shouldn’t be surprising then that they’ve grown in popularity. 5. Despite the increased popularity of employee recognition programs, critics argue they are highly susceptible to political manipulation by management. 6. When applied to jobs for which performance factors are relatively objective, such as sales, recognition programs are likely to be perceived by employees as fair. a. However, in most jobs, the criteria for good performance aren’t self-evident, which allows managers to manipulate the system and recognize their favorites. 1) Abuse can undermine the value of recognition programs and demoralize employees. VII. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS A. Recognize Individual Differences 1. Spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to each employee. 2. Design jobs to align with individual needs and maximize their motivational potential. B. Use Goals and Feedback 1. Employees should have firm, specific goals, and they should get feedback on how well they are faring in pursuit of those goals. C. Allow Employees to Participate in Decisions That Affect Them 1. Employees can contribute to setting work goals, choosing their own benefits packages, and solving productivity and quality problems. 2. Participation can increase employee productivity, commitment to work goals, motivation, and job satisfaction. D. Link Rewards to Performance 1. Rewards should be contingent on performance, and employees must perceive the link between the two. 2. Recognize the power of both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. E. Check the System for Equity 1. Employees should perceive that experience, skills, abilities, effort, and other obvious inputs explain differences in performance pay, job assignments, and other rewards. VIII. KEEP IN MIND A. Most people respond to the intrinsic job characteristics of the JCM. B. It is not clear that employee involvement programs work – use caution! C. Variable-pay plans can enhance employee motivation. IX. SUMMARY A. Understanding what motivates individuals is key to organizational performance. B. Employees whose differences are recognized, who feel valued, and who have the opportunity to work in jobs tailored to their strengths and interests will be motivated to perform at the highest levels. C. Employee participation and recognition can increase employee productivity, commitment to work goals, motivation, and job satisfaction. Discussion Questions 1. In what ways can employees be motivated through changing the work environment? Answer: Employees can be motivated by changing the nature of the work environment in any of the following ways: (1) modifying the five dimensions of the JCM (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback), (2) redesigning jobs through job rotation, enlargement, enrichment, and/or (3) creating alternative work arrangements such as flextime, job sharing, or telecommuting. 2. Compare and contrast the means in which jobs can be redesigned. Answer: Jobs can be redesigned through job rotation and job enrichment. Job rotation keeps the individual jobs constant and rotates workers through each job. With job enrichment, the job is changed vertically: more managerial functions are added to the job, making it “taller.” Both techniques attempt to increase motivation: rotation by changing the employees through various jobs, and enrichment by changing the job. 3. Why would managers want to use employee involvement programs? Answer: By involving workers in the decisions that affect them and by increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will become more motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive, and more satisfied with their jobs. 4. What are the four major strategic rewards decisions? Answer: There are four strategic reward decisions that need to be made in order to establish an effective pay and rewards system: (1) what to pay employees – the pay structure, (2) how to pay them – variable pay programs, (3) what benefits to offer – flexible benefits programs, and (4) how to recognize them – intrinsic rewards through rewards programs. 5. Choose a variable-pay program and describe its motivational impact. Answer: Answers will vary based on the choice. In general, these key points should be made. Piece-rate pay motivates productivity by linking output directly to pay. Merit-based pay motivates toward organizational outcomes by linking appraisals to pay. Bonuses motivate by incentivizing recent performance. Skill-based pay motivates employees toward learning by rewarding them for it. Profit-sharing plans attempt to motivate employees toward organizational goals, specifically profits. Gainsharing plans motivate employees toward productivity gains. ESOPs motivate toward organizational outcomes through ownership. Variable-Pay Program: Commission-Based Pay Motivational Impact: Commission-based pay directly links compensation to individual performance, incentivizing employees to increase their sales and productivity. This program can boost motivation by rewarding high achievers and driving a results-oriented mindset, but it may also create pressure and competition among employees. 6. Can motivational theories be applied across cultures? Answer: Most likely, motivational theories cannot be directly applied without some modification based on culture. However, there is insufficient research in most cases, to make definitive statements. Students may give intuitive statements, such as that individual rewards work best in individualistic cultures, but they should be cautioned against accepting intuition as fact. Exercises 1. Self-analysis. Think back to the job or activity that you found to be the most motivational in your life. Describe the aspects of the job that made it so exciting for you. What type, or types, of motivational techniques were used in that job or activity? If you are the manager in your current job, how could you apply those techniques in that environment? 2. Web Crawling. Using your favorite search engine, find an additional motivational technique, not mentioned in the chapter. Fully describe and cite this technique. Using the motivational theories from Chapter 7, explain why you believe it would work and under what conditions you think it would prove most effective. 3. Teamwork. As a small group, assume you are a consultancy firm that specializes in motivational techniques and job redesign. The college administration has come to you and asked that you examine the college bookstore (or some other entity on the campus) and can provide them with suggestions for increasing the motivation of the employees there. Assess the current work environment and write up your suggestions using the motivational theories and techniques given in Chapters 6 and 7. 4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project). Assess the motivational techniques (both extrinsic and intrinsic) used at your workplace. Describe the techniques you were able to identify and assess their effectiveness in your work environment. If any of the techniques were ineffective, provide some suggestions for increasing the effectiveness of those techniques. Suggested Assignment For this activity, select two teams of four people each, one moderator (Master of Ceremonies – MC), one scorekeeper, and one timekeeper. The rest of the class will act as a studio audience (but they also have tasks to perform). Setup: (ensure the class is very familiar with the concepts in both Chapters 7 and 8 before attempting this activity). a. One of the two groups of four will act as Abraham Maslow. The other group will act as Fredrick Herzberg. Allow the teams 5 to 10 minutes to review their materials on these two motivational theorists. b. The moderator will act as the MC for the debate and read questions to the two panels. (The instructor may decide to act as MC.) c. While the groups are preparing, the audience should write down questions regarding their concerns over the motivational effectiveness of job rotation, job enrichment, and job enlargement on 3 x 5 cards. d. The debate works this way: i. A question from the audience is selected and read aloud to both teams by the MC. ii. The MC selects one panel and gives them two minutes to respond to the question based on the views of the theorist they represent. Timekeeper will give a five-second warning and stop the panel when two minutes are up. iii. The MC will then give the second panel their two minutes to express their theorist's viewpoint. Again, the timekeeper will give warning and stop the panel when time is up. iv. The MC will give the first group a one-minute rebuttal of the second panel's argument. Then the second group has one minute to rebut the first. Timekeeper will ensure deadlines are met. v. After the second rebuttal, the audience should be asked to vote as to which motivational theorist won the current point. vi. The debate cycle then begins anew with another card from the audience. This continues as time allows or until there are no more questions from the audience. vii. The panel with the most points at the end of the activity wins. Chapter 9 Foundations of Group Behavior Chapter Overview The text thus far has been dealing with individual behavior. Another important component of OB is group behavior. This chapter and the next will focus on how groups work and how to create effective teams. Chapter Objectives After studying this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Define group and identify the five stages of group development. 2. Show how role requirements change in different situations. 3. Demonstrate how norms exert influence on an individual’s behavior. 4. Discuss the dynamics of status in group behavior. 5. Show how group size affects group performance. 6. Contrast the benefits and disadvantages of cohesive groups. 7. Explain the implications of diversity for group effectiveness. 8. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. 9. Compare the effectiveness of interacting, brainstorming, and the nominal group technique. Suggested Lecture Outline I. INTRODUCTION A. While understanding individual behavior is important, most work takes place in group settings. B. It is important for an effective manager to understand how people work in groups and how to create effective teams. II. DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING GROUPS 1. A group is two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. a. Formal Groups: groups that are defined by the organization's structure with designated work assignments that establish tasks. 1) In these groups, acceptable behaviors are stipulated by, and directed toward, organizational goals. b. Informal Groups: alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. 1) Informal groups are natural formations in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact. 2) These types of interactions among individuals, though informal, deeply affect their behavior and performance. A. The Five-Stage Model. 1. As shown in Exhibit 9-1, the five- stage group-development model characterizes groups as proceeding through the distinct stages of forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. a. Forming. Characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership. 1) Members experiment to determine which behaviors are acceptable. 2) The stage is complete when members think of themselves as part of a group. b. Storming. This stage is full of intragroup conflict as members resist the constraints the group imposes upon them and determine leadership. 1) When complete, the team will have a relatively clear hierarchy of group leadership. c. Norming. The group is cohesive and develops close relationships with a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie. 1) Stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior. d. Performing. Finally, group energy moves toward performing their assigned task. 1) The group structure is fully functional and accepted. e. Adjourning. While permanent groups may not ever make it to this stage, temporary groups do. 1) In this stage, the group prepares to disband and perhaps join other groups. 2. Many interpreters of the five-stage model have assumed a group becomes more effective as it progresses through the first four stages. a. Although this may be generally true, what makes a group effective is actually more complex. b. Groups proceed through the stages of group development at different rates. 1) Those with a strong sense of purpose and strategy rapidly achieve high performance and improve over time. 2) Those with less sense of purpose actually see their performance worsen over time. 3) Groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to achieve the “performing” stage more rapidly. c. Nor do groups always proceed clearly from one stage to the next. 1) Storming and performing can occur simultaneously. 2) Groups even occasionally regress to previous stages. 3. An Alternative Model for Temporary Groups with Deadlines. a. Temporary groups with deadlines don’t seem to follow the usual five-stage model. Instead, they follow the punctuated-equilibrium model as shown in Exhibit 9-2. b. Their first meeting sets the groups direction; this first phase of group activity is one of inertia. c. A transition takes place exactly when the group has used up half its allotted time. This transition initiates major changes. d. A second phase of inertia follows the transition, and the group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity. e. The first meeting sets the group’s direction, and then a framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions through which the group will approach its project emerges, sometimes in the first few seconds of the group’s existence. 1) Once set, the group’s direction is solidified and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of its life. This is a period of inertia – the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action even if its gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions. f. The group’s last meeting is characterized by a final burst of activity to finish its work. g. In summary, the punctuated-equilibrium model characterizes groups as exhibiting long periods of inertia interspersed with brief revolutionary changes triggered primarily by members’ awareness of time and deadlines. 1) Keep in mind that this model doesn’t apply to all groups but is suited to the finite quality of temporary task groups working under a time deadline. B. Group Property 1: Roles. 1. In order to understand workgroups, it is important that we realize that the behavior of the members is shaped by the properties of the workgroups. 2. Some defining group properties are roles, norms, status, size, cohesiveness, and diversity. 3. Roles are the set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. a. Typically, people are required to play a number of diverse roles, both on and off the job, which makes the understanding of role behavior more difficult. b. There are different ways to examine roles: 1) Role Perception. a) The view of how a person is supposed to act in a given situation. b) The interpretation of how an individual believes he or she is supposed to behave will determine behavior. c) Perceptions can be gained through the media, direct experience, or observation. 2) Role Expectations. a) How others believe a person should act in a given situation. b) Apprenticeship programs allow beginners to watch an expert so they can learn to act as they should. 3) Role Conflict. a) Role conflict exists when an individual finds that compliance with one role’s requirements makes it more difficult to comply with another role's requirements. b) At the extreme, two or more role expectations can be completely contradictory. C. Group Property 2: Norms. 1. Norms are the acceptable standards of behavior as shaped by the group's members. 2. When accepted by the group's members, norms act as a powerful means of influencing the behavior of the group with a minimum of external control. 3. Norms can cover any aspect of group behavior. a. Probably the most common is performance norms, providing explicit cues about how hard members should work, how to do the job, what level of tardiness is appropriate, and the like. b. Other norms include appearance norms (dress codes, unspoken rules about when to look busy), social arrangement norms, (with whom to eat lunch, whether to form friendships on and off the job), and resource allocation norms (assignment of difficult jobs, distribution of resources like pay or equipment). 4. Norms and Behavior. The importance of norms in influencing worker behavior grew out of a series of studies undertaken at Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in Chicago from 1924 through 1932. a. The initial study determined that increases in productivity were caused by the fact that the groups were receiving more attention because they were observed, not by changes in the environmental conditions (lighting). b. In a follow-on study, dealing with pay-for-performance, researchers discovered that workers do not maximize individual economic rewards, but as a group, establish and maintain the norm of a “proper day’s work” level of output. 1) This also included strongly enforced norms of not creating too much or too little output or “squealing” to supervisors—enforced by sarcasm or punches. 5. Conformity. In order to be accepted, an individual will often change his or her behavior or opinion to conform to the group. a. There are numerous reasons for conformity, with recent research highlighting the importance of a desire to develop meaningful social relationships with others or to maintain a favorable self-concept. b. In the set of classic studies by Solomon Asch, effects of conformity were demonstrated. 1) When the subjects of the experiment were shown lines of unequal length in the presence of a group who claimed that the lines were of equal length, 75% of the subjects gave at least one answer that conformed, even though they knew it was wrong. However, these experiments are 50 years old and culture bound; the pressures to conform may not be as strong today as they were then. c. Do individuals conform to the pressures of all groups to which they belong? Obviously not, because people belong to many groups and their norms vary and sometimes are contradictory. 1) These important groups are called reference groups, in which a person is aware of other members , defines himself as a member or would like to be a member, and feels group members are significant to him. 2) The implication then is that all groups do not impose equal conformity pressures on their members, since their importance is in the eye of the perceiver. 6. Deviant Workplace Behavior (also called counterproductive behavior or employee withdrawal). Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms, and in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members. a. Exhibit 9-4 provides a typology of deviant workplace behaviors. b. Few organizations will admit to creating or condoning conditions that encourage and maintain deviant norms. Yet they exist. 1) Employees report an increase in rudeness and disregard toward others by bosses and co-workers in recent years. c. Like norms in general, individual employees’ antisocial actions are shaped by the group context within which they work. 1) Evidence demonstrates that deviant workplace behavior is likely to flourish where it’s supported by group norms. 2) When deviant workplace norms surface, employee cooperation, commitment, and motivation are likely to suffer. d. What are the consequences of workplace deviance for teams? Some research suggests a chain reaction occurs in groups with high levels of dysfunctional behavior. 1) The process begins with negative behaviors like shirking, undermining coworkers, or being generally uncooperative. 2) As a result, the team collectively starts to experience negative moods. These negative moods result in poor coordination of effort and lower levels of group performance. D. Group Property 3: Status 1. Status. a. Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. 1) Even the smallest group will develop roles, rights, and rituals to differentiate its members. 2) Status is a significant motivator and has major behavioral consequences when individuals perceive a disparity between what they believe their status to be and what others perceive it to be. 2. What Determines Status? a. According to the status characteristics theory, status develops into a hierarchy, and tends to be derived from one of three sources: 1) The Power a Person Wields over Others: The more power (control of resources) that an individual has, the higher his or her status. 2) A Person’s Ability to Contribute to Group Goals: People whose contributions are critical to the group success also tend to have high status. 3) An Individual's Personal Traits: When a group positively values certain personal characteristics, people who carry those traits receive high status. 3. Status and Norms. a. High status members of groups often have more freedom to deviate from norms than do low status members. b. High status members are also better able to resist conformity pressures, as they are less likely to be motivated by the need for social rewards. 4. Status and Group Interaction. a. The interactions among members of a group are influenced by status. b. High status people tend to be more assertive, while lower status members are more likely to be less active participants in discussions. c. The situation may result in a lower diversity of ideas and creativity. E. Group Property 4: Size. 1. Group size does affect the group's overall behavior, but it is contingent upon which dependent variables are being examined. 2. Smaller groups complete tasks faster and their individuals perform better, but larger groups consistently do better in problem solving. 3. Social Loafing: the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. a. As demonstrated by Max Ringlemann, a group’s effort is not equal to the sum of the efforts of individuals within that group. b. Group performance does increase with group size, but the addition of new members of the group has diminishing returns on productivity. c. What causes social loafing? 1) There are a number of possible causes of social loafing. 2) Equity theory would indicate that when an individual and the group believes that he or she is working harder than the other group members, that individual will reduce effort to match that of the group. 3) Another explanation may be the diffusion of responsibility: because the results of a group cannot be attributed to any single individual, the relationship between an individual's input and the group's output is clouded and difficult to measure. d. Social loafing appears to have a Western bias. It is consistent with individualistic cultures, and not prevalent in collective societies in which individuals are motivated by in-group goals. e. Preventing Social Loafing. While there is no magic bullet, these four suggestions will help minimize its effect: 1) Set group goals so that the group has a common purpose. 2) Increase intergroup competition (increases focus on shared outcomes). 3) Engage in peer evaluation. 4) Select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups. 5) Distribute group rewards by partially basing them on each member’s unique contributions. F. Group Property 5: Cohesiveness. 1. Cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. 2. Cohesiveness is important because it has been found to be related to the group's productivity. 3. Groups may become more cohesive when they spend a lot of time together, the group size is small, or the group has experienced external threats. 4. Cohesiveness affects group productivity. a. Performance-related norms established by the group are the key moderating variable between cohesiveness and productivity. b. If performance-related norms are high and the group is cohesive, they will be more productive than a less cohesive group. c. However, a cohesive group with low performance norms will experience low productivity. 5. Encouraging group cohesiveness. a. The following methods may increase group cohesiveness: 1) Decrease the size of the group. 2) Encourage group members to agree with the group's goals. 3) Increase the time members spend together. 4) Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of obtaining membership in that group. 5) Stimulate competition with other groups. 6) Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members. 7) Physically isolate the group. G. Group Property 6: Diversity. 1. Diversity is the degree to which members of the group are similar to, or different from, one another. 2. A great deal of research is being done on how diversity influences group performance. Some looks at cultural diversity and some at racial, gender, and other differences. Studies identify both costs and benefits from group diversity. 3. Diversity appears to increase group conflict, especially in the early stages of a group’s tenure, which often lowers group morale and raises dropout rates. 4. Research shows that teams in which the members’ values or opinions differ tend to experience more conflict, but leaders who can get the group to focus on the task at hand and encourage group learning are able to reduce these conflicts and enhance discussion of group issues. 5. Culturally and demographically diverse groups may perform better over time – if they can get over their initial conflicts. 6. Surface-level diversity – in observable characteristics such as national origin, race, and gender – alters people to possible deep-level diversity – in underlying attitudes, values, and opinions. 7. The impact of diversity on groups is mixed. It is difficult to be in a diverse group in the short term. However, if members can weather their differences, over time diversity may help them be more open-minded, creative, and to do better. But even positive effects are unlikely to be especially strong. 8. Faultlines. a. One possible side effect of diverse teams – especially those that are diverse in terms of surface-level characteristics – is faultlines, or perceived divisions that split groups into two or more subgroups based on individual differences such as sex, race, age, work experience, and education. b. Research on faultlines has shown that splits are generally detrimental to group functioning and performance. 1) Subgroups may wind up competing with each other, which takes time away from core tasks and harms group performance. 2) Groups that have subgroups learn more slowly, make more risky decisions, are less creative, and experience higher levels of conflict. 3) Subgroups are less likely to trust each other. 4) Finally, although the overall group’s satisfaction is lower when faultlines are present, satisfaction with subgroups is generally high. c. Overall, although research suggests that diversity in groups is a potential double-edged sword, recent work indicates they can be strategically employed to improve performance. III. GROUP DECISION MAKING A. Groups versus the Individual. 1. Whether or not a group’s decisions are better than an individual’s decisions depends on a number of factors. 2. To understand the group decision making, we must examine its strengths and weaknesses. B. Strengths of Group Decision Making. 1. The use of groups in decision making provides the following benefits: a. Generates more complete information and knowledge. b. Offers increased diversity of views. c. Increases the acceptance of the solution. 2. Weaknesses of Group Decision Making: a. Typically, it takes more time to reach a solution. b. Greater conformity pressures exist. c. Discussion can be dominated by one or a few members. d. Ambiguous responsibility decreases accountability. 3. Effectiveness and Efficiency. a. Effectiveness. 1) Whether or not group decisions are more effective than are those of an individual depends on the criteria used for defining effectiveness. 2) Accuracy: group decisions are generally more accurate than that of the average individual in the group, but less accurate than the judgments of the most accurate group member. 3) Speed: individual decision making is much faster than group decision making. 4) Creativity: groups tend to be more creative than are individuals. 5) Degree of acceptance: group decisions tend to be more readily accepted than are those of an individual. b. Efficiency. 1) Groups are far less efficient than are individual decision makers. 2) In deciding whether to use a group, consideration should be given to assessing whether increases in effectiveness more than offset the reductions in efficiency. C. Groupthink and Group shift. 1. These two phenomena of group decision making have the potential to affect the group's ability to appraise alternatives subjectively and to arrive at quality decision solutions. a. Groupthink: relates to norms and describes situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. b. Group shift: describes the way group members tend to exaggerate their initial positions when discussing alternatives and arriving at a solution. 2. Groupthink. a. It describes a deterioration of an individual's mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment as a result of group pressures. b. Symptoms of groupthink: 1) Group members rationalize away any resistance to the assumptions they have made, no matter how strong the evidence may be that those assumptions are incorrect. 2) Members apply direct pressures on those who momentarily express doubts about any of the group’s shared views or who question the validity of arguments supporting the alternative favored by the majority. 3) Members who have doubts or hold differing points of view keep silent about their misgivings and may even internally minimize the importance of their doubts. 4) The illusion of unanimity: unless a group member speaks out, his or her silence is taken as concurrence. c. Groupthink appears closely aligned with the conclusions Asch drew in his experiments with a lone dissenter. 1) Individuals who hold a position different from that of the dominant majority are under pressure to suppress, withhold, or modify their true feelings and beliefs. 2) As members of a group, we find it more pleasant to be in agreement—to be a positive part of the group—than to be a disruptive force, even if disruption is necessary to improve the effectiveness of the group’s decisions. d. What can managers do to minimize groupthink? 1) First, they can monitor group size. a) People grow more intimidated and hesitant as group size increases, and, although there is no magic number that will eliminate groupthink, individuals are likely to feel less personal responsibility when groups get larger than about ten members. 2) Managers should also encourage group leaders to play an impartial role. a) Leaders should actively seek input from all members and avoid expressing their own opinions, especially in the early stages of deliberation. 3) In addition, managers should appoint one group member to play the role of devil’s advocate; this member’s role is to overtly challenge the majority position and offer divergent perspectives. 4) Still another suggestion is to use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group and intensifying identity protection. a) One such exercise is to have group members delay discussion of possible gains so they can first talk about the dangers or risks inherent in a decision. 5) Requiring members to first focus on the negatives of an alternative makes the group less likely to stifle dissenting views and more likely to gain an objective evaluation. 3. Group shift or Group Polarization. a. There are differences between group decisions and the individual decisions of group members. 1) Sometimes group decisions are more conservative. 2) More often, they lean toward greater risk. What appears to happen in groups is that the discussion leads members toward a more extreme view of the position they already held. 3) Conservatives become more cautious, and more aggressive types take on more risk. b. The group discussion tends to exaggerate the initial position of the group. c. We can view group polarization as a special case of groupthink. 1) The group’s decision reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during discussion. 2) Whether the shift in the group’s decision is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant pre-discussion norm. d. The shift toward risk has generated several explanations. 1) It’s been argued, for instance, that discussion makes the members more comfortable with each other and, thus, more bold and daring. 2) Another argument is that the group diffuses responsibility. a) Group decisions free any single member from accountability for the group’s final choice, so greater risks can be taken. b) It’s also likely that people take on extreme positions because they want to demonstrate how different they are from the outgroup. 3) People on the fringes of political or social movements take on more and more extreme positions just to prove they are really committed to the cause. 4) So how should you use the findings on group shift? a) Recognize that group decisions exaggerate the initial position of the individual members, b) Recognize that the shift has been shown more often to be toward greater risk, and c) Recognize that which way a group will shift is a function of the members’ pre-discussion inclinations. D. Group Decision-Making Techniques. 1. One of the most common forms that groups take when making decisions is that of interacting groups. a. Interacting Groups: groups in which the members meet face to face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each other. 1) Brainstorming can overcome the pressures for conformity that dampen creativity by encouraging any and all alternatives while withholding criticism. 2) This somewhat ineffective technique does not lead to a solution, and may in fact lead to fewer creative alternatives than an individual could come up with, due to production blocking (distractions to thought caused by the technique itself). 3) Nominal group technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. a) This is why it is referred to as a "nominal" (in name only) group technique. 4) Group members are all physically present, but operate independently. 5) A problem is presented and the following steps take place. a) Each member independently writes down ideas on the problem without discussing it in the group. b) Sequentially, each member will present one idea to the group until all ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion is allowed until all ideas have been recorded. c) Group discusses ideas for clarity and evaluates them. d) Each group member silently and independently rank orders the ideas. e) The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision. 6) The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is that it does not restrict independent thinking; groups that use this technique tend to outperform brainstorming groups. 7) Each of the group-decision techniques has its own set of strengths and weaknesses. The choice depends on what criteria you want to emphasize and the cost-benefit tradeoff. 8) As Exhibit 9-5 indicates, an interactive group is good for achieving commitment to a solution, brainstorming develops group cohesiveness, and the nominal group technique is an inexpensive means for generating a large number of ideas. IV. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS A. Recognize that groups can dramatically affect individual behavior in organizations, to either positive or negative effect. Therefore, pay special attention to roles, norms, and cohesion – to understand how these are operating within a group is to understand how the group is likely to behave. B. To decrease the possibility of deviant workplace activities, ensure that group norms do not support antisocial behavior. C. Pay attention to the organizational status levels of the employee groups you create. Because lower-status people tend to participate less in group discussions, groups with high-status differences are likely to inhibit input from lower-status members and reduce their potential. D. When forming employee groups, use larger groups for fact-finding activities and smaller groups for action-taking tasks. When creating larger groups, you should also provide measures of individual performance. E. To increase employee satisfaction, work on making certain your employees perceive their job roles the same way you perceive their roles. V. KEEP IN MIND A. Group norms, roles, and identities have powerful effects on individual behavior. B. Conformity can be a problem: have leaders minimize initial inputs. C. Group decision making is not always better than individual decision making. VI. SUMMARY A. Norms control behavior by establishing standards of right and wrong. B. Status inequities create frustration and can adversely influence productivity and willingness to remain with an organization. C. The impact of size on a group’s performance depends on the type of task. D. Cohesiveness may influence a group’s level of productivity, depending on the group’s performance-related norms. E. Diversity appears to have a mixed impact on group performance, with some studies suggesting that diversity can help performance and others suggesting it can hurt it. F. Role conflict is associated with job-induced tension and job dissatisfaction. G. People generally prefer to communicate with others at their own status or a higher one, rather than with those below them. Discussion Questions 1. What is the difference between formal and informal groups? Give an example of each. Answer: Formal groups are those defined by the organization’s structure, designated work assignments, and established tasks. It may be in the form of the command group or a task group. Informal groups are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. Informal groups are typically interest groups or friendship groups. 2. Describe the five-stage model of group development and the caveats associated with its use. Answer: The five-stage model includes forming (group is unsure what is expected of it), storming (conflict period while leadership is determined), norming (further conflict period where social rules are established), performing (actually accomplishing the work), and adjourning (formally breaking up the group). Caveats: teams may not actually go through the steps sequentially, multiple steps may be taken at the same time, and teams can regress in the earlier steps. But the model is a good overall guide. 3. How can group cohesiveness be increased? Give specific recommendations. Answer: Group cohesiveness can be increased by: (1) decreasing the size of the group, (2) encouraging group members to agree with the group's goals, (3) increasing the time members spend together, (4) increasing the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of obtaining membership in that group, (5) stimulating competition with other groups, (6) giving rewards to the group rather than to individual members, and (7) physically isolating the group. 4. Describe the three sources of status. Answer: (1) Power: the power a person wields over others. The more power that an individual has, the higher his or her status. (2) Ability: a person's ability to contribute to a group’s goals. People whose contributions are critical to the group success also tend to have high status. (3) Characteristics: an individual's personal traits. When a group positively values certain personal characteristics, people who carry those traits receive high status. 5. Why does social loafing occur? Answer: There are a number of possible causes of social loafing. Equity theory would indicate that when an individual in the group believes that he or she is working harder than the other group members, that individual will reduce effort to match that of the group. Another explanation may be the dispersion of responsibility: because the results of a group cannot be attributed to any single individual, the relationship between an individual's input and the group's output is clouded and difficult to measure. 6. List the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. Answer: Strengths of group decision making: (1) generates information and knowledge that is more complete, (2) offers increased diversity of views, and (3) increases the acceptance of the solution. Weaknesses of group decision making: (1) typically takes more time to reach a solution, (2) greater conformity pressures exist, (3) discussion can be dominated by one or a few members, and (4) ambiguous responsibility decreases accountability. 7. Compare and contrast brainstorming and NGT. Ensure you describe both techniques fully in your answer. Answer: Brainstorming. The technique designed to generate a list of creative alternatives. A problem is presented and everyone provides oral input on the solution simultaneously. No feedback or discussion is allowed until all of the inputs have been recorded. This somewhat ineffective technique does not lead to a solution, and may in fact lead to fewer creative alternatives than an individual could come up with, due to production blocking (distractions to thought caused by the technique itself). Nominal Group Technique (NGT). This technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. This is why it is referred to as a "nominal" (in name only) group technique. Group members are all physically present, but operate independently. A problem is presented and the following steps take place: 1) Each member independently writes down ideas on the problem without discussing it in the group. 2) Sequentially, each member will present one idea to the group until all ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion is allowed until all ideas have been recorded. 3) Group discusses ideas for clarity and evaluates them. 4) Each group member silently and independently rank orders the ideas. 5) The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision. The use of NGT does not restrict independent thinking; groups that use this technique tend to outperform brainstorming groups. Exercises 1. Self-analysis. Consider the last group that you were in that was required to make a decision. What type of group was it? What types of decision-making techniques were used? How is your input to the group affected by the type of group and decision-making technique? 2. Web Crawling. Using your favorite search engine, locate a group decision-making technique that was not mentioned in the textbook. Write a brief one-page synopsis of the technique that would allow a manager to use it without having viewed the website. Ensure you properly cite the source. 3. Teamwork. In this exercise, the instructor will break the class up into groups of various sizes, some large (12+ members) and some small (4-7 members), and will leave three individuals by themselves. The instructor will provide three datasheets on a product (cars, laptop computers, MP3 players, or something similar). Using whichever group decision-making technique the group thinks is appropriate, decide which of the three products is superior. Keep track of the time it takes to make your decision. The three individuals will also make this decision, each on their own, and keep track of the time it takes them. As a class, compare the quality of the results and the time it took to achieve them, based on group size and decision-making technique. What are your findings? 4. Analyzing Your Organization (Cumulative Project). Write a one-page paper that outlines the use of groups and/or teams in your organization for decision making. What decision-making techniques are commonly used and how does the average worker feel about the quality of these decisions? Suggested Assignments 1. Group Membership Analysis. List out all of the groups that you belong to and categorize each group based on the group subcategories given in the text. Count up the number of groups you belong to in each subcategory and record that subtotal. Sum up all of the subcategories and record your total group memberships. Share your results in class and sum up the individual subtotal counts to get a class total. In what subcategory was group membership most frequently identified and in which was membership least frequently identified? What was the average number of groups to which members of the class belonged? 2. Status Symbols. Examine an organization with which you are familiar and pay particular attention to the use of status symbols by those in high status positions. Make a list of the differences in symbols between those in high and low status positions. Share your findings with the class, and as a class, discuss how being able to identify these high status symbols can help you become more effective in the organization. 3. Identifying Norms. As college students you have been exposed to a continuing series of norms. From elementary school on, you have learned what is considered to be proper behavior in the classroom. As a class (or in small groups), brainstorm and identify these unwritten rules of classroom behavior. How many norms were there? How many of these norms were you consciously aware of prior to listing them? Instructor Manual for Essentials of Organizational Behavior Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy A. Judge 9789332587984, 9780133920819, 9780133973013, 9781292090078, 9781292090184, 9780134523859, 9780132968508
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