This Document Contains Chapters 8 to 9 Chapter 8 – Economic Systems MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. What do we call a system in which goods are produced, distributed, and consumed? A. Economic B. Political C. Religious D. Kinship E. Industrial Answer: A 2. When a man works hard in his garden in the Trobriand Islands to produce yams, he does this to satisfy which of the following demands? A. To have food for his household to eat B. To gain prestige by giving yams away to his sister’s husbands C. To prove to his wife that he can work as hard as she can D. To give the yams to his wife so that she can trade them for goods that they don’t produce themselves E. To trade for fish Answer: B 3. Which of the following statements is correct? A. Yams are eaten at every meal once harvest season occurs. B. A family gets all of its yams from the husband’s sister’s family. C. Once harvested, yams are not usually eaten as daily food. D. All men sponsor a yam competition as a puberty ritual. E. Women are never allowed to handle or distribute yams. Answer: C 4. Which of the following items is exchanged in the Trobriands during death rituals? A. Cotton skirts B. Banana leaf bundles C. Wheat sheaves D. Money E. Sweet potatoes mounds Answer: B 5. A typical Ju/’hoansi band requires about how many square miles of land? A. 750 B. 500 C. 250 D. 100 E. 50 Answer: C 6. Among food foragers such as the Ju/’hoansi, A. land is defined as a territory with usable resources and flexible boundaries that belongs to a band that has occupied it for a long time. B. land is thought of as belonging to those who have bought it. C. land is considered private property; however the owner wants to share in order to be part of the band. D. land is owned by the ancestors, and the living only use it. E. land is leased by a corporation of strangers who support the survival of the foraging lifestyle. Answer: A 7. Tools tend to be fewer and simpler among A. mobile food foragers and pastoralists. B. semi-permanent horticulturalists. C. sedentary agriculturalists. D. wealthy industrialists. E. rice farmers. Answer: A 8. The following statements about land are made by people who belong to food-foraging, horticultural, pastoralist, intensive agriculturalist, and industrial societies. Which statement is most likely to be made by horticulturalists from a tributary system of land ownership in West Africa? A. “The land of my people is the land around Spirit Lake, where my ancestors emerged and where we hold annual ceremonies.” B. “I gave the land to my brother’s son, who distributed it among his sons, for which they pay me ten days’ work a year. When the eldest son died, I gave his land to my cousin, who needs more land for his growing family.” C. “I paid ten grand for that parcel of land in the desert, and expect it to double in value in the next five years.” D. “In the summer, we go to our land in the mountains, and in the winter, we pass through the land corridor to the east, using the water holes and meadows for grass until we reach the summer pastures.” E. “I inherited five acres of land from my mother, as well as the rights to use the water from the river three days a week.” Answer: B 9. When a tool is complex and difficult to make, it is usually considered to be owned by A. the whole village in which it is used. B. a single individual. C. the state. D. all those who touch it. E. all relatives. Answer: B 10. Which tool would you not expect to find among horticulturalists? A. Digging stick B. Carrying containers C. Axe D. Plow E. Hoe Answer: D 11. Which of the following situations represents a flexible/integrated pattern of gender division of labor? A. A pastoral nomadic camp in which the men spend most of the time with the herds, and women remain in camp and make butter and clothing B. An intensive agricultural society in which the men are out plowing the fields from dawn until dusk while the women are making bread, gathering eggs, making baskets, and other household work C. A foraging society where both men and women contribute to daily food consumption, share in responsibilities, and sometimes exchange duties D. An industrial society in which a factory worker leaves for work at 7 a.m. and returns home at 5:30 p.m., while his wife takes care of the children at home E. A factory where both men and women work, although women are the managers and men the line workers Answer: C 12. Among the Ju/’hoansi, A. children are expected to contribute to subsistence from the time they reach puberty (around 14 or 15). B. elderly people past the age of 60 are expected to contribute hunted or gathered food to the group, as they are being taken care of by others now. C. elderly people are a valuable source of knowledge and wisdom about hunting and gathering and are consulted regularly. D. elderly people are taken care of grudgingly because after the age of 60 they contribute nothing to the group. E. children are expected to set up their own separate households by the time they are 16. Answer: C 13. In which society are we most likely to find exploitative child labor conditions? A. Foraging B. Horticultural C. Agricultural D. Pastoral E. Industrial Answer: E 14. Cooperative work groups are found A. in all societies worldwide. B. only in illiterate, nonindustrial societies. C. only in extended households with married parents, children, and grandparents. D. only in horticultural societies. E. in agricultural societies, although there are special times where it occurs in industrial societies. Answer: A 15. In most societies, the basic unit of the cooperation is the A. village. B. household. C. state. D. religious group. E. division of labor by gender. Answer: B 16. There is a degree of task specialization in all societies. In the Danakil region of Eritrea, the Afar men occasionally mine what mineral as a trade good? A. Iron B. Salt C. Silver D. Tin E. Mercury Answer: B 17. Anthropologist Amanda Stronza studied ecotourism in northern Bolivia. The local indigenous leaders saw all of the following benefits in local ecotourism except: A. creation of local employment opportunities. B. development of new markets for local handicrafts. C. desire to leave behind local cultural traditions and become more “Western.” D. resources to construct new schools and health clinics. E. development of a community identity. Answer: C 18. What do we call the division of labor pattern in which men and women carry out their work separately, while maintaining a socially and economically complementary balance? A. Symmetrical pattern B. Segregated patterns C. Flexible/integrated pattern D. Dual-sex configuration E. Male-female oppositional labor Answer: D 19. The mode of distribution called reciprocity refers to the exchange of goods and services A. between people in hierarchical relationships. B. for the purpose of maintaining social relationships and gaining prestige. C. to make a profit. D. to embarrass the person who gave the least. E. of unequal value. Answer: B 20. When an Australian hunter gives away most of his meat to relatives without specifying what is expected in return, he is exemplifying A. generalized reciprocity. B. negative reciprocity. C. balanced reciprocity. D. redistribution. E. market exchange. Answer: A 21. Balanced reciprocity A. is part of a long-term process in which nothing is specified about what is expected in return or when it is expected. B. involves the expectation of a specific and immediate exchange. C. usually occurs between members of different communities who may have a hostile, distrustful relationship. D. is exemplified by your stopping to give a stranger a lift, and replying, when he thanks you, “Pass it on to the next stranger you meet who needs your help.” E. does not occur in industrial societies. Answer: B 22. “Buyer beware!” is the philosophy many North American business people use. What type of reciprocal exchange does this philosophy imply? A. Balanced B. Negative C. Generalized D. Ambiguous E. Deceptive Answer: B 23. The Kula ring is a form of _____ that reinforces trade relations among a group of seafaring Melanesians inhabiting a ring of islands off the eastern coast of Papua New Guinea. A. negative reciprocity B. balanced reciprocity C. market exchange D. silent trade E. generalized reciprocity Answer: B 24. The Kula ring functions to do all of the following except: A. distribute scarce resources over a broad ecological zone. B. establish allies among potential enemies. C. gain power through the ability to give and receive highly valued prestige items. D. accumulate wealth in the hands of an upper-class elite. E. foster a ritual of ceremonial exchange. Answer: D 25. What is silent trade? A. Exchange of goods only through various intermediaries so that the final consumer does not know the producer B. Exchange of goods and services between distant groups who are unable to have direct contact C. Exchange of goods between mutually distrusting ethnic groups that do not want personal contact D. A type of redistribution in which there is a display of wealth for social prestige E. A mode of exchange in which goods flow into a central location and are then redistributed without acknowledging ownership Answer: C 26. The U.S. system of paying income taxes every April is an example of A. generalized reciprocity. B. balanced reciprocity. C. negative reciprocity. D. redistribution. E. market exchange. Answer: D 27. For redistribution to be possible, a society must have A. a cultural emphasis on generosity. B. an egalitarian social order. C. a centralized system of political organization. D. an informal economy. E. industrialization and urbanization. Answer: C 28. The display of wealth for social prestige is called A. a levelling mechanism. B. conspicuous consumption. C. redistribution. D. balanced reciprocity. E. barter. Answer: B 29. The concept that by obligation wealthier members of the community give to less wealthy members so that no one accumulates more wealth than anyone else is called A. conspicuous consumption. B. generalized reciprocity. C. a levelling mechanism. D. silent trade. E. negative reciprocity. Answer: C 30. Levelling mechanisms are A. more common in hunter-gatherer societies than in horticultural societies. B. associated with one family becoming wealthier than others. C. found in communities where property is not allowed to threaten egalitarian social order. D. more common in industrial societies than in agricultural societies. E. no longer in existence. Answer: C 31. From an economist’s point of view, “market exchange” is defined by A. the purchase of goods in a marketplace. B. the buying and selling of goods and services whose value is determined by supply and demand. C. the role of middlemen who bring buyers and sellers together. D. face-to-face bargaining for goods and/or services. E. the role of large multinational corporations, using a formal stock exchange. Answer: B 32. Which of the following is the fundamental characteristic of the market in non-Western societies? A. It is located in a rural area close to where produce is grown B. It is found only in towns where produce is grown, distributed, and consumed C. It is an abstract concept, where goods are exchanged over the Internet D. It is a traditional marketplace, where actual goods are exchanged E. There is no concrete marketplace where actual goods are exchanged Answer: D 33. Something used to make payments for other goods and services as well as to measure their value is called A. money. B. credit. C. prestige. D. barter. E. silent trade. Answer: A 34. When Spanish invaded Mexico and Guatemala, they adopted the local practice of using money. What item represented money in this area? A. Coca leaves B. Cacao C. Feathers D. Salt E. Silver Answer: B 35. Which of the following is not a chemical found in chocolate? A. Anandamide B. Phenylethylamine C. Tryptophan D. Formaldehyde E. Theobromine Answer: D 36. What do we call a network of producing and circulating marketable commodities, labor, and services that for various reasons escapes government control? A. Formal economy B. Informal economy C. Hidden economy D. Silent trade E. Redistribution Answer: B 37. Anthropologist Rosita Worl is a member of which Native American tribal group? A. Creek B. Haida C. Tlingit D. Assiniboine E. Kootenai Answer: C 38. Anthropologist Rosita Worl has been associated with each of the following except: A. Board of Directors at Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of the American Indian. B. President of the Sealaska Heritage Institute. C. founder of Alaska Native News. D. faculty at University of Alaska Southeast. E. author of Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Answer: E 39. Every fall, a group of about 600 migrants travels to Maine to work on the apple harvest. They are contacted by a labor recruiter in their home country and given temporary foreign farm work visas. Often, they must change aspects of their physical appearance to be seen as more “employable.” Where are they from? A. Mexico B. India C. Bolivia D. Jamaica E. Australia Answer: D 40. What is a remittance? A. A type of farm work visa that is issued only seasonally and cannot be renewed B. A form of transportation that the employee sends to bring workers to the U.S. C. A portion of earnings that is sent back to families in another location D. A percentage of earnings that is paid to the local job recruiter E. A type of salary that is higher than minimum wage and paid as an enticement too workers (a kind of monetary advance) Answer: C TRUE/FALSE 1. Anthropologists focus on culture as a way of explaining economic behavior. Answer: True 2. Economic behavior can be analyzed in purely economic terms without ignoring crucial noneconomic considerations. Answer: False 3. Raw materials, labor, and technology are the productive resources used by all societies. Answer: True 4. Among food foragers, tools may be given or loaned to others in exchange for the products gained from their use. Answer: True 5. A division of labor by gender is found only in foraging and horticultural societies. Answer: False 6. Food producers have less craft specialization than food foragers. Answer: False 7. Today, almost 215 million child laborers under the age of 14 work for income. Answer: True 8. In 2011, more than 1 billion people were employed by the tourist industry worldwide. Answer: False 9. Amanda Stronza is involved in doing applied anthropology among the Trobriands, where she studies aspects of women’s work and task specialization. Answer: False 10. The Kula ring is a form of barter in which no actual trade takes place. Answer: False 11. A customary practice such as hosting a birthday party is an example of negative reciprocity. Answer: False 12. The Inca Empire featured a highly efficient redistributive system. Answer: True 13. Because these events were sponsored alternately by different ethnic groups, the potlatch was a form of balanced reciprocity. Answer: False 14. Leveling mechanisms are found in every society, although they are less common in smaller, more traditional societies where there is less material need. Answer: False 15. Market exchange is defined as the exchange of goods through face-to-face bargaining in a market place. Answer: False 16. Among the Inca there was such a thing as “chocolate money.” Answer: False 17. The use of money for exchange has been traced back as far as 5,000 years ago in Mesopotamia. Answer: True 18. Migrant workers often send remittances to their families back in their home village. Answer: True 19. Rosita Worl is a Native American anthropologist who now works to encourage traditional communities to enter the global market and put aside their less profit-oriented economic ventures. Answer: False 20. In some countries, the informal economy generates as much as 40% of the GNP. Answer: True SHORT ANSWER 1. What is an economic system from an anthropological approach? Answer: An economic system from an anthropological approach is the way a society organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, influenced by cultural norms, social structures, and environmental factors. 2. Describe the variation that exists among nonindustrial societies in their organization of labor by age. Answer: In nonindustrial societies, labor organization by age varies widely, with some cultures assigning specific tasks to different age groups, while others may integrate age groups into communal work, reflecting the society's social structure and needs. 3. What is the women’s role in the Trobriand economy? Answer: In the Trobriand economy, women play a crucial role by producing staple foods like yams, participating in exchange systems, and managing household resources, which supports the social and economic fabric of the community. 4. What are the productive resources that all societies must organize according to culturally appropriate rules? Answer: The productive resources that all societies must organize include land, labor, and capital, each managed according to culturally appropriate rules and practices to sustain the community. 5. How are land and water resources allocated differently in a foraging versus an agricultural society? Answer: In foraging societies, land and water resources are typically shared and accessed communally, while in agricultural societies, these resources are often owned, managed, and allocated based on family, lineage, or individual ownership. 6. Define technology, and describe how it varies in societies with different economic systems. Answer: Technology is the application of knowledge, tools, and skills to solve problems and perform tasks. In subsistence economies, technology includes simple tools for hunting and gathering, while industrial economies use advanced machinery and digital technology to produce goods and services efficiently. 7. Name and describe three different divisions of labor by gender. Answer: Three divisions of labor by gender include: • Complementary division: Men and women perform different but equally valued tasks (e.g., men hunt, women gather in foraging societies). • Segmented division: Specific tasks are designated exclusively to one gender (e.g., men as builders, women as weavers in some traditional societies). • Integrated division: Both genders share and alternate roles, often seen in egalitarian societies (e.g., men and women both farm and manage households). 8. What are the benefits that some local communities acquire by engaging in global ecotourism? Answer: By engaging in global ecotourism, local communities benefit economically through job creation and income, culturally by promoting and preserving traditional practices, and environmentally by fostering conservation efforts. 9. Define three types of reciprocity, and give examples of each. Answer: Three types of reciprocity: • Generalized reciprocity: Giving without expecting an immediate return (e.g., parents providing for their children). • Balanced reciprocity: Exchange with an expectation of a timely and equivalent return (e.g., gift-giving among friends). • Negative reciprocity: Attempting to get something for less than its value (e.g., bartering in markets). 10. Describe the economic and noneconomic functions of the Kula ring. Answer: The Kula ring's economic functions include the exchange of ceremonial items, enhancing trade relations, while its noneconomic functions involve reinforcing social ties, status, and alliances among participants. 11. What is meant by the term “conspicuous consumption”? Give an example. Answer: Conspicuous consumption refers to the act of purchasing and displaying expensive items to showcase wealth and status rather than to meet basic needs. Example: Buying a luxury car primarily to impress others. 12. Describe the conditions that are likely to produce an economic system of redistribution. Answer: An economic system of redistribution is likely to emerge in societies with centralized authority, such as chiefdoms or states, where resources are collected by a central figure or institution and redistributed to maintain social welfare and cohesion. 13. Describe the potlatch. Answer: A potlatch is a ceremonial event practiced by Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, involving the giving away or destruction of wealth and goods to demonstrate status, redistribute resources, and reinforce social bonds. 14. What is a leveling mechanism? Discuss and provide an example. Answer: A leveling mechanism is a cultural practice that promotes equality by reducing wealth disparities. Example: The practice of Moka in Papua New Guinea, where successful individuals are expected to distribute their wealth through competitive gift-giving ceremonies. 15. Distinguish between market exchange and marketplace. Answer: Market exchange involves the buying and selling of goods and services based on supply and demand, typically with money as a medium. A marketplace is a physical or virtual location where these transactions occur, facilitating the market exchange process. 16. How did the introduction of money change the marketplace? Answer: The introduction of money standardized value, facilitated easier and more diverse transactions, and allowed for the accumulation and transfer of wealth, transforming the marketplace by enabling more complex and expansive trade networks. 17. What is an informal economy? Provide examples. Answer: An informal economy consists of economic activities that are not regulated by the government. Examples include street vending, unregistered small businesses, and freelance work. 18. What is money, and what different kinds of money have existed historically? Discuss at least one alternative example. Answer: Money is a medium of exchange that facilitates trade. Historically, it has included commodity money (e.g., gold, silver), fiat money (government-issued currency), and digital money (cryptocurrencies). Alternative example: Barter systems where goods and services are directly exchanged. 19. What is a remittance? Answer: A remittance is a sum of money sent by a migrant worker to their family or community in their home country. 20. Economics has a powerful effect on society. What forms of social mobilization have resulted when economic policies were considered detrimental to the community? Answer: Forms of social mobilization resulting from detrimental economic policies include protests, strikes, and social movements advocating for change, such as the labor movement during the Industrial Revolution or recent anti-austerity protests in various countries. ESSAY 1. Why is understanding economic transactions essential to a full understanding of culture? Answer: Economic transactions are fundamental to understanding culture because they reflect social relationships, values, power dynamics, and resource distribution within societies. Key reasons include: • Social Organization: Economic activities shape social hierarchies, division of labor, and community interactions. • Cultural Values: Exchange practices, gift-giving, and consumption patterns reflect cultural norms, beliefs, and symbolic meanings. • Power Dynamics: Control over resources and wealth influences social status, political authority, and gender roles. • Globalization: Economic interactions connect cultures globally, influencing cultural identity, adaptation, and cultural change. 2. Discuss how anthropologists study economic systems. Give specific examples. Answer: Anthropologists study economic systems through ethnographic research, analyzing production, distribution, and consumption patterns across societies: • Subsistence Strategies: Studying how societies acquire food and resources (e.g., foraging, horticulture, pastoralism). • Exchange Systems: Analyzing modes of exchange (e.g., reciprocity, redistribution, market exchange) and their cultural significance. • Labor and Division of Labor: Examining roles, skills, and economic activities based on age, gender, and social status. • Globalization and Economic Change: Investigating how globalization impacts local economies, livelihoods, and cultural practices. For example, Marcel Mauss' study of gift exchange in "The Gift" illustrates how economic transactions embody social obligations and reinforce social cohesion in Pacific societies. 3. Compare and contrast the different ideas about the nature and control of land that exist among food foragers, horticulturalists, pastoralists, intensive agriculturalists, and industrialists. Answer: • Food Foragers: Land is communal, with usufruct rights based on seasonal mobility and shared resources. • Horticulturalists: Land is cultivated using shifting cultivation, with communal or family-based ownership and rights. • Pastoralists: Land is used for grazing, with mobility rights over extensive territories for seasonal grazing. • Intensive Agriculturalists: Land ownership is individual or corporate, with permanent cultivation and private property rights. • Industrialists: Land is commodified, used for industrial purposes, with legal ownership and resource exploitation for profit. These diverse land tenure systems reflect adaptation to ecological conditions, economic strategies, and cultural values regarding property rights and resource management. 4. What are the social and economic benefits of cooperative labor? Consider various types of economic systems in your answer. Answer: Cooperative labor provides social and economic benefits across different economic systems: • Subsistence Economies: Enhances productivity through collective hunting, gathering, or farming (e.g., foragers, horticulturalists). • Redistributive Economies: Supports communal welfare through collective labor and redistribution of surplus (e.g., chiefdoms). • Market Economies: Facilitates specialization and economies of scale in production, enhancing efficiency and economic growth (e.g., industrial capitalism). • Globalized Economies: Promotes international cooperation in labor-intensive industries, fostering economic development and cultural exchange. Cooperative labor fosters solidarity, social cohesion, and resilience against economic uncertainties, contributing to community well-being and sustainable development. 5. Discuss the impact of modern technology on labor divisions based on gender. Answer: Modern technology has influenced labor divisions based on gender by: • Technological Advancements: Automating traditionally gendered tasks (e.g., household chores, agriculture). • Skill Requirements: Creating new job opportunities in STEM fields while perpetuating gender stereotypes in tech-related professions. • Flexible Work Arrangements: Allowing remote work and flexible schedules, potentially reducing gender disparities in work-life balance. • Gendered Impacts: Persisting wage gaps, underrepresentation in leadership roles, and unequal access to technological education and resources. Technological changes challenge and reinforce gender norms, impacting women's empowerment, economic participation, and social equality globally. 6. Why is it a serious problem when North American corporate executives fail to recognize the extent to which the economic systems of other peoples are embedded in their cultures? Answer: It is a serious problem because economic systems are deeply embedded in cultures, reflecting values, social norms, and historical contexts specific to each society. Failing to recognize this: • Misinterprets Local Practices: Executives may misjudge local economic behaviors, leading to ineffective business strategies or cultural misunderstandings. • Undermines Trust and Relations: Ignoring cultural contexts can harm relationships with local partners, communities, and customers, impacting business success. • Neglects Sustainable Practices: Disregarding cultural embeddedness risks unsustainable business practices and alienation from local markets. • Misses Opportunities: Understanding cultural-economic interdependencies offers insights into market opportunities and innovative business solutions. Cultural sensitivity and awareness are crucial for corporate executives to navigate global markets effectively and responsibly. 7. Explain why the following statement is ethnocentric: “In all societies, the prevailing reality of life has been the inadequacy of output to fill the wants and needs of people.” Answer: This statement is ethnocentric because it assumes a universal perspective based on Western values and standards: • Cultural Relativity: Not all societies define wants and needs in the same way; priorities vary based on cultural values, traditions, and environmental contexts. • Historical and Social Context: Economic output and resource distribution are shaped by specific historical, political, and economic conditions unique to each society. • Diverse Economic Systems: Different economic systems (e.g., subsistence economies, market economies) prioritize different goods, services, and distributions of wealth. • Ethical Implications: Applying Western standards universally overlooks diverse cultural perspectives and perpetuates paternalistic or colonial attitudes. Acknowledging cultural diversity challenges ethnocentric assumptions and promotes understanding of varied economic realities worldwide. 8. Because trade can be essential in the quest for survival and is often undertaken for the sake of luxury, people may go to great lengths to establish and maintain good trade relations. A classic example of this is the Kula ring. What is the “Kula ring?” Describe this form of exchange compare it to different types of exchange in your own society. Do we practice anything similar to Kula? Answer: The Kula ring is a ceremonial exchange system observed among the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New Guinea and nearby islanders. Key characteristics include: • Reciprocal Exchange: Participants trade shell valuables (soulava) in circular patterns across islands, enhancing social ties and prestige. • Symbolic Value: Emphasizes status, social networks, and alliances rather than material gain, reinforcing cultural identities. • Gift Exchange: Contrasts with market exchange by prioritizing social relationships and long-term reciprocity over immediate economic profit. Comparatively, in modern societies, types of exchange include: • Market Exchange: Based on monetary transactions for goods and services, emphasizing efficiency and profit. • Gift Exchange: Occurs in social contexts (e.g., holidays, birthdays) to strengthen relationships through symbolic giving. • Barter Systems: Direct exchange of goods without currency, sometimes practiced informally or in specific communities. While not identical to the Kula ring, modern gift exchange and networking events (e.g., corporate gifts, networking events) echo elements of reciprocity and social capital seen in traditional exchange systems. 9. Discuss the role that culture plays in defining the “wants and needs” of a people, using the Trobriand Islanders as an example. How does North American culture function to define the wants and needs of North Americans? Answer: Culture shapes wants and needs by influencing: • Values and Priorities: Trobriand Islanders prioritize social status, prestige, and community ties through the Kula ring, reflecting cultural values. • Economic Activities: Exchange systems like Kula integrate economic transactions with cultural practices, reinforcing identity and social cohesion. • Adaptation and Innovation: Cultural norms guide resource management, subsistence strategies, and responses to environmental challenges. In North America: • Consumerism: Emphasizes material wealth, individualism, and status symbols as markers of success and happiness. • Technological Innovation: Shapes desires for new products, services, and lifestyles aligned with technological advancements. • Social Mobility: Defines aspirations for education, career advancement, homeownership, and personal fulfillment within capitalist frameworks. Cultural definitions of wants and needs vary, influencing economic behaviors, consumption patterns, and societal norms across diverse contexts. 10. Discuss the effects of economic globalization on local cultures. Answer: Economic globalization impacts local cultures by: • Cultural Homogenization: Standardizing consumer tastes, lifestyles, and cultural practices through global media and market integration. • Cultural Hybridization: Mixing traditional and global influences, creating new cultural forms, identities, and expressions. • Economic Inequality: Exacerbating disparities between globalized urban centers and marginalized rural communities in terms of wealth, access, and opportunities. • Cultural Resistance: Fostering movements for cultural preservation, indigenous rights, and local autonomy against globalized economic pressures. Globalization transforms cultural landscapes, challenging identities, values, and traditional knowledge systems while promoting interconnectedness and cultural exchange. 11. What is task specialization, and how has it changed over the course of generations in your own family? Compare your generation with that of your parents’ and grandparents.’ Answer: Task specialization refers to individuals focusing on specific tasks or roles within a society or economy. In my own family, task specialization has evolved significantly across generations. In my grandparents' generation, roles were often more traditional and based on agricultural or artisanal skills. My parents' generation saw a shift towards more diverse career paths due to educational opportunities and urbanization. In my generation, specialization is influenced by technological advancements, leading to careers in fields like information technology, finance, and healthcare, reflecting a broader range of professional roles compared to previous generations. 12. Leveling mechanisms are found in many traditional societies. What are these, and do you believe we have any kind of “leveling”-type activities and exchanges in the U.S. today? Discuss. Answer: Leveling mechanisms in traditional societies refer to practices that prevent the emergence of social inequality by redistributing wealth, sharing resources, or promoting humility and cooperation. In the U.S. today, similar "leveling" activities can be observed through community support networks, volunteerism, and charitable contributions aimed at addressing socio-economic disparities. Examples include community food banks, mutual aid groups, and crowdfunding platforms that provide financial support during crises or for specific needs, reflecting efforts to mitigate inequality and promote collective well-being. 13. What is the role of the informal economy in the U.S.? Use examples from your own experiences in your local community to discuss this. What types of informal economy are you familiar with? Answer: The informal economy in the U.S. encompasses activities and transactions that are not officially regulated or taxed. In my local community, examples include freelance work, cash-based services such as lawn care or childcare, and informal sales at flea markets or online platforms. These activities provide flexible employment opportunities but may lack legal protections and benefits associated with formal employment. 14. How have local economies been affected by global capitalism? Give some examples from your own community. Answer: Local economies in my community have been impacted by global capitalism through shifts in manufacturing, outsourcing of jobs, and competition from global corporations. For instance, the closure of local factories due to overseas production has led to job losses and economic decline. Conversely, global trade has enabled local businesses to access broader markets and diversify their products, but they must compete with multinational corporations and navigate global supply chains to remain competitive. 15. How has technology affected the informal economy? Discuss the impact of Internet shopping sites such as eBay on the global marketplace. Answer: Technology, particularly Internet shopping sites like eBay, has transformed the informal economy by creating new avenues for buying, selling, and trading goods globally. eBay allows individuals to engage in e-commerce independently, facilitating informal transactions and expanding market reach beyond local boundaries. This has empowered entrepreneurs and small businesses to access a wider customer base but also intensified competition and challenged traditional retail models. The Internet's impact on the informal economy highlights both opportunities and challenges in a globalized marketplace. 16. As the global economy has spread, social protest has followed. Discuss recent examples of protest at the local level against global capitalism. Answer: Recent examples of protests against global capitalism at the local level include: • Occupy Wall Street (2011): A movement in the United States against economic inequality and corporate influence in politics, highlighting issues of wealth disparity and social justice. • Anti-globalization Protests: Occurring globally, such as the protests during G8 and G20 summits, focusing on concerns over neoliberal economic policies, corporate power, and environmental degradation. • Indigenous Rights Movements: Indigenous groups worldwide protest against multinational corporations for land rights, environmental protection, and cultural preservation. • Labor Movements: Workers' strikes and demonstrations in various countries demanding fair wages, labor rights, and improved working conditions amid global economic pressures. These protests reflect local resistance to the perceived negative impacts of global capitalism, advocating for social equity, environmental sustainability, and democratic accountability in economic policies. Chapter 9 – Sex, Marriage, and Family MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. All of the following statements about sexual behavior among the Trobrianders is correct except: A. when the couple is ready to be married, they appear outside the woman’s household. B. by their mid-teens, young people begin having longer-term affairs that lead to marriage. C. young people traditionally have a great deal of sexual freedom. D. by the age of 7 or 8, they begin playing erotic games and imitating adults. E. by the early teens, they begin pursuing sexual partners. Answer: A 2. What percentage of known societies has rules regulating that sexual involvement only take place within marriage? A. 90 B. 75 C. 45 D. 30 E. 15 Answer: E 3. Among Christians in the 17th and 18th centuries in New England, adultery was considered A. prescribed for many different kinds of illness. B. a source of community gossip. C. a serious crime. D. a personal offense to the woman’s family. E. culturally acceptable. Answer: C 4. A positive side effect to restricting sexual behavior is that it may also limit A. the number of children a woman can have. B. the number of divorces in that culture. C. the spread of sexually-transmitted diseases. D. group marriages. E. women marrying the wrong man. Answer: C 5. A contract in which a woman and man establish a continuing claim to the right of sexual access to one another and in which the woman involved becomes entitled to bear children is also called A. family. B. incest. C. sex. D. affinity. E. marriage. Answer: E 6. The author uses the Nayar of southwest India to illustrate that rules about sexual access can be highly variable. Nayar women A. are married to their brothers. B. go through stages of sexual access. C. have two husbands. D. do not get married. E. do not have children. Answer: B 7. Because Nayar women live with their dependent offspring and their brothers, they are considered what type of family? A. Conjugal B. Affinal C. Consanguineal D. Nuclear E. Patrilateral Answer: C 8. Which of the following statements about the Nayar is correct? A. When a Nayar girl reaches the age of menstruation, she leaves her home and goes to live with her husband. B. The Nayar girl’s brother is always considered the legal father and primary supporter of her children. C. The men with whom a Nayar woman enters into formalized sexual relationships become obligated to support her and her children economically. D. A man must give a Nayar girl gifts three times a year to formalize the sexual relationship. E. The Nayar women raise their female children, while the Nayar men raise the male children. Answer: D 9. The people to whom you are related by marriage are considered what type of kinship? A. Patrilineal B. Matrilineal C. Fictive D. Affinal E. Consanguineal Answer: D 10. Detailed census records made in Roman Egypt show that brother-sister marriages among members of the non-royal farming class were common. What light does this shed on the incest taboo? A. It proves that there is a biological basis for avoidance of inbreeding among humans. B. It proves that incest is committed only among royalty and is done in order to preserve the bloodlines. C. It demonstrates that despite the human tendency to avoid inbreeding, it occasionally occurs and may even be preferred. D. It supports Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of the universality of the Oedipus complex. E. It shows that humans are no different from chimpanzees. Answer: C 11. Although all societies have some kind of incest taboo, the relationship which is considered incestuous may vary. Concepts of incest seem to be related to a group’s definitions of endogamy and exogamy, thus suggesting that incest taboos may help to promote: A. stability of the family. B. inbreeding genetic errors. C. brother-sister marriages. D. parallel cousin marriages. E. cross-cousin marriages. Answer: A 12. Marriage within a particular group of individuals is called A. incest. B. exogamy. C. endogamy. D. polygamy. E. monogamy. Answer: C 13. When a society proscribes sexual relations among those it considers too closely related, these are rules of A. genetics. B. exogamy. C. endogamy. D. polygamy. E. extragamy. Answer: B 14. Regarding cousin marriage, which of the following statements is incorrect? A. the U.S. is the only Western country that has laws against first-cousin marriage. B. in the U.S., 19 states permit first-cousin marriage. C. genetic research does not show that there is marked increase in inheritable weakness for children of first cousins. D. laws against first-cousin marriage in the U.S. were enacted the popularity of evolutionary theories. E. in the U.S., some states have no laws prohibiting marriage between relatives. Answer: E 15. The French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss says that the incest taboo is universal because A. humans are instinctively opposed to inbreeding through biological programming. B. humans repress their sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex and thus learn how to control sexual behavior from birth. C. humans have learned to establish alliances with strangers and thereby share and develop culture. D. humans prefer to marry their brothers and sisters and must use culture to regulate sexual access and avoid inbreeding. E. humans do not like sex. Answer: C 16. The most preferred form of marriage around the world is A. polyandry. B. monogamy. C. group marriage. D. polygyny. E. serial marriage. Answer: D 17. Polygyny A. means marriage to more than one man. B. is the most common form of marriage. C. is possible only when a man is fairly wealthy. D. is less common than polyandry. E. is an example of group marriage. Answer: C 18. All of the following are associated with polygyny except: A. commonly found in societies in which women do the bulk of cultivation work. B. wives have a strong bargaining power within the household. C. women are normally much younger than the men they marry. D. frequently found in societies that have suffered violence and in which there are high male combat deaths. E. shows the lower status of men than women in these societies. Answer: E 19. In Tibet, a young man lives with his older brother, who is married. The younger brother eventually begins to think about setting up his own tent and taking his share of the yak and fields of grass. One night, his brother’s wife gives him her necklace. In Tibetan culture, this is an invitation for him to become her second husband. If he accepts, he will remain with his brother and share the same tent. This type of marriage is called A. monogamy. B. polygamy. C. polyandry. D. polygyny. E. serial monogamy. Answer: C 20. An example of group marriage would be A. a pastoral nomad’s wife sharing her husband with another woman. B. members of the Unification Church having a large wedding ceremony at which 500 couples are married at the same time. C. a prosperous member of the Kapauku able to afford a bride price for four wives. D. traditional spouse exchange among the Inupiat Eskimo where adult members have sexual access to each other. E. a Nayar household in which a woman takes several lovers. Answer: D 21. Marriage by proxy, such as that which might occur with a prisoner, a dead partner for inheritance reasons, or between those separated by deployment, is called A. delayed marriage. B. group marriage. C. primate marriage. D. approximate marriage. E. fictive marriage. Answer: E 22. An important source of contacts in trying to arrange an Indian marriage is/are A. social clubs. B. newspaper personals. C. Internet chat rooms. D. match-making businesses. E. the Hindu temple. Answer: A 23. Which of the following characteristics would be most important in an Indian family’s selection of a bride for their son? A. Beauty B. Education C. Independence D. Character E. Domestic skills Answer: D 24. My mother’s brother’s son is my A. brother. B. fictive cousin. C. patrilateral cousin. D. parallel cousin. E. cross cousin. Answer: E 25. The woman-woman marriage custom found in sub-Saharan Africa is associated with all of the following except: A. enables a woman without sons to inherit a share of her husband’s property. B. confers legitimacy on the children of a woman who had been unable to find a husband. C. enables the woman who adopts a male identity to raise her status. D. enables the woman who is the wife of the female husband to raise her status and live a more secure life. E. enables the women to engage in sexual activity with each other. Answer: E 26. Among which group do same-sex marriages provide acceptable positions in society for individuals who might otherwise be marginalized? A. Zulu B. Ju/’hoansi C. Tlingit D. Nandi E. Paiute Answer: D 27. Under cross-cousin marriage, the sister’s son is also the A. brother’s daughter’s husband. B. mother’s sister’s son. C. husband’s cousin. D. father’s brother’s aunt. E. sister’s son’s son. Answer: A 28. The period of time that a groom spends in service to the bride’s family as a form of economic exchange for marriage is called A. a leveling mechanism. B. marriage transaction. C. bride service. D. bride wealth. E. dowry. Answer: C 29. In which of the following circumstances would you expect to find the custom of bride price? A. A bride and groom leave the community after marriage and set up their own household in a distant city or village area B. A bride and groom go to live with the bride’s people C. A bride and groom go to live with the groom’s people D. A bride and groom go to live with the bride’s mother’s brother E. A bride and groom live in separate houses and do not cohabitate Answer: C 30. When the economy is based on _____ and when the man does most of the productive work, the bride’s people may give a dowry that protects the woman against desertion. Dowry is also a statement of her economic status. A. food foraging B. pastoralism C. agriculture D. horticulture E. industrialism Answer: C 31. In Western societies between A.D. 1000 and 1800, divorce was next to impossible, but few marriages lasted more than about 10 or 20 years, owing to A. irreconcilable differences. B. high death rates. C. patrilineal societies. D. matrilineal societies. E. high economic cost of marriage. Answer: B 32. Two or more people related by blood, marriage, or adoption are called a(n) A. family. B. conjugal bond. C. endogamous group. D. nuclear family. E. serial marriage. Answer: A 33. In the U.S., approximately what percentage of marriages ends in divorce? A. 80 B. 65 C. 40 D. 30 E. 15 Answer: C 34. A family established through marriage is called what type of family? A. Unilocal B. Consanguineal C. Nuclear D. Conjugal E. Extended Answer: D 35. Families can be consanguine or conjugal. The conjugal family has many forms. One type of conjugal family is the _____, consisting of the husband, wife, and dependent children. A. polygynous family B. polygamous family C. polyandrous family D. nuclear family E. extended family Answer: D 36. What type of family is typically found among traditional horticultural, agricultural, and pastoral societies around the world? A. Nuclear B. Extended C. Matrilineal D. Neolocal E. Tributary Answer: B 37. A residence pattern in which a married couple may choose to live in the husband’s father’s or wife’s mother’s place of residence is called A. avunculocal. B. neolocal. C. ambilocal. D. patrilocal. E. matrilocal. Answer: C 38. In industrial and postindustrial societies, such as the United States, the most common form of residence after marriage is A. ambilocal. B. matrilocal. C. patrilocal. D. neolocal. E. avunculocal. Answer: D 39. One area that is most changing the composition of families today is that of A. increasing acceptance of polygynous unions. B. development of new reproductive technologies. C. increasing numbers of same-sex marriages. D. decreasing divorce rates. E. increasing numbers of patrilateral marriages. Answer: B 40. Since the early 1970s, about how many foreign children have been adopted into U.S. families? A. 2 million B. 750,000 C. 500,000 D. 140,000 E. 23,000 Answer: C TRUE/FALSE 1. All societies have cultural rules to regulate sexual relations. Answer: True 2. The Trobrianders have a rigidly controlled sex life and puritan attitudes toward sexuality. Answer: False 3. There are no cultures that prescribe male-to-male sexual acts, for any reason. Answer: False 4. The social rules and cultural meanings of all sexual behavior are subject to great variability from one society to another. Answer: True 5. First-cousin marriage is prohibited in 40 states in the United States. Answer: False 6. Instinctive repulsion does not explain institutionalized incest. Answer: True 7. The Nayar family consists only of affinal relatives. Answer: False 8. The most prevalent form of marriage worldwide is polygamy. Answer: False 9. It is estimated that in the U.S. today that some 100,000 people live in polygynous households. Answer: True 10. Polygyny is legal in only two states in the U.S. Answer: False 11. In India, it is understood that matches (marriages) would be arranged only within the same caste and general social class. Answer: True 12. The Western ideal that an individual should be free to marry whomever he or she chooses is not universally embraced. Answer: True 13. Your mother’s sister’s child is your parallel cousin. Answer: True 14. A marriage of a woman to a woman in sub-Saharan Africa is a ceremony that legitimizes a homosexual relationship. Answer: False 15. In most societies, divorce is quite simple. Answer: False 16. One of the functions of dowry is to ensure a woman’s support in widowhood. Answer: True 17. Same-sex couples are also considered to be a nuclear family. Answer: True 18. Single-parent households make up about 10% of the households in the U.S. Answer: True 19. Matrilocal residence is when the couple lives with the husband’s mother. Answer: False 20. Child exchange is quite common in many cultures. Answer: True SHORT ANSWER 1. What is the difference between marriage and mating? Answer: Marriage refers to a socially recognized union typically involving legal, economic, and/or religious components, often intended for procreation, companionship, and mutual support. It includes cultural norms and expectations regarding rights, responsibilities, and obligations between spouses. Mating, on the other hand, refers to the biological act of pairing and reproduction among animals, including humans, without necessarily implying a formal or legal union. It focuses on reproductive strategies and genetic exchange rather than social and cultural constructs. 2. How do young people choose marriage partners among the Trobrianders? Answer: Among the Trobriand Islanders, young people often choose marriage partners through a combination of social interaction, courtship rituals, and family arrangements: • Courtship and Socializing: Young men and women engage in social activities, dances, and ceremonies to meet and interact. • Family Involvement: Parents and extended family members may play a role in arranging marriages based on social status, economic considerations, and alliances between clans. • Affection and Compatibility: While arranged marriages are common, affection and mutual compatibility also influence partner selection. Marriage among the Trobriand Islanders serves social and economic purposes, reinforcing kinship ties and community cohesion. 3. What is the positive outcome of having strict religious rules that regulate sexual relations? Answer: Strict religious rules regulating sexual relations can have several positive outcomes: • Social Order: Establishes clear norms and expectations regarding sexual behavior, reducing social discord and promoting community cohesion. • Morality and Ethics: Encourages personal integrity, respect for others, and adherence to shared moral principles within religious communities. • Family Stability: Promotes fidelity and commitment in marital relationships, contributing to stable families and emotional well-being. • Cultural Identity: Reinforces cultural values and traditions associated with marriage, family, and community life. These rules provide a framework for ethical behavior and social harmony, guiding individuals in navigating intimate relationships within religious contexts. 4. Explain why the cultural definition of marriage refers to “persons” rather than “a man and a woman.” Answer: The cultural definition of marriage as referring to "persons" rather than "a man and a woman" reflects broader societal understandings and legal frameworks: • Inclusivity: Recognizes that marriage involves individuals of any gender identity, not limited strictly to heterosexual relationships. • Legal and Social Evolution: Acknowledges changes in laws and cultural attitudes towards same-sex marriage, affirming the rights and dignity of all individuals regardless of sexual orientation. • Diverse Cultural Practices: Reflects cultural diversity and historical variations in marital customs and definitions across different societies worldwide. • Human Rights Perspective: Aligns with principles of equality, non-discrimination, and individual autonomy in intimate relationships. This inclusive definition supports diverse expressions of love, commitment, and family structures within contemporary societies. 5. Describe the marriage system of the Nayar. Answer: The Nayar of Kerala, India, have a unique matrilineal and polyandrous marriage system: • Matrilineal Kinship: Descent and inheritance are traced through the female line, with property passing from mother to daughter. • Polyandrous Practices: Women may have multiple husbands (often visiting husbands), each living separately, responsible for different children born to the woman. • Sambandam: Informal unions where men visit women in their homes for sexual relations, without formal marriage ceremonies or obligations. • Social Roles: Men focus on martial pursuits and religious duties, while women manage household affairs, property, and kinship networks. The Nayar marriage system illustrates complex kinship arrangements and gender roles distinct from mainstream monogamous practices, shaped by cultural and historical factors within their community. 6. Contrast endogamy and exogamy; give examples of each. Answer: Contrast endogamy and exogamy; give examples of each. • Endogamy refers to marriage within a specific group, such as within a particular ethnicity, religion, or social class. An example is the practice of marrying within one's caste in traditional Indian society. • Exogamy involves marriage outside of a specific group, often to broaden social networks or avoid inbreeding. A common example is the cultural practice of marrying outside one's immediate family or community to strengthen alliances or genetic diversity. 7. What is polyandry? How does it fit into other aspects of social structure and adaptation to environment? Answer: • Polyandry is a form of marriage where a woman has multiple husbands simultaneously. This practice can contribute to social cohesion by maintaining land and resource management within a family unit. It can also help manage population growth and economic resources in environments with limited resources, such as high-altitude regions like Tibet or Nepal. 8. How common is first-cousin marriage in the U.S., and what are the genetic implications of this form of marriage? Answer: • First-cousin marriage is legal in many states in the U.S. and occurs at a rate of about 0.2% to 0.4% of all marriages. Genetic implications include an increased risk of inherited disorders due to the higher probability of shared recessive alleles between cousins, potentially leading to genetic conditions in offspring. 9. Distinguish between a consanguineal and affinal kinship. Answer: • Consanguineal kinship refers to relationships based on blood ties, such as parents, siblings, and grandparents. • Affinal kinship refers to relationships established through marriage or other forms of partnership, such as in-laws or step-relatives. 10. List and describe four different forms of marriage. Answer: 1. Monogamy: Marriage between two individuals, typically with exclusivity and commitment. 2. Polygyny: Marriage where a man has multiple wives simultaneously, often seen in cultures where male lineage and inheritance are significant. 3. Polyandry: Marriage where a woman has multiple husbands simultaneously, practiced in societies where land or economic resources are limited. 4. Group marriage: Marriage involving multiple partners who form a family unit, often practiced experimentally in certain communal societies. 11. Are arranged marriages generally more or less stable than those in which partners freely choose each other? Use India as an example. Answer: Research suggests that arranged marriages can be as stable or more stable than marriages where partners freely choose each other: • Stability in Arranged Marriages: Arranged marriages often benefit from family support, social compatibility, and shared cultural values, contributing to lower divorce rates. • Cultural Context: In India, where arranged marriages are common, societal norms emphasize family harmony, collective decision-making, and commitment to marital longevity. • Challenges in Choice Marriages: Marriages based solely on romantic love may face higher expectations, interpersonal conflicts, and individualistic pressures, affecting long-term stability. • Individual Agency: Modern trends show increasing agency in arranged marriages, with couples having some say in partner selection, blending tradition with personal choice. The stability of marriages depends on various factors beyond the mode of partner selection, including communication, mutual respect, and socio-economic conditions. 12. How does Levi-Strauss explain exogamy? Answer: Levi-Strauss, a structural anthropologist, explains exogamy as a cultural rule that requires individuals to marry outside their own social group or kinship unit: • Structural Analysis: Views exogamy as a mechanism to forge alliances between different social groups, preventing inbreeding and promoting social cohesion. • Alliance Theory: Emphasizes the exchange of women (and sometimes men) between groups to strengthen political, economic, and social ties. • Kinship Systems: Exogamy complements endogamous practices, balancing internal cohesion with external alliances to maintain social equilibrium. • Cultural Variation: Levi-Strauss argues that exogamy reflects universal patterns in kinship systems, manifesting differently across cultures to regulate marriage and kinship dynamics. Exogamy plays a crucial role in shaping kinship structures, marriage practices, and social relationships in diverse societies worldwide. 13. Explain the difference between patrilateral parallel-cousin marriage and matrilineal cross-cousin marriage. Answer: • Patrilateral Parallel-Cousin Marriage: Involves marrying the children of fathers' brothers (patrilateral parallel cousins), maintaining paternal lineage ties and inheritance patterns. Found in societies emphasizing patrilineal descent and inheritance. • Matrilineal Cross-Cousin Marriage: Involves marrying the children of mothers' siblings (matrilineal cross cousins), reinforcing matrilineal descent and property transmission. Common in matrilineal societies, balancing kinship alliances and resource management. These marriage types illustrate how kinship systems influence marital alliances, inheritance practices, and cultural identities across different societies. 14. Distinguish among bride price, dowry, and bride service. Answer: • Bride Price: Payment or goods given by the groom or his family to the bride's family as compensation for the loss of her labor and childbearing potential. • Dowry: Transfer of wealth (money, property, or goods) from the bride's family to the groom or his family as a financial contribution to the new household. • Bride Service: Period of labor or service performed by the groom for the bride's family as a prerequisite for marriage, often demonstrating his ability to provide and contribute to the household. These practices vary by cultural context, reflecting economic, social, and symbolic meanings in marriage negotiations and family alliances. 15. What is the function of traditional woman/woman marriage in sub-Saharan Africa? Answer: Traditional woman/woman marriages in sub-Saharan Africa serve several functions: • Social and Economic Alliances: Strengthen ties between families or lineages, enhancing social cohesion and mutual support networks. • Inheritance and Property: Facilitate property inheritance and land rights, ensuring continuity of family lineage and economic stability. • Fertility and Childbearing: Address reproductive needs and ensure the continuation of lineage through childbirth and family expansion. • Social Status: Enhance status and recognition within the community, affirming cultural norms and gender roles in marital relationships. These marriages exemplify cultural adaptations to address social, economic, and demographic challenges within local contexts, maintaining community cohesion and individual well-being. 16. Compare and contrast family and household. Give examples. Answer: • Family refers to a social unit typically bound by kinship ties, such as parents and children, that share emotional bonds and responsibilities. For example, a nuclear family consists of parents and their children living together. • Household refers to a residential unit where people live together and share resources, regardless of their kinship ties. An example is a group of roommates sharing an apartment, where they may not be related but live together for convenience or economic reasons. 17. What are the four primary residence patterns? Answer: • Neolocal: Newly married couples establish their own residence separate from their parents. • Patrilocal: Newly married couples reside with or near the husband's family. • Matrilocal: Newly married couples reside with or near the wife's family. • Avunculocal: Newly married couples reside with or near the husband's maternal uncle's family. 18. How is the extended family different from the nuclear family? Answer: • Extended family includes relatives beyond the nuclear family unit, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, who may live together or in close proximity. • Nuclear family consists of parents and their children living together as a single household unit, often in modern Western societies. 19. How has adoption changed in the U.S. over the past 25 years? Answer: • Adoption practices in the U.S. have evolved to prioritize child welfare and adoptive family suitability, with increased openness and options for transracial and international adoptions. Legal reforms have aimed to streamline adoption processes and protect the rights of birth parents and adoptees through openness in adoption records. 20. What is a blended family? Answer: • A blended family is formed when two people marry or cohabit and at least one of them brings children from a previous relationship into the new family structure. For example, a blended family may consist of a couple where one partner has children from a previous marriage or relationship, integrating them into a new family unit with shared responsibilities and relationships. ESSAY 1. Discuss how various societies have sought to regulate sexual relations. What is the impact of a globalized media on these arrangements today? Answer: Various societies across history and cultures have employed diverse methods to regulate sexual relations, reflecting their social, religious, and moral values. These regulations often manifest through laws, religious doctrines, and cultural norms that prescribe acceptable sexual behavior, enforce punishments for transgressions, and define roles and expectations within sexual relationships. For instance, traditional societies may emphasize chastity before marriage and fidelity within it, while also prohibiting extramarital or homosexual relations. The advent of globalized media, especially with the proliferation of the internet and social media, has significantly impacted these arrangements. It has facilitated the spread of alternative sexual norms and behaviors, challenging traditional regulations. Exposure to diverse cultural practices and ideologies through media platforms has led to both the erosion of some traditional norms and the adoption of new ones. This phenomenon has sparked debates and cultural clashes over sexual morality, gender roles, and the rights of individuals versus community expectations. In conclusion, while societies historically regulated sexual relations through established norms and institutions, the influence of globalized media today has accelerated the evolution of these arrangements, reshaping perceptions and practices across cultures. 2. Define marriage and then discuss how different cultural groups interpret this definition. Answer: Marriage, as a social institution, universally refers to a legally recognized union between individuals that establishes rights and obligations between them, their families, and society at large. However, interpretations of marriage vary widely among cultural groups, reflecting unique religious, economic, and social perspectives. In Western cultures, marriage often emphasizes romantic love and companionship, with individuals freely choosing their partners based on personal compatibility. Contrastingly, in many traditional societies, marriage serves broader functions beyond personal choice, such as cementing alliances between families, ensuring social continuity, and managing property rights. For example, in some African cultures, marriage may involve elaborate rituals and payments (bridewealth) to signify the union's legitimacy and commitment. In Islamic cultures, marriage is governed by Sharia law, emphasizing the roles and responsibilities outlined in religious texts. In conclusion, while marriage universally signifies a legal union, its interpretations vary widely, shaped by cultural beliefs, economic conditions, and religious doctrines, illustrating the dynamic nature of this institution across different societies. 3. Compare and contrast the various explanations of the incest taboo. Why is the incest taboo of central importance for anthropology? Answer: The incest taboo, a nearly universal prohibition against sexual relations between close family members, has been explained through various perspectives in anthropology. Evolutionary theories suggest it prevents genetic abnormalities and strengthens social cohesion by encouraging exogamy (marriage outside one's kin group). Psychological theories propose it prevents harmful family dynamics and promotes healthy socialization. Anthropologically, the incest taboo is crucial because it reflects fundamental aspects of human social organization and kinship systems. It defines permissible relationships, shapes family structures, and influences marriage patterns. By studying how societies define and enforce the incest taboo, anthropologists gain insights into kinship systems, cultural values, and the regulation of sexual behavior across diverse cultures. In conclusion, the incest taboo is central to anthropology as it illuminates how societies regulate family relations, maintain social order, and transmit cultural norms, highlighting the intersection of biology, psychology, and culture in shaping human behavior. 4. What are the benefits and challenges of an arranged marriage? Using India as an example, discuss how the marriage relationship might be altered in having an arranged marriage rather than a marriage of individual choice. Consider the role of the families as well as the couple. Answer: Arranged marriages, prevalent in many cultures including India, involve families selecting spouses based on factors such as compatibility, socioeconomic status, and family background, rather than individual choice. This practice has distinct benefits and challenges compared to marriages based solely on personal preference. Benefits of arranged marriages include: • Social Cohesion: Aligning families and communities through marital alliances. • Financial Stability: Ensuring economic security and pooling resources. • Compatibility: Considering long-term compatibility beyond initial attraction. Challenges include: • Lack of Personal Choice: Potential mismatch in personal preferences and values. • Pressure and Expectations: Familial and societal expectations may restrict individual autonomy. • Risk of Coercion: In some cases, individuals may feel pressured into unwanted unions. In India, arranged marriages reflect cultural values emphasizing family unity and continuity. Families play a pivotal role in matchmaking, often facilitating introductions and negotiations between prospective partners and their families. This involvement extends beyond the wedding, influencing marital dynamics and support networks. Compared to marriages of individual choice, arranged marriages in India may prioritize familial harmony and collective welfare over personal desires, potentially fostering stable partnerships founded on mutual respect and commitment to shared values. However, the degree of satisfaction and adjustment varies widely among couples, influenced by cultural attitudes, educational backgrounds, and evolving social norms. In conclusion, while arranged marriages offer certain benefits such as social stability and familial support, they also present challenges related to personal agency and compatibility, illustrating the complex interplay between tradition and modernity in marital practices. 5. What are the different forms of marriage, and how are they culturally adaptive? Answer: Marriage takes various forms across cultures, each adapted to meet specific social, economic, and religious needs. These forms include: • Monogamy: A union between two individuals, prevalent in many Western societies, emphasizing emotional and economic exclusivity. • Polygamy: Includes polygyny (one man with multiple wives) and polyandry (one woman with multiple husbands), found in diverse cultural contexts, often reflecting economic or demographic factors. • Group Marriage: Involves multiple men and women forming a single marital unit, rare but documented in certain societies. • Same-Sex Marriage: Recognizes unions between individuals of the same gender, increasingly accepted globally as societal attitudes evolve. Cultural adaptability is evident in how each form of marriage addresses specific societal needs and values. For example, polygyny may serve to consolidate wealth and social status among elite males in traditional societies, whereas monogamy may prioritize emotional intimacy and parental investment in others. The acceptance and regulation of same-sex marriage reflect evolving understandings of human rights and equality. In conclusion, the diversity of marital forms illustrates cultural adaptations to economic, social, and religious imperatives, demonstrating how societies structure relationships to meet varying individual and collective needs across different historical and cultural contexts. 6. How are cousins viewed as marriage partners cross-culturally? Answer: Cousin marriage varies widely across cultures. In some societies, such as in parts of the Middle East and North Africa, cousin marriage is encouraged as a way to maintain family ties and wealth within a kinship network. In contrast, many Western societies and some Asian cultures discourage or prohibit cousin marriage due to concerns about genetic risks and social norms against marrying close relatives. 7. Why is marriage a central concern of society? Answer: Marriage is a central concern of society because it serves as a foundational institution for organizing relationships, procreation, inheritance, and social stability. It regulates sexual relations, establishes legal frameworks for property rights, and often plays a crucial role in religious and cultural practices. 8. Why is divorce a serious matter in most societies? Answer: Divorce is considered serious in most societies because it disrupts established social norms and family structures. It often entails legal, economic, and emotional consequences for individuals and children involved. Societies typically emphasize the stability of marriage as a cornerstone of social order, making divorce a significant event with implications for familial, economic, and community dynamics. 9. Discuss the reasons and frequency of divorce from society to society. Would you characterize the reasons as “essentially similar” or “highly distinct”? Answer: The reasons for divorce vary widely from society to society. Common reasons include communication breakdown, infidelity, financial issues, and differences in values or expectations. While some reasons for divorce may be universal, such as marital dissatisfaction, others are influenced by cultural, religious, and legal factors specific to each society. Thus, while there are universal themes, the specific triggers and frequency of divorce can be highly distinct across different cultural contexts. 10. Explain the relationship between marriage and the economic exchange that may accompany marriage in some cultures. How do these arrangements affect the marriage itself? Answer: In many cultures, marriage involves economic exchanges such as dowries, bride prices, or other forms of wealth transfer between families. These exchanges can reinforce social alliances, redistribute resources, and solidify familial bonds. However, they can also create expectations and obligations that affect marital dynamics. Economic exchanges may influence power dynamics within marriages, impacting decision-making and interpersonal relationships. Moreover, financial considerations can affect marital stability, particularly when economic conditions change or expectations are not met. 11. How do new reproductive technologies challenge our understandings of family? Answer: New reproductive technologies, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), surrogacy, and gamete donation, challenge traditional understandings of family by expanding the possibilities of conception and parenthood beyond biological norms. These technologies enable individuals and couples to conceive children despite infertility or genetic challenges, often involving third-party donors or gestational carriers. Challenges to traditional family understandings include: • Biological Parenthood: Blurring biological lineage and genetic ties between parents and children. • Legal and Ethical Issues: Raising questions about parental rights, ownership of genetic material, and the commodification of reproduction. • Social Definitions: Redefining roles and responsibilities within families, especially in cases involving multiple parents or non-traditional family structures. These technologies also offer opportunities for LGBTQ+ couples and single parents to achieve parenthood, challenging heteronormative conceptions of family. However, they also raise concerns about accessibility, affordability, and ethical implications regarding the manipulation of human reproduction. In conclusion, new reproductive technologies disrupt traditional family norms by offering alternative pathways to parenthood, prompting societal debates about the definition and boundaries of family in contemporary contexts. 12. How does the constitution of family vary cross-culturally? What are the adaptive advantages of each type? Answer: The constitution of family varies significantly cross-culturally, reflecting diverse kinship systems, social structures, and cultural values. Examples include: • Nuclear Family: Found in many Western societies, consisting of parents and their children, emphasizing independence and privacy. • Extended Family: Common in many Asian, African, and Latin American cultures, involving multiple generations living together or in close proximity, fostering interdependence and support. • Polygamous Family: Found in various societies, where one person may have multiple spouses, often linked to economic advantages or cultural norms. • Blended Families: Emerging from divorce and remarriage, integrating step-parents and step-siblings, negotiating new family dynamics and identities. Adaptive advantages of these family types include: • Social Support: Extended families provide a network of emotional and practical support. • Economic Stability: Polygamous families may consolidate resources and labor. • Flexibility: Blended families adapt to changing circumstances, promoting resilience and adaptation. Each family type reflects cultural adaptations to economic, social, and environmental challenges, demonstrating resilience and diversity in meeting human needs for kinship, security, and identity. In conclusion, the variation in family constitution across cultures illustrates adaptive responses to local conditions, promoting social cohesion and individual well-being through diverse kinship structures. 13. How is child adoption a social, political, and economic concern? Answer: Child adoption is a multifaceted concern impacting society, politics, and economics due to its implications for children, families, and communities: • Social Dynamics: Adoption reshapes family structures and identities, impacting child development, sibling relationships, and cultural heritage. • Political Issues: Adoption policies and regulations govern legal rights, international relations, and human rights concerning children's welfare and citizenship. • Economic Considerations: Adoption incurs financial costs, influencing adoption rates, accessibility, and equity in adoption processes. Adoption intersects with broader social issues such as reproductive rights, LGBTQ+ rights, and child welfare, influencing public policies and societal attitudes toward family formation and child rearing. In conclusion, child adoption is a complex issue intertwining social, political, and economic dimensions, requiring balanced approaches to safeguard children's well-being while respecting diverse familial and cultural contexts. 14. How do globalization and technology impact marriage and the family? Answer: Globalization and technology have profoundly influenced marriage and family dynamics worldwide: • Marriage Patterns: Globalization facilitates cross-cultural marriages and changes in marital expectations, influencing partner selection and marital stability. • Family Structures: Transnational families emerge as members relocate for work or education, challenging traditional notions of proximity and support. • Technological Impact: Digital communication enables long-distance relationships, online dating, and virtual families, altering how couples maintain intimacy and parental roles. However, globalization also introduces challenges: • Cultural Clashes: Conflicts may arise from differing cultural norms and values within mixed-cultural marriages. • Economic Pressures: Global mobility can strain familial ties, affecting caregiving roles and intergenerational support. In conclusion, while globalization and technology expand marital choices and redefine family boundaries, they also pose challenges that require adaptive responses to sustain familial relationships and social cohesion in a globalized world. 15. How do different cultures permit or restrict sexual relations? Answer: Sexual relations are regulated by cultural norms and values, influencing individual behaviors and societal expectations: • Permissible Relationships: Cultures vary in attitudes toward premarital sex, extramarital affairs, and same-sex relationships, reflecting religious, moral, and legal frameworks. • Restrictions: Incest taboos and laws prohibit sexual relations between close relatives to prevent genetic disorders and preserve social harmony. • Gender Norms: Patriarchal societies may enforce stricter controls over women's sexual behavior than men's, affecting sexual autonomy and rights. Cultural diversity in sexual norms reflects adaptations to environmental, economic, and social conditions, shaping family structures and community dynamics. However, globalization exposes cultures to alternative sexual values and practices, challenging traditional restrictions and fostering debates on human rights and sexual freedom. In conclusion, understanding cultural attitudes toward sexual relations highlights the diversity of human experience and the complex interplay between culture, morality, and individual autonomy in shaping sexual behaviors and family norms. Test Bank for Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge William A. Haviland, Harald E. L. Prins, Bunny McBride, Walrath 9781305633797
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