CHAPTER 7 Psychosocial Hazards Essential Outcome After completing the lesson on this chapter, if nothing else, students should be able to explain the concepts of stressors, stress, and strain, how each manifests in the workplace, and the various types of interventions to help control and manage their potentially hazardous impacts on the individual and the organization. Learning Outcomes After completing this chapter, students should be able to: describe and distinguish among the concepts of stressor, stress, and strain explain the transactional model of stress and its implications identify major sources of stress in the workplace discuss the psychological, physical, behavioural, and organizational consequences of stress discuss ways to recognize and assess psychosocial hazards at work describe and distinguish among primary, secondary, and tertiary stress interventions describe injustice, technology, and work-life conflict as prevalent workplace stressors KEY CONCEPTS Occupational stress is a leading cause of workplace death, and its negative impact costs the Canadian economy billions of dollars each year. It is a growing problem affecting both individuals and the organizations where they work. In addition to the economic factor, there is a moral imperative for employers to provide a psychologically healthy and safe workplace, as well as a physically healthy one. The psychosocial model of health dictates that both social and psychological factors are important in creating a psychologically healthy workplace. The management of stress by the individual and by the organization is a major aspect of a psychologically healthy workplace. Stress can generally be understood and explained by studying three related concepts: stressors, stress, and strain. Stressors, such as a person’s workload or schedule, are events that occur outside of the individual that have the potential to cause them stress. These events may be categorized as acute, chronic, daily, or catastrophic. The CSA list of 13 organizational factors for psychological health and safety at work (CSA-Z1003-13) represents stressors when one or several factors are not met, or are absent in the workplace. These factors include items like psychological and social support, clear leadership and expectations, and workload management. Stress is the individual’s internal response to stressors, which vary significantly from person to person, based on their subjective response. The general adaptation syndrome (often referred to as “fight or flight”) results in physiological changes in the body—for example, increased heart rate and blood pressure. Unabated, these physiological responses to a stressor can be damaging to an individual’s health. Stress is moderated by various risk factors (such as personality traits like “Type A” personality or negative affectivity, which may aggravate the impacts of stress), and social support, which can act as a buffer against the effects of stress. Strain is the result of persistent stress, and may be psychological (e.g., emotional exhaustion), physical (e.g., high blood pressure or ulcers); behavioural (e.g., nervous habits or unhealthy coping behaviours such as excessive consumption of alcohol); or organizational (e.g., increased absenteeism or decreased job performance). Psychosocial hazards need to be managed in order to control and minimize their potential damage and costs to both the individual and the organization through a preventative stress management approach that includes identification, surveillance, and monitoring of sources of stress and strain. Many stressors can be reduced or eliminated through various interventions at the individual level and organizational levels. These interventions can be categorized as primary (e.g., redesigning jobs to reduce or remove stressors); secondary (e.g., using coping strategies and providing supports to help manage stress); and tertiary (e.g., procedures for treating the symptoms of strain). Various dynamics such as perceived injustice in the workplace (distributive, procedural, or interactional), the impact of pervasive and ubiquitous technology in the workplace, and the struggle many face with work–family conflict can all become major sources of stress and strain if not carefully and continuously managed. Student Motivation All students will be able to personally relate to the topic of this chapter, at least at some level. Most will be able to relate to one or more of the workplace examples and scenarios described, and if not, all students will be able to reflect on their own experiences with stressors, stress, and strain from the perspective of being a student. Beyond their direct experience, students who are considering their options for specialization within the Human Resources profession may see opportunity in learning more about psychosocial hazards, for the issue is becoming more prominent and problematic in the contemporary workplace. Barriers to Learning The content of this chapter is relatively straightforward and should present very few problems for students. One area that might be slightly confusing for them is the section on work–family conflict where work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict and the outcomes of work–family conflict (page 185) are described, as some students may mix up the two definitions and the outcomes. A little extra time explaining the two categories may be helpful, as well as the use of a visual depiction using arrows to show the relationship between the variables. Engagement Strategies and Lesson Plan 1. Engaging Students at the Outset Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will be able to directly and personally relate to the physical and psychological manifestations of stress. Announce to the class that today you have a surprise for them—a pop quiz on the six previous chapters that will be worth a significant percentage of their total grade for the course. Ask them to put their books and belongings away and to take out a piece of paper so that they can begin (do this with a straight face, if possible!). After students have complied with the instructions, let them in on the prank and explain that this was a way for them to immediately experience the impact of a stressor, and possibly a stress response. Ask them to now jot down what sensations they experienced physically and/or mentally (e.g., quickened heart rate, sense of panic, anger, fear). Discuss as a class as a way to bridge into the topic. 2. Lesson Engagement Strategies a. Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will be able to list, describe, and discuss the key features of stressors, stress, and strain, and the psychosocial model of health described in the text. Working in small groups and equipped with markers, have students visit four stations around the classroom where you have posted flip chart paper with the following headings: Stressors; Stress; Strain; and Psychosocial Model of Health. As students move about from station to station (in any order they choose), have them make notes on the flip charts summarizing key content and examples from each section of the chapter. Encourage them to engage one another in active discussion as they work with the flip charts. Once the groups have visited all four stations, have the class remain on their feet and “gallery walk” through the four stations, summarizing and filling in any blanks as necessary (alternatively, ask for volunteers to summarize what they see on the flip chart). Finish the gallery walk at the Psychosocial Model of Health, and use it as a bridge-in to Lesson Engagement Strategy b, directly below. b. Learning objective: At the completion of this activity, students will be able to identify and describe the key aspects of CSA-Z1003-13. Show the video on CSA-Z1003-13/BNQ 9700-803/2013, “ Psychological Health and Safety in the Workplace—Prevention, Promotion, and Guidance to Staged Implementation,” available from the CSS website, shop.csa.ca/en/canada/occupational-health-and-safety-management/cancsa-z1003-13bnq-9700-8032013/invt/z10032013. Ask students to take notes while watching the video. At the completion of the video, ask students to pair up and share their notes, compiling them into three to five key points. Have the pairs share their “best points,” summarizing key words either on the chalk/white board or a flip chart. Continue with the exercise until you are satisfied that the key aspects of the standard have been identified. c. Learning Objective: At the completion of this activity, students will have considered and discussed the challenges of maintaining work–life balance related to the problem of work-family conflict. Show a clip from a Hollywood movie such as Baby Boom. Ask students to discuss the clip in the context of the material presented in the text under the header “Spotlight on a Stressor: Work–Family Conflict.” Ask them to respond to the following questions: Does the clip portray a realistic picture of work–family conflict? Is work–family conflict a larger issue today than it was for your parents when you were a child? Why or why not? How much responsibility for resolving and/or managing work–family conflict do you think should rest with the individual, versus the employer? Follow the discussion of the clips with a review and discussion of OH&S Today 7.3, “Work–Life Balance: Some Canadian Statistics.” It may be interesting to divide the class along gender lines for the discussion, to hear the perspectives of females in the class compared to those of the males. (Caution: thoughtful and careful facilitation may be required to keep the discussion on topic and on track.) 3. Lesson Plan Notes and Lecture Outline * You can incorporate videos such as Philadelphia to generate class discussions on the stigmatization associated with workplace illnesses such as stress, depression, mental illness, and AIDs. * A guest speaker (nurse) from the university or college student health services can be asked to discuss several areas of student stress. A. Introduction—Deep Breathing Relaxation, Stretching Exercise, and 30-Second Humorous Stress Relievers You can begin the class by asking students if they are currently feeling any of the stresses of attending college/university (e.g., adjusting to living on your own, financial worries about school and career, time pressures concerning course assignments and exams, relationship issues, family issues, health concerns). You can access the “Coping with Stress” and other stress management booklets from the Heart and Stroke Foundation, www.heartandstroke.ca. These booklets provide several brief stress management techniques (one to five minute exercises) that can be used throughout your class lecture. You can follow up the students’ discussion on college/university stresses by conducting a deep-breathing, progressive relaxation, centring, or stretching exercise (e.g., take five slow, deep breaths). These promote a deep state of relaxation. You may prefer to use more lively and fun 30-second stress relief exercises that will get the class laughing and then discuss humour as a stress reliever). B. Current Research on the Prevalence of Stress Using PowerPoint slides, share and discuss current research on the prevalence and costs of stress and depression in the workplace (NIOSH, Conference Board of Canada, Ipsos-Reid, Health Canada Surveys and others). (Refer to the first few pages of the chapter.) C. Stressor, Stress, and Strain and the Psychosocial Model of Stress Refer to Lesson Engagement Strategy a, above. D. Workplace Stressors and Organizational and Individual Interventions Ask students to continue to think about the stressors and strains that they discussed earlier. Which ones were due to the workplace? As a large group, discuss the stressors they encountered at work. Use PowerPoint slides to discuss the NIOSH model. Ask the students to form small groups and discuss the strategies they and their employers used to manage workplace stress. Have the students prepare to present the stress management strategy they feel is most effective. You will want to guide the student presentations to emphasize that a preventative integrative approach to managing stress in the workplace that focuses on education and the prevention of accidents or health problems would encourage the reduction of stressors. So would organizational and individual primary interventions that involve reducing or removing actual stressors. Use PowerPoint slides to discuss organizational and individual interventions. These can be primary (preventative), secondary (helping employees deal with the negative consequences of stress), or tertiary (helping employees access appropriate treatment once they are experiencing strain). Refer to End-of-Chapter Exercise Question 1, Discussion Question 5, Table 7.2, “Stress Intervention Strategies: Individual Level”; and Table 7.3, “Stress Intervention Strategies: Organizational Level.” E. Recognizing and Coping with Individual Stress and Detecting the Four Categories of Strain Reactions You can access the booklets “Coping with Stress” and “The Stress Test” from the Heart and Stroke Foundation, www.heartandstroke.ca. Have students take the stress test individually, to help them recognize their own individual strains (i.e., how stress manifests itself in their behaviour/functioning at work, school, and home). Have students discuss how they and human resource managers can detect stress and strain in the workplace. Have the small groups share a summary of their discussion with the class. Use PowerPoint slides to discuss and give examples of the four categories of strain reactions—psychological, physical, behavioural, and organizational—and the importance of an employer’s ability to detect mental illness in order to help employees receive early medical referral and assessment. (Refer to End-of-Chapter Discussion Question 4.) People may encounter stressors and experience stress. If stress continues, strain will result, leading to an increased risk to mental and physical health. This strain can lead to four categories of reactions; psychological (a disturbance in mood or concentration), physical (e.g., headaches, heart disease, strokes), behavioural (nervous habits and self-medication), and organizational (increased absenteeism and turnover, disturbances in performance, and interpersonal work relationships). F. Stress—the Hidden Illness and Stigmatization Psychological symptoms have been identified as a health-related outcome of stress. Individuals who feel prolonged stress may experience such symptoms as depression and anxiety. Many employees indicate that they would be uncomfortable telling their boss or coworkers that they are experiencing these types psychological symptoms because of the stigma associated with mental health problems. Engage the students in a large-group discussion on “stress, the hidden illness,” and the stigma associated with mental illness in the workplace. Ask for students’ comments on the role an employer or human resource manager should play in reducing the stigma associated with mental illness. Ask students to form small groups and discuss how they would design an awareness program that might help reduce the stigma associated with stress-related mental health issues in the workplace. Have them present their awareness programs to the class. (Refer to End-of-Chapter Using the Internet Question 1.) Use PowerPoint slides to share the “4E’s: Managing Work-Related Psychological Disorders,” and/or OH&S Notebook 7.1, “Occupational Health Psychology.” * An additional learning activity would be to show and discuss one of the many videos (e.g., Philadelphia) illustrating stigmatization. G. Spotlight on a Stressor: Injustice at Work Ask students how they felt when they were treated fairly or unfairly in the workplace. Ask for examples. Engage students in a large-group discussion on the positive and negative effects of being treated unfairly. Use PowerPoint slides to define and give examples of distributive justice (fairness of outcomes), interactional justice (fairness of interpersonal treatment), and procedural justice (fairness of processes). Ask the students discuss End-of-Chapter Exercises Question 3. (Refer to End-of-Chapter Exercises Question 3.) H. Spotlight on a Stressor: Technology Ask the students to discuss Case 2, “Technology at Work.” Use PowerPoint slides to define and give examples of technology-related stressors and interventions. (Refer to End-of-Chapter Case 2 and Discussion Question 6 and to OH&S Notebook 7.2, “Technology-Related Stressors.”) I. Spotlight on a Stressor: Work–Family Conflict Refer to Lesson Engagement Strategy c, above. Assessment Tools To quickly assess student learning against the chapter learning outcomes, at the end of the class: Ask students to describe in their own words what is meant by the terms stressor, stress, and strain. Ask for one or two examples of psychological, physical, behavioural, and organizational consequences of stress. Give a few examples of stress interventions and ask students to categorize them verbally as either primary, secondary, or tertiary. Reflections on Teaching Good teaching requires ongoing self-assessment and reflection. At the completion of this lesson, you may find it helpful to reflect on the following, and consider whether you want or need to make any adjustments for subsequent lessons. What worked in this lesson? What didn’t? Were students engaged? Were they focused or did they go off on tangents? Did I take steps to adequately assess student learning? Did my assessments suggest that they understood the key concepts? What (if anything) should I do differently next time? How can I gather student feedback? How can I use this feedback for continuous improvement of my teaching? Additional Resources Weblinks CSA Group website: shop.csa.ca/en/canada/occupational-health-and-safety-management/cancsa-z1003-13bnq-9700-8032013/invt/z10032013. Videos CSA Group website: shop.csa.ca/en/canada/occupational-health-and-safety-management/cancsa-z1003-13bnq-9700-8032013/invt/z10032013. Suggested Answers to Cases and Exercises Discussion Questions 1. Think of five stressors you have experienced in the past 12 months. Using the guidelines presented in this chapter, categorize the stressors as daily, acute, chronic, or catastrophic. Which, if any, seemed to lead to strain? Answer:
Type of Stressors Frequency, Duration, Intensity, Time of Onset Student Stressors Student Experience of Strain
Acute Specific time onset Typically, short duration Low frequency High intensity Performance review Anxiety over exams Sudden onset, gradually diminishes
Chronic No specific onset Short or long duration Repeats frequently Low or high intensity Job insecurity Financial insecurity Develops gradually and arousal may be maintained leading to strain
Daily Specific onset Short duration Typically, infrequent Low intensity Computer problems Stuck in traffic Gradually diminishes
Catastrophic Specific onset Short or long duration Occur infrequently High intensity Direct threat to life, or loss of life and/or major property damage Arousal may be maintained leading to strain
2. If only one individual in a workplace is experiencing strain, are the causes of that strain likely to be in the workplace? Why or why not? Answer: We hear the words “stressed out” regularly in many environments, including the workplace. Stress has become a catchall term and is not a diagnosis. A stressor is an objectively verifiable event that occurs outside of the individual that has the potential to cause stress. These events can happen in the workplace, home, and community environments and are often interrelated as employees try to balance their various life roles such as family, community, and learning. A stressor is an event appraised by individuals as taxing, exceeding their coping resources and negatively affecting their health. Stress is an individual’s negative emotional response to or evaluation of stressors. It occurs when the individual feels that they do not have the ability to cope with the stressor. Stress is moderated by individual differences (i.e., personality and social supports). Individuals perceive and respond differently to the same stressors (this refers to the general adaptive syndrome and the transactional model of stress). Stress is a function of both the individual and the situation. The text discusses stress in terms of the psychosocial model of health (the social environment and the individual psychological factors that affect an individual’s health). Strain is the result of continued stress. Workplace or job stress occurs when the requirements of the job (working conditions) do not match the capabilities and resources of the employee (worker characteristics). The NIOSH model described in the text identifies the following major categories of workplace stressors: workload and work pace, role stressors, career concerns, work scheduling, interpersonal relations, and job content and control. The individual’s appraisal of the stressors causes that individual’s stress and possible strain, which leads to increased risk to mental and physical health. It is difficult to define a direct causal effect with the workplace. Strain may be causes by a variety of factors, one of which may or may not be the workplace. It is important for the HRM to find and identify the causative factors (stressors). Questions that can be asked can include these: What are the psychological barriers to the employee’s ability to work (i.e., conflict, change, work schedule, work demands, personal, and family issues)? What coping strategies and supports (tangible and emotional) do they have or require? What are some realistic solutions to the health issues? 3. What are the major stressors in modern workplaces? Answer: Workplace or job stress occurs when the requirements of the job (working conditions) do not match the capabilities and resources of the employee (worker characteristics). The NIOSH model described in the text identifies the following major categories of workplace stressors: workload and work pace, role stressors, career concerns, work scheduling, interpersonal relations, and job content and control. 4. How does stress manifest itself in behaviour? In organizational functioning?
Answer: People may encounter stressors and experience stress. If stress continues, strain will result, leading to an increased risk to mental and physical health. This strain can lead to four categories of reactions; psychological (a disturbance in mood or concentration), physical (headaches, heart disease, strokes, etc.), behavioural (nervous habit, self-medication), organizational (e.g., increased absenteeism and turnover, disturbances in performance and interpersonal work relationships). 5. What actions can individuals take to help manage stress? What can organizations do to help employees avoid or manage stress? Answer: A preventative integrative approach to managing stress in the workplace would encourage the reduction of stressors, as well as recognize and manage occupational stress and strain using both organizational and individual primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions. Immediate interventions is important; so is using an integrative team of health care professionals. The focus should be on organizational and individual primary interventions that involve reducing or removing actual stressors. For example, it should address the causes of workplace stress by reducing high job demands, increasing employees’ control over decisions, enhancing job variety and flexibility, clarifying role expectations, ensuring that workloads and schedules are compatible with worker’s capabilities and resources, and supporting individual strategies. You want to focus on education and on preventing accidents or health problems from happening. Minimizing negative outcomes once a person is feeling stress can entail secondary and tertiary interventions such as these: stress management, nutrition, relaxation, exercise, and employee assistance programs. (Refer to Table 7.2, “Stress Intervention Strategies: Individual Level,” and Table 7.3, “Stress Intervention Strategies: Organizational Level.”) 6. What are some of the ways in which evolving technology contributes to workplace stress? What are some interventions that employees and employers might attempt in order to avoid or manage the stress associated with technology? Answer: The increased use of computers in the workplace has led to an increase in physical and mental workplace health and safety issues. These range from musculoskeletal injuries (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome and back injuries) to psychosocial stressors (e.g., lack of control over technology problems, isolation, lack of privacy, increased job demands). Employers’ and HRMs’ primary focus should be on implementing preventive ergonomic and job design solutions. These can include removing or reducing workplace stressors (through technical support, education, privacy policies, ensuring that workloads are compatible with the employee’s capabilities, and providing flexible working conditions). Secondary and tertiary interventions that minimize the negative outcomes once a person is feeling stress can be provided (e.g., stress management, nutrition, relaxation, exercise, and employee assistance programs). Refer to OH&S Notebook 7.3, “Technology-Related Stressors.” Discuss some emerging stressors in the workplace. How might companies help employees deal with the changing demands of work? Answer: The text discusses three prevalent workplace stressors: injustice, technology, and work–life conflict. Companies will want to focus on primary stress management interventions. Some examples of how companies are dealing with the changing demands of work–life conflict are described in Chapter 14, “Workplace Wellness: Work–Family and Health Promotion Programs”; OH&S Notebook 4.1, “Reducing Work–Life Conflict: Strategies for Organizations,” and OH&S Today 14.2, “Healthy Organizations: Wellness and Work–Family Programming at Canadian Companies.” Some examples of how companies are dealing with the demands of evolving technology are discussed in Discussion Question 6. Some examples of how companies are dealing with injustice in the workplace are described in End-of-Chapter Question 3. Emerging Workplace Stressors: 1. Technological Overload: Constant connectivity and digital demands. 2. Remote Work Isolation: Lack of social interaction and blurred work-life boundaries. 3. Job Insecurity: Economic uncertainty and evolving job roles. How Companies Can Help: 1. Flexible Work Arrangements: Offer remote or hybrid options and flexible hours. 2. Mental Health Support: Provide access to counseling, stress management programs, and wellness resources. 3. Skill Development: Offer training for new technologies and job transitions to reduce anxiety. These initiatives help employees manage stress and adapt to changing work demands. Using the Internet 1. Psychological symptoms have been identified as a health-related outcome of stress. Individuals who feel prolonged stress may experience such symptoms as depression and anxiety. Many employees indicate that they would be uncomfortable telling their boss or coworkers that they are experiencing these types psychological symptoms because of the stigma associated with them. Using the Web resources of the Canadian Mental Health Association (www.cmha.ca), the Canadian Psychiatric Association (www.cpa-apc.org), the Canadian Psychological Society (www.cpa.ca), the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (www.ccohs.ca), and other websites, design an awareness program that might help reduce the stigma associated with stress-related mental health issues in the workplace. Answer: Stress is often referred to as the hidden illness. Research suggests that one-sixth of all people (and one-fifth of working women) suffer from major depression, but that a very small percentage are diagnosed and treated. People do not want to be diagnosed because they fear workplace stigmatization and barriers to employment opportunities. Mental illness has one of the highest degrees of stigma in the workplace, and as a result, most employees do not feel comfortable talking to their employers about their health. This stigma discourages employees and their families from getting the help they need owing to the fear of being discriminated against. Employees may be sensitive about sharing personal health concerns because of the uncertainty of workplace confidentiality and privacy practices, and employers may not know how to deal with situations concerning employee mental illness. Since it is difficult to define a direct causal effect with the workplace, such problems can be ignored or not viewed as a workplace OH&S issue by organizations. The organizational direct health costs (i.e., increased number of claims) and indirect productivity costs (i.e., increased staff turnover and decreased productivity) may not be measured, limiting the employer’s awareness and understanding of the spectrum of the problem. The 4 Es: Managing Work-Related Psychological Disorders (Copyright Catherine Fitzgerald 2008) A workplace mental health awareness program would help managers and supervisors recognize and manage occupational stress and strain by focusing on organizational and individual primary interventions that involve the reduction or removal of actual workplace stressors. For example: learn the causes of workplace stress, reduce high job demands, increase control over decisions, provide job variety and flexibility, clarify role expectations, ensure the workload and schedule are compatible with the worker’s capabilities and resources, and support individual strategies. You want to focus on education and preventing accidents or health problems from happening. A mental health awareness program may include: information on the causes, symptoms, professional treatment, and interventions, and workplace policies and procedures. Ensure the Reduction of Workplace Stressors and Implement Organizational Change: Employers and human resource professional have a legal, moral, and social obligation to be proactive in dealing with workplace stress. Workplace or job stress occurs when the requirements of the job (working conditions), do not match the capabilities and resources of the employee (worker characteristics). The NIOSH model described in the text identifies the following major categories of workplace stressors: workload and work pace, role stressors, career concerns, work scheduling, interpersonal relations, and job content and control. It is the individual’s appraisal (negative emotional response to, or evaluation of, stressors) of the stressors that cause that individual’s stress and possible strain, which leads to increased risk of mental and physical health. Stress is the function of both the individual and the situation. A workplace mental health awareness program would help managers and supervisors recognize and manage occupational stress and strain by focusing on organizational and individual primary interventions. An employer or human resource manager would want to focus on education and preventing accidents or health problems from happening. A mental health awareness program may include: information on the causes, symptoms, professional treatment and interventions, and workplace policies and procedures. Focusing on minimizing negative outcomes once a person is feeling stress can include secondary and tertiary interventions such as stress management nutrition, relaxation, exercise, and employee assistance programs. Implement organizational change strategies to reduce workplace psychological hazards. Education, Detection and Culture: A workplace mental health awareness program would begin with educating the owners and managers about mental illness from general education to specific issues related to their organization. Supervisors and employees need to be educated and supported on mental health workplace policies and practices. Supervisors and employees need to be able to understand and detect subordinates and colleagues experiencing stress, or major depression and anxiety. Through a mental health awareness program managers and supervisors would be able to recognize and manage employee psychological (mood and concentration), physical, behavioural (unhealthy habits), and organizational (increased absenteeism, turnover, and workplace errors) strain effectively. All employees would begin to observe a positive acceptance of mental health illnesses. This would create an environment of openness and trust leading to a reduced stigma concerning mental health. This may have a mushrooming effect, ultimately allowing for early intervention and assessment. Early Assessment, Specific Treatment, and Return to Work: An employee requires early intervention and assessment, a diagnosis from a specialist with specific recommendations and treatment. The medical diagnosis and treatment needs to be clear for the employee and employer. The employer can assist the employee’s return to health by providing a return to work program that would help them stay connected to the workplace. Having employees continue to work or return to work, as soon as possible is often part of an employee’s recovery, and illustrates to the workforce that mental health illness is treatable. Enter Data and Estimate Costs and Benefits: Employers and human resource managers need to create data systems to review, identify, and analyze absenteeism, disability management practices and policies, trends, health costs, health and safety issues, workplace issues, health promotion programs, and measure improvements. Using this data employers and human resource managers can take a more proactive role in dealing with workplace stress. This data is also essential in obtaining and maintaining organizational support for workplace health management programs. This data will answer critical questions concerning the organization’s direct and indirect health costs and the effect of the organization’s investment into health management systems. Refer to the OH&S Notebook 7.1, “Occupational Health Psychology.” 2. Use Internet resources to find out what you can about CSA-Z1003-13, which is the Canadian standard for psychological health and safety in the workplace. Some angles you may consider are the media’s response to and coverage of the standard, the response by professional associations (e.g., HR, psychological, and safety associations) and the ways in which particular organizations are implementing the standard. Answer: CAN/CSA-Z1003-13/BNQ 9700-803/2013, Psychological Health and Safety in the Workplace is a voluntary standard intended to provide systematic guidelines for Canadian employers that will help enable them to develop psychologically safe and healthy work environments for their employees and continuously improve them. A significant amount of material was reviewed in the development of this standard. It aligns with and follows the Plan–Do–Check–Act management systems model found in CAN/CSA Z1000, Occupational Health and Safety Management, to enable integration of a psychological health and safety management system into the way the organization manages its business. Students may search for information by looking up websites of organizations or businesses they are familiar with to help them respond to the question above (e.g., major retailers, manufacturers, branches of municipal, provincial or federal government). 3. The “sandwich generation” is particularly exposed to issues of work–family conflict. Using Internet resources, define the sandwich generation. Why are they vulnerable to work–family conflict? Answer: The “sandwich generation” refers to parents who are involved in caring for both dependent children and parents. They are called the “sandwich generation” because they have conflicting roles and responsibilities (sandwiched between) for the needs of their children and their parents, and their jobs. These parents have multiple role commitments that create work–family conflict. Visit the Sloan Work and Family Research Network: wfnetwork.bc.edu/encyclopedia_template.php?id=256. Exercises 1. Think about your current or most recent job. What are/were some of the pertinent stressors? What actions do/did you take to cope with them? How does/did the organization help you deal with the stress? Talk to some of your friends and/or members of your family about the stressors they encounter at work and the strategies they and their employers use to manage workplace stress. Answer: Workplace or job stress occurs when the requirements of the job (working conditions) do not match the capabilities and resources of the employee (worker characteristics). The NIOSH model described in the text identifies the following major categories of workplace stressors: workload and work pace, role stressors, career concerns, work scheduling, interpersonal relations, and job content and control. A preventive integrative approach to managing stress in the workplace would encourage the reduction of stressors; it would also recognize and manage occupational stress and strain using both organizational and individual primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions. The focus should be on organizational and individual primary interventions that reduce or remove actual stressors. This should include, for example, learning the causes of workplace stress, reducing high job demands, increasing control over decisions, providing job variety and flexibility, clarifying role expectations, ensuring that workloads and schedules are compatible with workers’ capabilities and resources, and supporting individual strategies. You would want to focus on education and on preventing accidents or health problems from happening. Also, on minimizing negative outcomes once a person is feeling stress. This can include secondary and tertiary interventions such as stress management, nutrition, relaxation, exercise, and employee assistance programs. (Refer to Table 7.2, “Stress Intervention Strategies: Individual Level,” and Table 7.3, “Stress Intervention Strategies: Organizational Level.”) 2. Returning to work after a stress-related leave can be difficult for both the individuals coming back to work and for their coworkers. Create and enact two role plays in which you and your classmates are employees at an organization. In one of the scenarios, one of the employees is returning to work after a leave due to a stress-related mental health problem. In the second scenario, one of the employees is returning to work following a leave due to a car accident. Following the role plays, discuss each scenario. How did the returning employee feel? What were the responses of the coworkers? Was there a greater sense of discomfort in discussing the well-being of the person who had been on stress leave relative to the person who was in the car accident? Do you think there are taboos about discussing mental illness in the workplace? In your follow-up discussion, generate ways that organizations and individual employees might make the transition easier for the person returning to work from a stress-related leave. Answer: The employer and HRM have a very important role to play in overcoming the stigma associated with mental illness and ensuring that employees make a healthy and supportive transition back to the workplace. Applying “The 4E’s: Managing Work-Related Psychological Disorders” (Copyright Catherine Fitzgerald 2008) is one-way employers can help employees deal with mental health issues in the workplace. It involves reducing workplace stressors, establishing policies and procedures, and leading by example through education, detection, early and accurate assessments, and return to work programs. (Refer to End-of-Chapter Using the Internet 2.) Ensure the Reduction of Workplace Stressors and Implement Organizational Change Education, Detection, and Culture Early Assessment, Specific Treatment, and Return to Work Enter Data and Estimate Costs and Benefits The WCB’s Employers Handbook for Claims Management (www.worksafebc.com/publications) provides employers with general information on WCB compensation services and assessments, work opportunities, change departments, and retraining). The WCB’s Comprehensive Return to Work Manual (www.wcb.ns.ca/return-to-work) provides employers with general information on establishing a return-to-work program. 3. Imagine you are currently the human resources director for a large organization. You have been given the job of designing and implementing a new performance review system. You know that the employees may find the shift to a new system stressful and that employees often think performance review instruments are unfair. You are also aware that perceived injustice in the workplace is a stressor, and you want to minimize the extent to which your employees are exposed to work stress. What might you do to maximize the perceived distributive, procedural, and interactional fairness of the performance review process? Answer: The HRM will want to make sure your performance management system is equitable and fair by incorporating, first, interactional justice (fairness of interpersonal treatment). The performance review will be provided in a timely and sensitive manner with clear concrete examples of effective performance, as well as feedback for ways to improve performance. Regular communication and coaching done in a sincere manner will not only encourage employees to meet the expected performance goals, but also have a positive impact on their health. Second, distributive justice (fairness of outcomes). The performance management system will include job descriptions with specific measurable performance standards. These standards will define the requirements of the job, thus clarifying expectations for both the employees and the employer. Employees should be evaluated and rewarded based on these standards. The employer needs to clearly communicate the specific expectations for performance and how they will be rewarded when they meet or exceed expected performance. Third, procedural justice (fairness of processes). The performance management system will be developed through a collaborative approach with input by all affected managers and employees. 4. Contact the human resources department of an organization. Interview the HR manager about psychosocial hazards in the workplace. The questions you should ask are these: To what extent does he or she consider workplace stress to be a problem in the organization? What types of stressors are experienced by the employees in the organization? What types of strain are reported by employees? What organizational outcomes of employee stress does the company experience (e.g., turnover, absenteeism)? What types of interventions does the company have to help employees reduce or manage stress? Answer: HR Manager Interview Summary: • Extent of Stress: Considered a significant problem affecting employee well-being. • Types of Stressors: Heavy workloads, poor work-life balance, role ambiguity, and interpersonal conflicts. • Types of Strain: Physical symptoms, emotional strain, and reduced job satisfaction. • Organizational Outcomes: Increased absenteeism, high turnover, and lower productivity. • Interventions: Employee Assistance Programs, flexible work arrangements, wellness programs, and stress management training. 5. Issues of work–family conflict are highly prevalent for parents of young children. To find out more about the experience of work–family conflict, interview a working individual who also has responsibility for child care. Some questions you might ask include the following: How many hours per week does the individual spend on paid work? How many hours per week does the individual spend in child care activities? How many hours per week does the individual spend in nonpaid household chores and errands? If the individual has a spouse, in what ways does the spouse help him or her manage the multiple responsibilities of work and family? What are some special challenges the individual encounters in balancing work and family life? What are some strategies the individual uses to meet all of his or her work and family demands? What efforts does the individual’s employer make to help him or her manage work and family demands? Answer: Refer to the text on work–family conflict and family-friendly policies for the causes and outcomes of work–life conflict as well as the three broad categories of family-friendly programs (flexible work arrangements, work leave systems, and family friendly employee benefits) discussed in Chapter 14. Work–family conflict is a form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. Work-to-family conflict is a form of work–family conflict in which work demands interfere with the fulfillment of family responsibilities. Family-to-work conflict is a form of work–family conflict in which family demands interfere with the fulfillment of work responsibilities. The causes of work–family conflict are behavioural involvement (the amount of time a person spends in a particular role) and psychological involvement (the degree to which a person identifies with a particular role and sees the role as a central component of his or her self-concept) The outcomes of work–family conflict are linked with decreased work performance and absenteeism from work; the outcomes of work-to-family conflict are associated with reduced performance in the family role and with absences from family-related events. Work–family conflict is also associated with some lower physical health. Chapter 14 discuses three broad categories of family-friendly programs that organizations can implement to reduce work–family conflict and help employees balance their work and family responsibilities: flexible work arrangements (e.g., compressed workweek, job sharing, job splitting, flexitime, telecommuting) work leave systems (e.g., maternity leave, parental leave, personal days, family and sick leave) family-friendly employee benefits (e.g., provision of day care, subsidized dependent care) Cases Case 1: A Stressful Job The HRM must keep current on the issues, laws, insurance coverage, and practices concerning workplace stress. It is important to educate managers and employees about the organization’s disability coverage. Mental stress resulting in a mental condition is seldom compensated by WCBs (refer to Exercise 1 above). Employees with non-occupational illnesses or injuries may receive short-term or long-term disability coverage if the company provides these benefits (e.g., private-rate shared plans). Some benefits may be claimed through employment insurance. You want to clarify the organization’s disability benefits, procedures, related health programs, and related return-to-work policies with the employee. Stress is a function of both the individual and the situation. It is difficult to define a direct causal effect with the workplace. This may be a case of chronic stress that is the result of a cumulative build-up of pressures over a long time. The causes of strain may be due to a variety of factors, one of which may or may not be the workplace. Often chronic stress is difficult to assess. It is important for the HRM to find and identify the causative factors (stressors) causing the stress. Questions that can be asked include these: What are the psychological barriers to the employee’s ability to work (e.g., conflict, change, work schedule, work demands, personal and family issues)? What are some realistic solutions to the health issues? A preventative integrative approach to managing stress in the workplace would encourage the reduction of stressors in the workplace as well as recognize and manage occupational stress and strain using both organizational and individual primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions. Immediate interventions and an interdisciplinary team approach involving health care professionals, management, and supervisors is important. The focus should be on organizational and individual primary interventions that involve the reducing or removing of actual stressors. This would entail learning causes of workplace stress, reducing high job demands, increasing control over decisions, providing job variety and flexibility, clarifying role expectations, ensuring that workloads and schedules are compatible with worker’s capabilities and resources, and supporting individual strategies. You want to focus on education and on preventing accidents or health problems from happening. Minimizing negative outcomes once a person is feeling stress can involve secondary and tertiary interventions such as stress management, nutrition, relaxation, exercise, and employee assistance programs. The HRM should gather sufficient medical evidence from a physician and/or registered psychologist, diagnosing the health issue immediately. The HRM will need to communicate regularly with the employee about the details of the disability and support the most appropriate, effective, timely, and efficient treatment. Usually, the HRM would encourage the employee to access an employee assistance program and would set up other supports allowing the employee to stay connected to the workplace (e.g., reduced hours, modified and lighter duty, change of departments, receiving counselling, attending stress management program), depending on the details of the problem. Support, cooperation, and education from staff at all levels of the company, as well as health care professionals and insurance companies, are important. Create data systems to review and identify absenteeism, disability management practices, and policies, trends, health costs, health and safety issues, and workplace issues, and to measure improvements. Refer to OHS Note 7.1, “Occupational Health Psychology.” Refer also to the 4 Es, “Managing Work-Related Psychological Disorders” (© Catherine Fitzgerald 2008). Case 2: Technology at Work The employees at Smith Corp may face both physical and mental hazards due to their extensive use of workplace technology. They are at risk of an increase in workplace health and safety issues ranging musculoskeletal injuries (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome and back injuries) to psychosocial stressors (e.g., lack of control over technology problems, isolation, lack of privacy, increased job demands). Employers’ and human resource managers’ primary focus should be on implementing preventative ergonomic and job design solutions that include the removal or reduction of these workplace stressors (e.g., technical support, education, privacy policies, flexible working conditions, and ensuring the workload is compatible with the employee’s capabilities). Secondary and tertiary interventions that minimize the negative outcomes once a person is feeling stress can be provided (e.g., stress management, nutrition, relaxation, exercise, and employee assistance programs). Refer to OH&S Notebook 7.2, “Technology-Related Stressors.” Case 3: A Toxic Workplace Tyrell needs to be made aware that as an employer, the Force has both a legal and a moral responsibility for providing and promoting a psychologically healthy and safe workplace. You could help him identify the various factors that are present (such as interpersonal conflict, harassment, and perceptions of interactional injustice), and work with him to suggest intervention strategies at the individual and organizational levels. You should also review with him relevant policies and procedures for dealing with complaints, and ensure that they are followed up on promptly and thoroughly in accordance with policy. Solution Manual for Management of Occupational Health and Safety Kevin E. Kelloway, Lori Francis, Bernadette Gatien 9780176532161, 9780176657178
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