CH-7 Principles of Motivating Followers – Supervision: Concepts and Practices of Management : Book Guide

Chapter 7 Principles of Motivating Followers Learning Objectives 1. Recognize personal and situational factors that may cause employee job dissatisfaction. Every term students ask, “Where can I find a job that will provide me with the satisfaction I expect?” My response is always the same: “Tell me what it would take to make you satisfied?” In recent years, job security has moved toward the top of the list. Many factors contribute to employee dissatisfaction. Personal Skill-Builder 7-1 will give students an opportunity to evaluate the various work-related factors that may spark one’s job enthusiasm. 2. Identify and discuss reasons people behave the way they do. Everyone is a unique individual, and one’s behavior is influenced by many factors. Personality is the complex mix of skills, knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and other attributes that distinguishes one person from another. Prominent factors that interact to form the personality of each individual include physiological makeup, early childhood experiences, the immediate and continuing environment through life, and cultural values. The working environment is one of the almost unlimited number of influences that become part of an employee’s personality. A person’s attitude impacts everyone that person contacts, and often negatively or positively impacts the organization’s performance. Supervisors need to be sensitive to individual differences and similarities. A consistent supervisory approach based on similarities is a practical way to lead employees. 3. Understand the various motivational theories and appreciate their importance. Motivation is a willingness to exert effort toward achieving a goal. Individuals have been found to put forth more effort if the reward fulfills their individual needs. According to Maslow, when a lower-level need is fulfilled, higher-level needs emerge that influence one’s motivation. The need to know and understand is probably more important today. The need to seek balance is the essence of Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory. Figure 7.3 identified eight needs in ascending order of importance and showed that there is a need for consistency in knowing, feeling, believing, having, and experiencing. Alderfer’s ERG theory attempted to clarify Maslow’s theory by categorizing the lower needs as existence. Relatedness and growth were additional categories. Alderfer’s frustration-regression principle maintains that when high-order needs are not met, the individual will put more effort into fulfilling needs that can more easily be met. McClelland identified the need for affiliation (nAFF), achievement (nACH), and power (nPOW). The need to be in control of various situations is a prime motivator for some. Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene research studies indicate that hygiene factors such as money, management policies, working conditions, and certain aspects of supervision must be adequate to maintain a reasonable level of motivation. Forces that stimulate good performance, called motivation factors, are intrinsic to the job. These motivation factors include the employees’ needs for achievement, opportunity for advancement, challenging work, promotion, growth, and recognition. Expectancy theory suggests that employees will be motivated if they perceive links between their efforts and performance and between their performance and rewards. Equity theory of motivation explains how people strive for fairness based on an outcome–input ratio. Employees can compare themselves to many other people, even those who do not work in their organizations, to determine if perceived equity or inequity exists. 4. Explain how one might use the motivational theories to manage their own lives and the performance of others. It is important for supervisors to recognize the different levels of need. Supervisors can influence employee motivation positively if they rely on supervisory approaches that promote higher-level need fulfillment. When employee needs are not satisfied on the job, job performance usually suffers. Some employees express their dissatisfaction through absenteeism. Others may display aggressive and disruptive behavior; still others may quit. The result is that the organization suffers from a decrease in production and a loss of quality. Everyone is a unique individual, and accordingly people have different wants and needs. Effective supervisors must know the likes and dislikes and what “button to push” for each individual. “Different strokes for different folks” is the plan of action for effective supervisors. 5. Appreciate ways to more effectively cope with people who make your life difficult. Working conditions that do not fulfill employee needs ultimately cause dissatisfaction and frustration. The interaction between individuals creates the opportunity for conflict. Since the beginning of time, there have been people who made life difficult for others. Many factors may cause some people to do things that make other people’s lives difficult. Incivility and other inappropriate behavior must be dealt with in a proper and timely manner. 6. Consider how the ABCs can be used to shape behavior. The ABC model of behavior modification is built on the notion that the supervisor can use antecedents (those things that precede behavior) and consequences (the results of behavior) to condition desirable behavior or to extinguish undesirable behavior. The use of extinction, positive reinforcement, punishment, and negative reinforcement can make specific behavior occur more or less often. Feedback and positive reinforcement should be used regularly to shape employee behavior in the desired direction. 7. Compare the assumptions and applications of Theory X and Theory Y in supervision. The Theory X supervisor believes primarily in authoritarian techniques, which relate to lower-level human needs. The Theory Y supervisor prefers to build motivation by appealing to employees’ higher-level needs. 8. Articulate how job redesign, multi-tasking, and participative management can be used to develop employee SKAs. A definitional and conceptual framework for strategies for enhancing employee morale and motivation has been provided. The major approaches include job design, job rotation, multitasking, job enrichment, participative management, and other opportunities for employees to be more involved. The job characteristics model has been used to guide job-redesign efforts. The advantages of participative management are that decisions tend to be of higher quality and employees are more willing to accept decisions. Employee participation programs are widely used and varied in application. Delegation strategies, suggestion programs, quality circles, and self-directed work teams are approaches that emphasize employee involvement. Getting people at all levels of the organization involved in objective setting and problem solving, rearranging duties and responsibilities, and creating ways to reward people for their accomplishments represent the essence of the approaches to motivating employees to perform. The supervisor must learn to implement different supervisory approaches that are appropriate for different people and settings. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-2, Learning Objectives Lecture Outline I. Where Can I get Satisfaction? Satisfaction is an emotional state or affective response toward various factors associated with one’s work. While the research data collected by various agencies varies in the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction, the conclusions are obvious. •The employee’s perception of the organization’s financial stability is related to satisfaction. •Job security is still very important. •When the economy begins to warm up, workers who are dissatisfied with their jobs go looking for new ones. See Figure 7.1 Reasons Employees Leave Organizations PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-3, Where Can I Get Satisfaction? PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-4, Figure 7.2 The economic climate has changed the way employees look at their employer, their current work, and other aspects of their lives. Supervisors must work with human resources professionals and other members of the management team to ensure that their organization is known as a “great place to work.” II. Determinants of Human Behavior People are the most important resource that a supervisor is asked to manage. The forces that stimulate human behavior come from within individuals and from their environments. Understanding the “baggage” that affects employee performance is critical to the supervisor’s success in dealing with people. A. Determinants of Personality Personality is the knowledge, attitudes, and attributes that make up the unique human being. The real substance of human personality goes far beyond external behavior. The essence of an individual’s personality includes his or her attitudes, values, and ways of interpreting the environment, as well as many internal and external influences that contribute to behavioral patterns. NOTE: Instructor can ask students to describe the personality of their most preferred co-worker. A situation where a college student was told by a friend that, “My girlfriend is coming to campus next month but her parents won’t let her come unless her girlfriend comes along. I want you to entertain her so I can spend some time with my girlfriend.” The question was not unlike that most of the students would ask. “Tell me about her. What’s she like?” The friend’s response: “She’s got a great personality.” Instructors can use the above scenario to put some light on “personality.” B. Physiological (Biological) Factors One major influence on human personality is physiological (or biological) makeup. Such factors as gender, age, race, height, weight, and physique can affect how a person sees the world. Intelligence, which is partially inherited, is another. C. Early Childhood Influences Many psychologists feel that the very early years of a person’s life are crucial to an individual’s development. Parents who encourage autonomy, independence, exploration, and the ability to deal with risk, while instilling a willingness to work with others, give the child valuable lessons. A critical parent or teacher in one’s younger years, for instance, may lead to insecurity in adult life. D. Environmental (Situational) Factors Sociologists and social psychologists emphasize the immediate situation or environment as being the most important determinant of adult personality. Education, income, employer, home and many other experiences that confront an individual throughout life influence who that person is and eventually becomes. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-5, Determinants of Human Behavior E. Cultural (Societal) Values Culture also influences personality. In the United States, such values as competition, rewards for accomplishment, equal opportunities, and similar concepts are part of a democratic society. However, some cultural values are changing. By recognizing and respecting different cultural values, supervisors should be more adept in dealing effectively with people unlike themselves. F. Every Employee Has an Attitude Supervisors must recognize that the positive or negative behavior of one person spills over—someone else now has either a positive or negative attitude. An employee with a bad attitude is like cancer and can affect the entire system if left unchecked. Positive Mental Attitude (PMA) involves seeing the positive side of things, rather than the negative, which helps individuals deal with challenges and adapt more easily to changes. The rule of reciprocity implies paying back a good deed or retaliating when one experiences a wrongdoing. It also suggests that humans react and respond in like manner to the attitude and action of others. Often one’s attitudes are caused by what others do and say. Emotional contagion is the transfer of emotion and attitudes between people who are in close contact. G. Recognizing Human Differences and Similarities Realistically, it is impossible to understand all the unique characteristics of a person’s personality. Supervisors can understand the unique needs and personality makeup of individual employees enough to adapt general approaches to individuals to some extent. Suggestions, strategies, and tips are available which can help one lead a diverse group of employees toward achieving organizational goals. What Have You Learned? Question 1 PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-6, Determinants of Human Behavior (cont.) III. Understanding Motivation and Human Behavior Human motivation really refers to an inner drive or impulse. Motivation cannot be given to another. Motivation is a willingness to exert effort toward achieving a goal, stimulated by the effort’s ability to fulfill an individual need. A. Employee Needs (Maslow and Others) College professor and psychologist Abraham H. Maslow formulated the concept of a hierarchy (or priority) of needs. Maslow’s theory of motivation suggests that employee needs are arranged in priority order such that lower-order needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs become motivating. Figure 7.3 presents an overview of the needs theory of motivation. Maslow’s theory of a hierarchy of human needs implies that people try to satisfy these needs in the order in which they are arranged in the hierarchy. Until the lowest, or most basic, needs are reasonably satisfied, a person will not be motivated strongly by the other levels. B. Biological (Physiological) Needs Physiological needs are the basic physical needs (e.g., food, rest, shelter, and recreation). A paycheck enables a person to buy the necessities vital to survival, as well as some of the comforts of life. C. Security (Safety) Needs Security needs include the need to protect ourselves against danger and to guard against life’s uncertainties. To satisfy such expectations, many employers offer various supplementary benefits such as medical, retirement, hospitalization, disability, and life insurance plans to protect employees against various uncertainties and their possible serious consequences. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-7, Understanding Motivation and Human Behavior PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-8, Figure 7.3 Hierarchy of needs D. Social (Belonging) Needs Social Needs involves the desire for love and affection and affiliation with something worthwhile. Many studies have shown that group motivation can be a powerful influence on employee behavior at work, either negatively or positively. E. Self-Respect (Esteem) Needs Self-respect Needs involves the desire for recognition, achievement, status, and a sense of accomplishment. Supervisors should look for ways to satisfy these internal needs, such as providing varied and challenging work tasks and recognizing good performance. F. Cognitive (Understanding) Needs Cognitive needs are one’s need to know and understand. The state of being out of balance because of conflicting goals, job assignments, expectations, or knowledge is called cognitive dissonance. G. Aesthetic (Beauty and Balance) Needs Aesthetic needs are defined as the need to create something that is useful and pleasing. Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-9, Understanding Motivation and Human Behavior (cont.) H. Self-Fulfillment Needs Self-fulfillment needs are the desire to use one’s abilities to the fullest extent. Supervisors can provide opportunities for self-fulfillment on the job by assigning tasks that challenge employees to use their abilities more fully. I. Transcendence Needs Transcendence Needs involves achieving even higher goals and peak experiences once all of the self-actualization needs have been met. J. Need for Consistency Consistency needs involves being in harmony and free from variation and contradiction. The consistency of having, feeling, loving, believing, knowing, and so on is an important need because, in part, it helps to keep people in balance. K. ERG Theory ERG Theory is the acronym for: •Existence: Physiological and safety needs •Relatedness: Social and external esteem needs •Growth needs: Self-actualization and internal esteem needs According to frustration-regression principle, if higher-needs are not satisfied, individuals will regress to a lower-order need that is more easily fulfilled. This theory holds that if a higher-level need is largely unfulfilled, the person may regress to a lower-level that is easier to satisfy. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-10, Understanding Motivation and Human Behavior (cont.) L. McClelland’s Three-Need Theory Power Needs (nPOW) is the need to exert influence over others or to be in position of control. Top managers should have a high need for power coupled with a low need for affiliation. Personal Skill Builder 7-2: What Motivates Employees? M. Motivation-Hygiene Theory Motivation-hygiene theory, sometimes called the two-factory theory or the dual-factor theory, is Herzberg’s theory that factors in the work environment primarily influence the degree of job dissatisfaction while intrinsic job content factors influence the amount of employee motivation. Herzberg’s research has demonstrated that some factors in the work environment that were traditionally believed to motivate people actually serve primarily to reduce their dissatisfaction rather than motivate them. N. Motivation Factors Herzberg identified motivation factors as elements intrinsic to the job that promote job performance. Among the most frequently identified motivation factors were the following: •Opportunities for growth and advancement •Achievement or accomplishment •Recognition for accomplishments •Challenging or interesting work •Responsibility for work Stated another way, job factors that tend to motivate people are primarily related to higher-level needs and aspirations. The absence of these factors can be frustrating and nonmotivating. These motivation factors are not easily measured, and they may be difficult to find in certain types of jobs. O. Hygiene Factors Also called dissatisfiers, hygiene factors are elements of the work environment that, if positive, reduce dissatisfaction, but they do not tend to motivate. Herzberg identified the following hygiene factors: •Working conditions •Money, status, and security •Interpersonal relationships •Supervision •Company policies and administration What Have You Learned? Question 2 Personal Skill Builder 7-3: Employee Satisfaction PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-11, Understanding Motivation and Human Behavior (cont.) P. Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory is the theory of motivation that holds that employees perform better when they believe such efforts will lead to desired rewards. It’s based on worker perceptions and on relationships called linkages. Supervisors should strive to show employees that increased effort will improve work performance, which in turn will increase rewards. Rewards may be extrinsic, in the form of additional pay, or intrinsic, such as a sense of accomplishment or some type of praise or recognition. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-13, Expectancy Theory, Figure 7.4 Q. Equity Theory Equity theory explains how people strive for fairness in the workplace. People compare their own input/outcome ratios to those of others. When the ratios are unequal, there is inequity. Inputs include such things as seniority, experience, age, skill, ability, job knowledge, and effort. Outcomes can include salary, working conditions, degree of employee involvement and decision making, opportunity for advancement and promotion, challenging assignments, pay and benefits, and assorted forms of recognition. Important in determining motivation is the relative, rather than the absolute, level of outcomes a person receives and the inputs a person contributes. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-13, Understanding Motivation and Human Behavior (cont.) PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-14, Figure 7.5 IV. Practical Suggestions for Using the Motivational Theories Supervisors can use the hierarchy of human needs as a framework for visualizing the kinds of needs people have and for assessing the relative importance of those needs in motivating individuals in the workplace. A good supervisor structures the work situation and reward systems so that employees are motivated to perform well because good work performance leads to satisfaction of their needs. Employee entitlement is the belief that the organization “owes” them. A. The supervisor and Herzberg’s Theory To improve performance, Herzberg’s theory suggests that the supervisor should implement strategies that target the motivation factors—that is, those that contribute to the satisfaction of employees’ social, self-respect, and self-fulfillment needs. B. The Supervisor and Equity Theory Equity theory provides another explanation for how perceptions and beliefs about what is fair influence job performance. It also acquaints managers with the disasters that can occur when rewards are misaligned with performance. Supervisors must be vigilant for signs of unfairness and immediately address employee concerns. Questions such as “What is not fair?” “Why is it not fair?” and “What would it take to make it fair?” must be asked. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-15, Practical Suggestions for Using the Motivational Theories V. Coping with People Who Make Your Life Difficult Often, conditions that do not produce the fulfillment of a person’s needs ultimately result in dissatisfaction and frustration. When needs are not satisfied on the job, employees may resort to behavior patterns that are detrimental to their job performance and to the organization. A typical approach for frustrated employees is to resign themselves to just “getting by” on the job. Team Skill Builder 7-1: Dealing with People Who Make Your Life Difficult—“The Whiner” PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-16, Coping with People Who Make Your Life Difficult PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-17, Figure 7.8 VI. Using the ABCs to Shape Employee Behavior According to performance management expert, Aubrey Daniels, “behavior (the B) cannot be separated from the antecedents (the A) that come before it and the consequences (the C) after it.” See Figure 7.8 for suggestions on how to use the ABCs. First, supervisors should clearly identify what they want an employee to do. Then, the employee must know what the job entails and what is expected in the way of performance. Supervisor’s role as an enabler ensures that employees have all they need to do their jobs correctly the first time, including the appropriate instruction, training, tools, and materials. If the supervisor does not set the stage (provide the proper antecedents), employee performance is likely to be unsatisfactory. Thorndike’s law of effect postulates that “behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear.” Extinction is the process where good behavior occurs frequently or disappears because it is not recognized. Positive reinforcement is making behavior occur more often because it is linked to a positive consequence. Making behavior occur less frequently because it is linked to an undesirable consequence is perceived to be punishment. Negative reinforcement is making behavior occur more frequently by removing an undesirable consequence. PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-18, Using the ABCs to Shape Employee Behavior PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-19, Figure 4.9 VII. Comparing Theory X and Theory Y A. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y McGregor stated that extremes in attitudes among managers could be classified as Theory X and Theory Y. Following are the basic assumptions of McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y. •Theory X—the assumption that most employees dislike work, avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to do their jobs. •Theory Y—the assumption that most employees enjoy work, seek responsibility, and can self-direct. The belief that well-designed jobs lead to increased motivation. The two approaches McGregor describes represent extremes in supervisory styles. Realistically, most supervisors are somewhere between Theory X and Theory Y. Neither approach is right or wrong because the appropriateness of a given approach depends on the needs of the individuals involved and the demands of the situation. B. Advantages and Limitations of Theory X Supervisors who adopt Theory X typically find that, in the short term, a job is done faster. A major disadvantage of Theory X is that there is little opportunity for employees’ personal growth. In the long term, employees may exit the job—physically or emotionally. Traditionally, supervisors who advocated the Theory X approach could get employees to do what they wanted by using the “carrot-and-stick” approach (“Do what I want you to do and you will be rewarded”). Employees may rebel when confronted with the stick, and supervisors may not have sufficient rewards to motivate employees to subject themselves to this tight control. C. Advantages and Limitations of Theory Y An overriding advantage of Theory Y supervision is that it promotes individual growth. It is possible for the employees to partially satisfy their higher-level needs on the job. Theory Y can be time-consuming, especially in the short term. Because personal development is emphasized, supervisors must become instructors and coaches if they are to help their employees move toward the simultaneous attainment of organizational and personal goals. Some supervisors find the extreme application of Theory Y to be more idealistic. What Have You Learned? Question 3 PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-20, Comparing Theory X and Theory Y PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-20, Figure 7.10 VIII. Supervisory Approaches for Attaining Positive Employee Motivation Supervisors have used various forms of job enrichment—job design that helps fulfill employees’ higher-level needs by giving those employees more challenging tasks and more decision-making responsibility for their jobs. Many supervisors prefer to assign the difficult or more challenging jobs only to their best employees and the dull jobs to the weaker employees. However, this practice can be defeating in the long term. In its most developed form, job enrichment may involve restructuring jobs in such a way that employees are given direct control and responsibility for what they do. A. Job Redesign Job redesign is the belief that well-designed jobs lead to increased motivation. Many Job redesign programs are based on the model developed by Professors Hackman and Oldham. They contend that internal motivation is determined by three psychological factors: the experienced meaningfulness of work, responsibility for the work performed, and knowledge of the results. The more these factors are positive, the more effort the employee will put forth. According to this model, any job can be described in terms of the following five core dimensions: •Skill variety •Task identity •Task significance •Autonomy •Feedback B. Job Rotation Job rotation is the process of switching job tasks among employees in a work group. Job rotation not only helps to relieve employees’ boredom but also enhances employees’ job knowledge. A major side benefit to the supervisor is that job rotation results in a more flexible workforce, which can be advantageous during periods of employee absence. C. Multitasking When an employee performs several tasks simultaneously, one can say that he or she is multitasking. It can be a powerful motivational tool if the employees can see that the tasks give them a chance to use previously acquired SKAs or develop a new one. There can be problems in implementing multitasking, and it could be slowing down because of “switchover time.” PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-22, Supervisory Approaches for Attaining Positive Employee Motivation D. Participative Management Robert Levering postulates that the high morale of great workplaces consists of pride in what you do (the job itself), enjoying the people are working with (the work group), and trusting the people one can work for (management practices and economic rewards). Levering and others have been tracking the “best place to work.” Historically, Dallas-headquartered Southwest Airlines (SWA) has ranked among everyone’s Top 10. SWA, like many organizations, actively solicits employee input via formal suggestion programs. The open work environment allows employees to share their ideas and make suggestions without fear of retribution. The fact that a suggestion has been implemented may mean more than the monetary reward. This supervisory approach, in which employees have an active role in decision making, has historically been called participative management. When employees feel that they are part of a team and that they can influence the decisions that affect them, they are more likely to accept the decisions and seek new solutions to problems. During the past two decades, most organizations have adopted various forms of participatory management programs. These programs are based on the belief that employees want to contribute to the long-term success of the organization and that managers have a strong commitment to participatory management as a way of organizational life. What Have You Learned? Question 2 What Have You Learned? Question 4 PowerPoint Presentation Slide 7-21, Key Terms Answers to What have you Learned? 1. a. Think of a time when you accomplished something that made you very proud. What caused you to react that way? b. Think of a time that you did something that made you ashamed. What caused you to behave that way? c. How do you explain why people behave the way they do? Every human being is unique. Behavior is influenced by factors that come from within an individual and from the environment around them. Personality is the complex mix of knowledge, attitudes, and attributes that distinguishes one person from all others. Some of the internal determinants of personality are physiological or come from lessons in early childhood and are now part of that individual’s personality. External factors could be from current situations, from cultural values, or from a variety of other factors. Most of the students might answer part (a) of this question with internal influences. They are proud of their accomplishments and gladly take credit for them. They likely will attribute their answers in part (b) with external influences—“They made me do it!” Work experiences will influence an employee’s personality. An employee’s personality will affect everyone at work, both positively and negatively. Supervisors need to be aware of each person’s similarities and differences in order to manage well. 2. Compare and contrast each of the motivational theories discussed in this chapter. From the aspect of practical application, what are the benefits of each of the motivational theories discussed in this chapter? Motivation is a willingness to exert effort toward achieving a goal, stimulated by the effort’s ability to fulfill an individual need. Several of the theories are based on fulfillment of needs. Maslow’s hierarchy perceives five fundamental needs—physiological/biological, safety/security, social/belonging, self-respect/esteem, and self-fulfillment. These five needs are arranged in a hierarchy, and the lowest need that is not well gratified will tend to dominate behavior. A need once fulfilled loses its motivating potential. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory identifies motivators (satisfiers) as achievement, recognition, challenging and interesting work, responsibility and opportunity for growth and advancement. These are associated with the nature of work, i.e., job content factors. Hygiene factors such as working conditions, interpersonal relationships, company policies and administration, supervision, and other job context factors cause dissatisfaction if they are not present. Expectancy theory is based on the employee’s perception of the relationships between effort, performance, and reward. Equity theory explains how people strive for fairness. The greater the amount of discomfort (felt inequity), the more effort the person will be willing to put forth to correct the situation. From the aspect of practical application: Maslow’s theory (or model) of a hierarchy of human needs is valuable because it has practical applications to many aspects of employee motivation. In today’s environment, it would appear that the long-term positive motivation of employees lies in fulfilling their higher-level needs. Employees want their employment to provide good wages and benefits. Yet, even those workers who are at the lower end of the economic scale expect some satisfaction of their social and esteem needs. A supervisor probably can best influence the continuing motivation of employees by strategies that seek to satisfy, which are feasible within the work situation, the higher-level needs of the employees. The motivation-hygiene theory, as developed from the research findings of Frederick Herzberg, has suggested that wages, benefits, working conditions, and the supervisor’s technical competence are important in a preventive sense. Such factors must be adequate to prevent employees from being dissatisfied and poorly motivated. Herzberg found that factors more intrinsic in the job situation and related to employees’ higher-level needs are more likely to satisfy employees and keep them positively motivated. Such factors include opportunities for advancement, responsibility, personal growth, achievement, interesting work, and recognition. Herzberg’s work is reflective of Maslow’s model of an ascending priority of human needs, and it also is consistent with the step theory of human needs. Some authorities have questioned Herzberg’s research methodology and some of his conclusions about motivation. Researchers employing different methodologies have not always agreed with Herzberg’s findings. Nevertheless, Herzberg’s findings generally have been replicated when research has utilized primarily open-ended questions that ask employees to identify those things that really are important to them and those things that are most dissatisfying to them. The authors have found that most management scholars understand the implications of Herzberg’s findings, and Herzberg’s ideas serve as a useful basis for discussion. The instructor may wish to point out, however, that the Herzberg analysis may be somewhat oversimplified for some people and work situations. Expectancy theory emphasizes that an employee must actually believe there will be a positive relationship among effort, performance, and rewards if he or she is to be motivated to perform at a superior level. Supervisors should strive to show subordinates that good work is linked to desirable rewards, such as recognition, wage improvements, and promotion. Equity theory purports that people strive for fairness and consistency in their lives. On-the-job feelings of inequity revolve around an employee’s perception of whether he or she receives adequate rewards (outcomes) to compensate for his or her contributions (inputs). Generally, the employee compares his outcome/input ratio with that of another employee (referent other). See Figure 7.4 for an illustration of an unfair situation. The employee in this case, Ed, will resort to a variety of behaviors to bring about equity. 3. What are the basic elements of Theory X and Theory Y? Can you think of any reasons Theory Y would be inappropriate for all supervisors? Theory X and Theory Y are useful models to depict the extremes of the alternatives open to supervisors. In no way should they be considered “right” or “wrong” or “good” or “bad.” Theory X and Theory Y represent contrasting managerial attitudes and approaches. In the author’s view, Theory Y is a desirable and positive approach that offers more alternatives to achieving the long-term performance results that supervisors hope to obtain. In some work situations, Theory Y may be too idealistic and unrealistic to work, and some employees do respond more quickly to a Theory X approach. Research evidence suggests, though, that a Theory Y approach—realistically applied—can give the supervisor better results in the long run than the consistent application of Theory X. 4. With respect to the management problem of motivating subordinates to accomplish organizational goals, what conclusions can you draw from reading the material in this chapter? With this question, students can be encouraged to analyze the research evidence pertaining to the various motivational theories. Students will begin thinking critically about their own needs and the needs of others. Clearly, the instructor is in a better position to draw inferences about their motivational state. The satisfaction/job performance issue is raised and should be examined. What needs are fulfilled? Why do they work? Go to school? Study for a course? Many students are still striving in work/life to fulfill the basic needs, while for others their higher-order needs—achievement, recognition, and social—are the drivers for their behavior. Perhaps the most interesting aspect of this question is whether or not the factors that motivate one student are important to another. This question was designed to bring out the problems of individual differences and how they complicate the supervisor’s job. The managerial challenge is how to improve and sustain employee satisfaction. Managers adept at giving recognition, gaining employee commitment, and emphasizing that work can be fun, and generally are perceived to be well respected by their subordinates. When employees see that top management cares and leads by example, their motivational level is likely to increase. The sections on coping with difficult people and using the ABCs to shape employee behavior are of special interest to students. Figure 7.7 provides some suggestions for coping with people who make your life difficult. Hopefully, students will recognize that there is no recipe for doing this. Encourage the students to review the academic and practitioner-oriented journals and to learn about strategies for getting the best out of people. The principles of behavior modification are detailed with a focus on Antecedent (A)—Behavior (B)—Consequences (C). Figure 7.8 outlines the steps in ABC analysis. Effective supervisors (like good parents) must clearly identify what they want done, i.e., set the stage for good behavior (performance). According to Thorndike’s law of effect, “Consequences can affect behavior in two ways: •Behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated. •Behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear. Experience shows that if students remember three things they will be on the right path: •You cannot change people; you can only change behaviors. •You will get the behaviors you consistently expect and reinforce; therefore, only expect the best from your employees. •Employees need to know exactly what behaviors will be reinforced and precisely what they are doing right or wrong. 5. Look in the mirror. (a) What are you doing well? (b) What needs a little work? (c) What incentives do you need to make “the best a little bit better?” Students’ answers will vary; this is a good exercise for self-reflection. This reflective exercise is about evaluating oneself critically and identifying areas for growth. Here's how to approach it: (a) What are you doing well? Start by recognizing your strengths and achievements. These could include: • Effective communication skills • Adaptability in various situations • Commitment to learning and improvement • Successfully meeting deadlines or achieving goals (b) What needs a little work? This is where you honestly assess areas where you could improve. For example: • Time management • Handling stress or burnout more effectively • Being more proactive in seeking feedback • Enhancing leadership or technical skills (c) What incentives do you need to make “the best a little bit better?” Think about what motivates you. Incentives could be: • Clearer goals or milestones • Personal or professional development opportunities • A supportive environment that encourages growth • Recognition for accomplishments (even self-recognition can be a powerful incentive) Taking this approach will help you build on your strengths while addressing areas for improvement. Answers to Personal Skill Building Personal Skill Builder 7-1: What Call Would You Make? For this exercise, divide the class into groups and have each group take one of the three questions. Allow time for discussion within each group, and have each group then present their outcomes/answers to the rest of the class. There will likely be many different responses, and a debate on which theories of motivation Don should employ. This exercise should create considerable discussion among the class members. Motivation is a willingness to exert effort toward achieving a goal, stimulated by the effort’s ability to fulfill an individual need. High rate of employee turnover, lost time injury rates, absenteeism and tardiness, increased number of employee grievances seen at Don’s workplace are clear signs that the employees lack motivation. Some of the statements made by Don’s first-line supervisors that make it obvious that the road to employee motivation is not entirely clear are: •“Last week, it was over 100 degrees in here. How can you expect people to perform in such extreme heat? This place is not air-conditioned and it is awful!”—Amy. •“The job the employees perform is very repetitious. They seem bored and lack enthusiasm. In fact, on several occasions employees have pointed out that their work is mindless, not satisfying, and needs changes. If you ask me, boredom is the main problem with employee performance.”—Steve. •“I have trouble motivating my workers. Just yesterday, one of my best workers left with a knee injury and the others failed to pick up the slack. If we don’t find a way to motivate our people and improve performance, none of us will have a job.”—Sue. Students’ answers may vary. However, students should address the points mentioned above. Personal Skill Builder 7-2: Employee Satisfaction Times have changed and studies reveal that job security is a major issue facing employees. The U.S. economy lost more than 2.5 million good jobs in 2008 and that number exceeded 3 million in 2009. The unemployment rate in 2011 was 10 percent. The unemployment figures do not include the “discouraged worker,” those who did not actively seek work during the survey time period. Good jobs are hard to find, and the nation is experiencing a culture of austerity. Students’ answers on these questions will vary since the benefits and pay scale that once was a reality for many no longer exists. Based on their research, many students will cite job security as a major component of employee satisfaction. Answers to Team Skill Building Team Skill builder 7-1: Dealing with People Who Make Your Life Difficult—“The Whiner” NOTE: See Appendix to the Chapter 6 Instructors Manual for the IM Table 2: “Guide Sheet for Dealing with People who Make Life Difficult.” This table can be distributed to students so they can develop their own portfolio of strategies for dealing with difficult people. Students should review Figure 7.7 of the text to a list of some generic suggestions for coping with people who make your life difficult. Students have found the following Web sites to be beneficial for this skills application: •http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HUV/is_5_29/ai_70652216 •http://humanresources.about.com/od/workrelationships/a/difficultpeople.htm •http://careerplanning.about.com/od/bosscoworkers/a/difficultpeople.htm It is not appropriate to label people as difficult (no matter how difficult they are). Unconsciously, we start by putting people into buckets and expect them to act in that certain way. People should ask themselves “Are they going to do that thing I hate?” Think in terms of behaviors, not difficult people. When one catches himself or herself labeling people as complainers or whiners, focus on the present, identify the specific things they are doing that are intolerable, and go from there. Get in the behavior-focus mind-set. While one’s first instincts might be to run away screaming, give “quick fix it” advice, or tell them to seek therapy, one needs to realize that some people just filter out all the good stuff and pay exquisite attention to obstacles. Often this person’s behavior is based upon their personal problems, mood, stress, a difficult boss, job insecurity, loss of loyalty, lack of growth, or advancement opportunities, or energy level rather than by the actual issue. Think how satisfying it would be to them if their co-workers would become just as disgusted as they are! (http://www.abetterworkplace.com/difficult-behaviors-at-work-part-1/) Tremendous time and energy gets spent every day just trying to get along with coworkers. The easiest way to cope with “whiners” is to avoid them, but the easy answer isn’t always the best answer. If possible, make the issue irrelevant (http://www.abetterworkplace.com/difficult-behaviors-at-work-part-2/). Approach the situation by not approving or disagreeing with them. Take charge of one’s emotions. Ask nonthreatening open-ended questions, use reflective questioning, paraphrase, and use the other information-getting techniques. Discuss the issues with them privately and in a relaxed atmosphere. Demonstrate your concern for their problems and the well-being of all employees. If there is nothing you can do with the complainer, one might suggest that they visit the company’s EAP services, a United Way agency, or other professional help. Unfortunately, most of the students have already met the difficult people and are very frustrated because there is no easy answer for dealing with them. Team Skill Builder 7-2: Technology Tools—Motivate Employees with Online Incentives Students’ answers may vary depending on the tools they select to review. However, some of the keywords that students can explore on the internet include: •Facebook-like platforms to praise employee work •Customized gift cards rather than generic restaurant cards •Eco-friendly incentive packaging •The Employee Engagement Network •Peer-to-peer recognition tools •Points redemption programs Answers to Supervision in Action Questions Video clip: Mike Boyle Strength and Conditioning—Motivation 1. How does Mike Boyle Strength and Conditioning make sure that its employees are happy and motivated? Students’ answers will vary. According to Michael Boyle, the supervisors meet the employees and find their goals’ and help them achieve those goals. Michael Boyle keeps challenging his employees so that they feel motivated. The firm also educates its employees constantly by sending them to different seminars, holds staff meetings, and keeps its employees updated on the latest developments in the industry. It provides its employees with an environment where they would be happy to go to work every day. 2. Going to work should be a pleasant experience. What might Mike Boyle Strength and Conditioning do to improve the quality of life for its employees? Students’ answers will vary. Mike Boyle Strength and Conditioning could provide medical facilities, fitness equipment, training facilities, facilities such as underwater treadmills and ice bath to soothe tired muscles, sport activities, and valet parking. 3. Is the motivation provided by Mike Boyle Strength and Conditioning sufficient or should it pay more attention toward motivating its employees? Students’ answers will vary. Instructors can ask students to correlate the different motivational theories from the text and see if they can be applied to the given scenario. To have a check on things the firm can take some time from its core activities and observe patterns that give signs of lack of motivation among the employees. After which they can decide if they have to incorporate strategies to motivate the employees. 4. In your opinion, how can Mike Boyle Strength and Conditioning improve its employees’ job performance and at the same time not overloading them with work? Students’ answers will vary. The firm can consider motivational factors which are intrinsic to the job performance. These factors include: •Opportunity for growth and advancement •Achievement or accomplishment •Recognition for accomplishments •Challenging or interesting work •Responsibility for work 5. Apart from the fact that Michael Boyle has lots of experience, what other suggestions can you give him in order to set him apart from his competitors? Students’ answers will vary. Michael should implement strategies that target the motivation factors factors—that is, those that contribute to the satisfaction of employees’ social, self-respect, and self-fulfilment needs. Michael should take into consideration that job security, money, benefits, good working conditions, and the like are extremely important, and organizations must strive continuously to be competitive in these areas. Video clip: Theo Chocolates—Strategy 1. How did Theo Chocolate manage to bring the declining growth-rate back to normal? Students’ answers will vary. Theo Chocolate took an innovative approach by applying science to their processes. They recognized their customers’ needs and satisfied them. They kept the product line accessible to the customers by simplifying the flavors. They targeted different kinds of consumers with equal importance. They set a price point that attracted more customers. The education mission and the company tours that were made available at a reasonable price contributed largely to the growth of the company. 2. What strategies did Theo Chocolate incorporate to attract more customers? What would be the fundamental basis the company’s existence? Students’ answers will vary. In order to attract more number of customers Theo Chocolate simplified the different flavors of chocolate to the customers. The flavors on the packaging of the chocolate were easily accessible and understood. It also kept the price tag at a reasonable value and manufactured chocolate flavors that were attractive to the customers. Theo Chocolate also has brand ambassadors at key regions around the country that embody their values. Joe aims at building a model that other companies can refer to and emulate. This model would be based on strong ethics and financial success. 3. In your opinion, should Theo Chocolate aim at becoming a global brand? If yes, suggest strategies that will help them achieve their goal. Students’ answers will vary. Being one of the top 10 tourist attraction in Seattle Theo Chocolate should focus its trade on a global scale and expand. It’s a slightly older company and they now know how to effectively price promote in their retail channels. In order to have global product label Theo could use these strategies: •Creating an international business plan •Collaborating with another similar industry •Granting authority to a third party overseas who is interested in their product •Reaching the global audience through social media •Targeting the right markets where the demand for their product is high •Choosing the right medium for the import and export of the product •Analyzing the political, cultural, and economic factors of different places •Resource management for the transportation of goods internationally 4. What obstacles did Theo Chocolate face during the course of their progress? What was the strategy used to overcome those obstacles? Students’ answers will vary. The declining growth rate was one of the obstacles faced by the company. The growth rate is important for the continuation of a particular business. Theo Chocolate maintained the growth rate stable by applying science to what they did. They figured out ways to attract mainstream customer and were flexible with the flavors of their chocolates. They gave equal importance to different kinds of customers (green consumers, adventurous eaters, and etc.). The price point was made reasonable which helped them to attract more customers thus increasing the growth rate. Retailers who were not willing to give shelf placement would have been an obstacle if the strategies used by Theo Chocolate were inefficient. Retailers have limited space and they have many products in this category. Theo Chocolate’s uniqueness, reputation, and its popularity through the press helped them get shelf placement. It was also based on the quality of the relationship they established with the retailers. 5. How has Theo Chocolate managed to keep up with market like this where the number of competitors is high? What kind of approach has Theo Chocolate taken that makes them different from their competitors? Students’ answers will vary. Theo Chocolate values and recognizes its customers’ demands. They manufacture unique flavors of chocolate, such as chocolate with mint, spicy chilly, etc. and the customers demand for them is high. Theo Chocolate doesn’t compromise on the quality of the chocolates. Theo Chocolate is the only organic fair treatment brand which manufactures the product that they sell. They are the only vertical integrated product. This means that they control the supply chain from start to finish. This includes working with farmers and importing the beans and other ingredients. They also manufacture the products at their own facility. Video clip: Drive: The Surprising Truth about What Motivates Us 1. “The higher the reward the better the performance.” How does the video contradict the above statement? Students’ answers will vary. According to the research conducted by professionals at M.I.T, tasks demanding rudimentary cognitive skills result in poorer performance when the rewards are larger. The results of the research are further supported by psychologists, economists, and sociologists. Complicated tasks require conceptual and creative thinking and the statement does not apply to these tasks. One should understand that money being a motivator might not successfully motivate employees, but the best usage of money might as well motivate people. 2. What are the consequences when a company’s focus shifts from purpose to profit? Students’ answers will vary. A company’s major goal is to make money when its focus shifts to profit. The company might resort to methods that are unethical resulting in faulty products and services. The quality of the products drop drastically. It also starts promoting selfishness and greed. Companies tend to disregard the morals and public safety. Instructors can have a discussion by asking students; how can one have profit motive in firms like medical care. 3. In your opinion, what other aspects of life does autonomy, mastery, and purpose affect apart from motivating people? Students’ answers will vary. Autonomy might lead to innovation. Innovation cannot exist if a person is restrained to certain things. Guidance might help in innovation but at some point individual decisions are necessary as one cannot rely on guidance all the time. A sense of power boosts confidence of the individual. Mastering a certain skill will increase one’s self satisfaction. A desire for the betterment of one’s own self roots back to mastery and it gives the society different role models and pioneers in different fields. By setting a purpose in life people can clearly define their goals and make plans for achieving those goals. Having a purpose in life gives a sense of direction for many. 4. In your opinion, how can a company effectively reward its employees? List the different factors that govern the amount of rewards. Students’ answers will vary. Every company should employ a strategy when it comes to rewarding its employees. Reward system should be efficient and should include recognition, benefits, compensation, and appreciation. Also, companies should consider the factors on which the rewards are based on. These factors include productivity, behavior, punctuality, compliance, etc. Performance could be the most prioritized factor that is linked with rewards in most of the companies. Companies might fail to attract or retain its workers if the rewards are limited when compared to their competitors. Effectiveness of a reward strategy depends on the degree of importance given to the factors governing the reward. Linking these factors with the reward is crucial for the strategy to work. 5. How are the results of the research conducted by the professionals at M.I.T helping companies? Students’ answers will vary. The results of the research indicated that money is not the only factor that governs the performance or motivates an employee. The concepts of autonomy, mastery, and purpose play a vital role in helping companies achieve different goals. One such example that can be taken from the video would be the Atlassian, a software company based in Australia, giving complete freedom to its developers on deciding the type of work they want to do, how they want to do it and the selection of people they want to work with. It happens once a quarter providing pure undiluted autonomy resulting in software fixes, innovative ideas for new products. The outcome of the research go against the traditional methods, like incentive bonus, yet provides better results. Chapter 7 IM Appendix Personal Skill Builder 7-3: Employee Satisfaction Rank the following twenty items in order of their importance to you. In the left-hand column, place the number 1 next to the most important item, the number 2 next to the second most important item, and so on through to the least important item (number 20). Compare one’s individual rankings with those of other class members. How do one explain the differences? _____ Freedom to do my job _____ Supervisors who care about me as a person _____ One-on-one team meetings so I can keep up to date _____ Opportunity to learn and use new skills _____ A work environment where others listen and act on my ideas and suggestions _____ Job security _____ A manager who lets me know what is expected—one who springs no surprises _____ Interesting and challenging work _____ Material, equipment, and resources to do the job right the first time _____ Daily feedback on performance _____ Good compensation and benefits _____ Working for a company that is ethical, honest, and fair-dealing _____ Praise and recognition for accomplishments _____ Working for a company that is profitable _____ Co-workers dedicated to achieving company goals _____ Opportunity to make work-related decisions _____ Opportunity to use a variety of skills _____ Knowing what the future holds for me and the company _____ Support and encouragement when I make a mistake _____ A boss who allows me freedom to play to my strengths Solution Manual for Supervision: Concepts and Practices of Management Edwin C. Leonard , Kelly A. Trusty 9781285866376, 9781111969790