CH-7 Memory – Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding : Exam Guide

Chapter 7: Memory Multiple Choice Questions 1. Joan remembers nearly everything that she has ever experienced. If you provide Joan a date (e.g., March 19, 1993), she can tell you what she did on that day with surprising accuracy. In fact, she has a memory that is too good. According to your text, Joan likely has A. an exceptional memory. B. hyper thymestic syndrome. C. age regression memory abilities. D. infantile autism. Answer: B 2. The case of Nadean Cool, who came to believe she had dissociative identity disorder and had suffered brutal and repeated child abuse, demonstrates that A. therapy can help people to uncover memories of painful experiences that are repressed. B. people who want to obtain financial compensation from family often lie about past events that they supposedly remember. C. it is common for people to develop psychogenic amnesia when they have experienced severe abuse in the past. D. therapeutic techniques such as guided imagery and hypnotic age regression can lead us to falsely recall past events. Answer: D 3. Which of the following best reflects the paradox of memory? A. Bobby remembers most important events in his life but forgets where he puts his keys regularly. B. Stephanie has a difficult time forgetting experiences in her life, whether good or bad. C. Miriam remembers positive life events very well but does not have a good memory for negative experiences. D. Tyler can remember his past very well, but has trouble encoding new memories and fails to remember events that just happened to him. Answer: A 4. A small subset of individuals with infantile autism have A. a lack of specialized memory abilities. B. remarkable abilities to memorize factual information. C. an exceptional ability to memorize the digits of the mathematical value of pi. D. very good memories for personal experiences and poor memories for facts. Answer: B 5. According to the authors, our memory is most like A. hardened metal. B. melting wax. C. a tape recorder. D. an old photograph. Answer: B 6. ___________________ is defined as an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage. A. Classical conditioning B. Operant conditioning C. Learning D. Memory Answer: D 7. Hideki and Thao are studying for an exam. Thao asks the following question: “What term refers to how people use information from the past in the present?” Hideki would be most correct if he answered A. encoding. B. memory. C. elaborative rehearsal. D. suggestive memory. Answer: B 8. Memory is defined as an active system that consists of three processes. They are A. receiving information from the senses, organizing and storing the information, and retrieving the information from storage. B. the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response. C. bottom-up processing, selective attention, and top-down processing. D. acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Answer: A 9. Dr. Vargas can remember hundreds of students' names from his twenty-five years of university teaching, but has difficulty remembering the new three-digit area code for his home phone number. This is one illustration of A. meta-memory. B. iconic memory. C. the paradox of memory. D. false memories. Answer: C 10. After presenting groups of research participants with words like thread, eye, pin, syringe, sewing, sharp, and thimble, a memory researcher asks the participants whether they remember seeing the word needle. The fact that many participants do is an example of A. amnesia. B. déjà vu. C. permastore. D. memory illusion. Answer: D 11. Which of the following conclusions about memory illusions is accurate? A. Only people who have mental disorders, such as dissociative identity disorder, experience problems with their memories and develop alters with distinct sets of memories. B. Memory illusions reflect our brain’s adaptive tendencies to go beyond the information it has and may sometimes lead us to false recall information. C. Only about 10% of people are prone to any sort of memory illusion, whether it be falsely recalling a word in a list or misremembering an entire event. D. We sometimes falsely recall information because our brain focuses on individual details so much so that we can’t possibly retain all that information. Answer: B 12. A key theme that has emerged from the memory research literature is that A. all explicit and implicit memories are stored in the hippocampus. B. memory illusions are evidence of serious memory problems such as Alzheimer's disease or amnesia. C. active reconstruction of events alters our memory of the important and unimportant events of our lives. D. the passage of time has little or no effect on the accuracy of our memories. Answer: C 13. Emilio is seeing a sports psychologist to help improve his mental preparation and performance. The psychologist asks Emilio to see himself making his free throws. As Emilio visualizes his dribbling, shooting motion, and release, he sees himself as an outside observer would. Memory researchers argue this demonstrates A. the presence of iconic and echoic memory. B. brain stimulation that leads to the development of engrams. C. that working memory differs from short-term memory. D. the reconstructive nature of memory. Answer: D 14. Which of the following supports the conclusion that the nature of memory is reconstructive? A. Field memory B. Echoic memory C. Iconic memory D. Observer memory Answer: D 15. What system of memory has the largest span and longest duration? A. Short-term memory B. Sensory memory C. Long-term memory D. Flashbulb memory Answer: C 16. The three parts of the information-processing model of memory are A. encoding, storage, and retrieval. B. shallow, medium, and deep processing. C. sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. D. CS, UCS, and CR. Answer: C 17. Which memory system provides us with a very brief representation of all the stimuli present at a particular moment? A. Working memory B. Sensory memory C. Long-term memory D. Short-term memory Answer: B 18. Sperling’s research using displays of letters shown to participants demonstrated that sensory memory is _______________ in duration and _______________ in capacity (or span). A. long; large B. short; limited C. long; limited D. short; large Answer: D 19. The system of memory that is comprised of our perceptions of sensory experience is known as A. sensory memory. B. flashbulb memory. C. long-term memory. D. short-term memory. Answer: A 20. Why did research participants in Sperling’s experiment recall so few letters stored in sensory memory? A. They stopped paying attention after a few stimuli. B. Proactive interference reduced the effectiveness of recall. C. The stress of participating in this research became excessive. D. The remaining stimuli quickly faded from sensory memory. Answer: D 21. A display of 12 letters is flashed on a screen in front of you followed by a tone. You attempt to recall a portion of the display based on the specific tone you heard. What aspect of your memory is this experiment designed to assess? A. Sensory memory B. Flashbulb memory C. Long-term memory D. Short-term memory Answer: A 22. You are out for a drive with the family and are lucky enough to get a window seat. The rapidly passing scenery you see out the window is first stored in A. echoic memory. B. iconic memory. C. long-term memory. D. short-term memory. Answer: B 23. Long ago, during the early days of television, when a television set was turned off it took a while for the last image that was on the screen to fade away. This phenomenon is most like A. echoic memory. B. iconic memory. C. long-term memory. D. short-term memory. Answer: B 24. Using the partial report method, Sperling found the capacity of iconic memory to be around A. four or five items. B. nine or ten items. C. all the letters present. D. one to two items. Answer: C 25. The key to the partial report method of Sperling’s study of sensory memory was to A. have the participants report the entire matrix of letters they saw as fast as they could. B. have the participants report the entire matrix of letters but mask the letters after presentation with a very bright light. C. cue the participants, using a tone, as to which line of the matrix they were to report. D. test the use of chunking. Answer: C 26. In the partial report method of Sperling’s study of sensory memory, the participants were to report A. one of three lines of letters as indicated by the sound of a tone immediately presented after the letters had disappeared. B. only one or two of the letters in the cued line. C. the first letter of each line only. D. the middle letter of each line. Answer: A 27. Which of the following might be the most appropriate analogy for eidetic imagery? A. A table B. A modem C. A rainbow D. A photograph Answer: D 28. A time machine provides you the opportunity to interview Sigmund Freud. During the interview, Freud admits that he never wanted to attend medical school. When you ask him how he made it through, he says, “I had eidetic imagery.” What does he mean by that? A. He relied on the ability to associate odd images with material he needed to remember. B. He had a photographic memory, which helped him remember the material he had to learn. C. He was able to imagine how cells in a patient’s body were acting when he prescribed drugs and, thus, he could adjust dosages. D. In order to remember the long list of diseases he would encounter, he created drawings that helped him remember. Answer: B 29. One problem with relying on eidetic imagery to study for tests is that A. you remember too much material and the professor will think you are cheating. B. eidetic images fade in.25 second as Sperling has shown. C. you may be able to recall the material but you don’t necessarily understand it. D. it only helps you remember things from other cultures. Answer: C 30. What is one of the real-world uses of iconic storage? A. It is where photographic memories are kept. B. It is the process that covers up the disruption that would occur from saccades. C. It increases depth of processing. D. None of these. Answer: B 31. Suzy looks up from her lunch, realizing that Jacques has just said something to her. What was it? Oh, yes, he has just asked her if she wants to go to the movies. Suzy’s ability to retrieve what Jacques said is due to her A. iconic sensory memory. B. echoic sensory memory. C. short-term memory. D. tactile sensory memory. Answer: B 32. Which type of memory allows us to have meaningful conversations? A. Iconic memory B. Echoic memory C. Distributed memory D. Procedural memory Answer: B 33. The duration of iconic memory is _______________ than echoic memory, but the capacity of iconic memory is probably _______________. A. shorter; larger B. longer; larger C. longer; about the same D. shorter; about the same Answer: A 34. After you finish reading this sentence, the information will remain in your _______________ as you consider each of the answers below. A. photographic memory B. long-term memory C. sensory memory D. short-term memory Answer: D 35. Evidence regarding eidetic memory suggests that A. only individuals that are older or have developmental disabilities have this type of memory. B. even these memories show evidence of reconstruction as they often contain minor errors. C. this type of memory is truly photographic, and resistant to decay and alteration over time. D. photographic memories are a perfect visual replication of the original stimulus for long duration. Answer: B 36. Shannon is trying to take notes in her animal behaviour class and is able to write down what the professor has just said due to her A. short-term memory. B. iconic memory. C. eidetic memory. D. echoic memory. Answer: D 37. _______________ refers to the memory store for the information we are currently thinking about, attending to, or processing actively. A. Sensory memory B. Echoic memory C. Working memory D. Long-term memory Answer: C 38. During lecture each day, a psychology professor may explain four main points he or she wishes the class to retain. However, most students do not think about the material again until the following class period two days later. The forgetting that occurs between classes is most likely the result of A. bias. B. suggestibility. C. interference. D. decay. Answer: D 39. When information that you learned in your high school psychology class gets in the way of learning new information from your university-level psychology class, _______________ has occurred. A. transience B. misinformation C. interference D. long-term blocking Answer: C 40. Empirical studies on short-term memory have demonstrated that its capacity is _______________ and its duration is _______________. A. unlimited; about 20 seconds B. large; up to 30 minutes C. limited; about 10-15 seconds D. large; the length of an average day Answer: C 41. You ask your friend Drew what she had for dinner last night, and she responds that she can’t remember because her “short-term memory isn’t working.” Based on the information you have learned in your psychology course, what might you say to Drew about her short-term memory? A. You should really get your short-term memory checked out as that is not normal. B. The duration of your short-term memory is really only about 20 seconds so that is not related to your forgetting. C. Your sensory memory is likely the cause of forgetting dinner because there were too many things to encoding while eating. D. Short-term memories are often faulty and we have difficulty retaining information in this type of memory for longer than a day. Answer: B 42. Results from a variety of different studies have found that _______________ is the prime culprit in forgetting information from short-term memory. A. interference B. memory span C. decay D. memory duration Answer: A 43. The system of memory that can hold approximately 7 “chunks” of information for approximately 15 seconds is called A. short-term memory. B. permastore memory. C. long-term memory. D. sensory memory. Answer: A 44. _______________ interference occurs when learning something new hampers earlier learning, and _______________ interference occurs when earlier learning gets in the way of new learning. A. Maintenance; elaborative B. Elaborative; maintenance C. Retroactive; proactive D. Proactive; retroactive Answer: C 45. Leslie is working as a dispatcher for the police and is trying to learn the codes used to indicate various crimes in progress (e.g., 10-71 indicates shooting in progress). However, Leslie used to be a member of the RCMP and previously learned a different set of ten-codes for the same crimes (e.g., 10-53 indicates shooting in progress). Leslie finds that he is having trouble remembering the new codes for dispatching and sometimes mixes them up with his RCMP codes. Which one of the following sources of interference is most likely in this example? A. Retroactive interference B. Proactive interference C. Associative interference D. Decay interference Answer: B 46. In high school, Deanna took three years of Spanish. Upon enrolling in college ten years later, she registered for a remedial French course. When required to speak in French during class discussion with her teacher and classmates, Deanna frequently responds with Spanish words instead of French words. This is one example of A. retroactive interference. B. blocking. C. proactive interference. D. decay. Answer: C 47. When asked to recall single-digit numbers presented in various digit span sizes, the typical adult starts to encounter difficulty once they get past approximately _______________ digits. A. 7 B. 5 C. 3 D. 4 Answer: A 48. Telephone numbers are exactly seven digits long likely due to recognition of A. the limited duration and span of sensory memory. B. the capacity of both echoic and iconic memory being restricted to about 7 digits. C. our short-term memory capacity being restrained to the magic number. D. serial transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory. Answer: C 49. Tiffany is involved in a memory study, and is given the following list of letters to remember: APANHLNFLDCBCAB. The researcher notices that she can remember the whole series of letters, contrary to the standard seven pieces of information expected. Which of the following processes most likely explains Tiffany’s ability to remember all the letters? A. Maintenance rehearsal B. Eidetic memory C. Elaborative rehearsal D. Chunking Answer: D 50. If the capacity of short-term memory is so limited, how is it that we are able to remember as much information as we do and transfer information into long-term memory? A. Long-term memory is unlimited so we can transfer information very quickly to avoid decay. B. We use processes such as chunking and rehearsal to expand the capacity of working memory. C. Visual processing of information in short-term memory allows for deep processing and transfer. D. The duration of short-term memory is unlimited so despite limited capacity, we remember this information for a long time. Answer: B 51. Russell has played checkers at a local park for years. Compared to his 10-year-old grandson, Felix, when is Russell most likely to display greater recall for random checkers’ positions on a board? A. Under any kind of conditions; adults always have superior memories to children B. When the pieces are placed in meaningful patterns C. When the pieces are placed in random, and sometimes nonsensical, patterns D. Until his grandson learns the rules of checkers; then children's memories outperform older adults Answer: B 52. Maintenance rehearsal is defined as _______________. A. processing the physical features of the stimulus to be remembered B. analyzing new material in order to make it memorable C. associating new material to be learned with information maintained in long- term memory D. repeating some bit of information over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory Answer: D 53. Repeating items over and over in order to aid memory is known as _______________ rehearsal. A. repetitive B. imagery C. elaborative D. maintenance Answer: D 54. You try to remember a phone number by repeating it over and over to yourself. What type of rehearsal are you using? A. Condensed B. Permanent C. Elaborative D. Maintenance Answer: D 55. What are the two major types of rehearsal involved in moving information from short-term to long-term memory? A. Condensed and expanded B. Elaborative and permanent C. Maintenance and permanent D. Elaborative and maintenance Answer: D 56. _______________ rehearsal results in a more lasting memory and promotes the transfer of information to long-term memory compared to _______________ rehearsal. A. Permanent; condensed B. Condensed; permanent C. Elaborative; maintenance D. Maintenance; elaborative Answer: C 57. In the text, the authors discussed the astounding memory capabilities of Rajan. He could recall the digits for the number pi starting from nearly any place in the sequence. His amazing ability is due, in part, to his use of A. flashbulb memory. B. hypnotic regression. C. photographic memory. D. chunking. Answer: D 58. Bits of information are combined into meaningful units so that more information can be held in short-term memory through the process of A. flashbulb memory. B. hypnotic regression. C. photographic memory. D. chunking. Answer: D 59. If one wants to increase the capacity of short-term memory, more items can be held through the process of A. flashbulb memory. B. hypnotic regression. C. photographic memory. D. chunking. Answer: D 60. Chunking is a means of A. immediately forgetting irrelevant details. B. combining information into meaningful units. C. arranging details into a hierarchy from most to least important. D. storing long-term memories. Answer: B 61. Loni is asked to memorize the letters I K T E A L N in no particular order. She memorizes them by reorganizing them into the words INK and LATE. This tactic is called A. flashbulb memory. B. hypnotic regression. C. photographic memory. D. chunking. Answer: D 62. In the 1950s, George Miller estimated the number of items that could be stored in short-term memory to be the magic number A. 5, plus or minus 4. B. 7, plus or minus 2. C. 9, plus or minus 3. D. 11, plus or minus 1. Answer: B 63. Jamal is trying to buy something over the phone. He asks his partner to read him his credit card number. However, when he tries to repeat it to the sales clerk on the other end of the line, he can’t remember all the numbers. Jamal is coming up against A. the decay of numerical memory. B. the extinction of auditory traces. C. the limits of procedural memory. D. George Miller’s magic number 7, plus or minus 2. Answer: D 64. All night, Pedro has been staring at Samantha from across the dance floor. At the end of the night, he finally gets the courage to ask her for her telephone number. His mental repetition of the number on the drive home is one example of A. transference of memory. B. chunking. C. the power of suggestion. D. rehearsal. Answer: D 65. Greg is a chess master and has an amazing memory for chess plays and positions on the board. If Greg also was in your psychology class and was taking this test, how would you expect him to perform? A. Greg would do very well as he must have an eidetic memory. B. Greg’s iconic memory for positions will help him to remember psychology concepts better. C. Greg’s memory for psychology concepts will be about the same as other students. D. Greg will probably do worse on the test than other students because his memory is consumed with chess. Answer: C 66. Bart and Lisa are trying to remember how an action potential moves down an axon. Lisa repeats the information to herself repeatedly, whereas Bart links action potentials to lighting a fuse in an unmyelinated axon and skipping in a myelinated axon. What memory strategies are Bart and Lisa using to remember this information? A. Lisa is using a paired-associate task and Bart is using visual processing. B. Bart is using elaborative rehearsal and Lisa is using maintenance rehearsal. C. Lisa is memorizing using forced recall whereas Bart is using a free recall format. D. Both Bart and Lisa are using chunking to get more information into their long-term memories. Answer: B 67. Brianna has just asked a new friend Tim for his phone number, and is repeating it to herself in her head. Tim then asks her a question about her plans for later in the day, and she forgets his phone number. What process was she using to remember his phone number and why did she forget? A. She used maintenance rehearsal and forgot because her rehearsal was interrupted. B. She used elaborative rehearsal and forgot due to memory decay. C. She used maintenance rehearsal and forgot because of proactive inhibition. D. She used elaborative rehearsal and forgot because she was not able to chunk the information effectively. Answer: A 68. Which of the following individuals studying for a test will be able to remember information the best? A. Dan is repeating definitions over and over to himself from cue cards. B. Nancy is trying to link the concepts to examples in her own life. C. Karen is looking at the concepts in her textbook and trying to recall how they look. D. Matt is focusing on how the concepts sound to him and trying to make them rhyme. Answer: B 69. You are learning a list of items for a test by relating the items to each other and to information that you already have stored in memory. Which type of rehearsal are you using? A. Condensed B. Permanent C. Maintenance D. Elaborative Answer: D 70. If one wanted to use the best method to get storage in long-term memory, one would use A. maintenance rehearsal. B. rote rehearsal. C. elaborative rehearsal. D. sleep learning. Answer: C 71. In the levels-of-processing model of memory, information that gets processed at a _______________ level (such as accessing the meaning of a word or phrase) is more likely to be retained longer and form a stronger memory than information that is processed at a _______________ level (such as the visual characteristics of a word). A. deeper; shallower B. shallower; deeper C. higher; lower D. lower; higher Answer: A 72. According to Craik and Lockhart, we are most likely to remember information that we process at a _______________ level. A. deeper B. medium C. shallower D. any of these, depending on the information Answer: A 73. The levels-of-processing concept of Craik and Lockhart would suggest that which of the following questions would lead to better memory of the word frog? A. “Does it rhyme with blog?” B. “Is it in capital letters?” C. “Is it written in cursive?” D. “Would it be found in a pond?” Answer: D 74. Which of the following examples represents the shallowest processing as described by Craik and Lockhart? A. Recalling an object’s function B. Attending to the sound of a word C. Thinking about the meaning of a word D. Recalling that an object was rectangular Answer: B 75. Which model of memory proposes that the deeper a person processes information, the better it will be remembered? A. Levels-of-processing model B. Parallel distributed processing model C. Information-processing model D. Three-stage model Answer: A 76. Craik and Lockhart’s model of memory states that how long a memory will be remembered depends on A. the type of memory it is stored in. B. the place in the brain where the memory is stored. C. the amount of extinction that the memory has suffered. D. the depth of processing associated with learning the materials. Answer: D 77. Which of the following examples represents deep processing as described by Craik and Lockhart? A. Repeating a word aloud ten times B. Attending to the sound of a word C. Thinking about the meaning of a word D. Looking at the shapes of the letters in a word Answer: C 78. The first day of class, Sheila asked her professor what was the best way to learn and remember the material for the course. The professor responded, “Focus on identifying and understanding the meaning of the important terms and concepts.” The instructor is advocating a _______________ level of processing. A. verbal B. visual C. phonological D. semantic Answer: D 79. An important criticism of the depth-of-processing model is that it is A. an incomplete explanation of the working of memory. B. unfalsifiable. C. unsupported by research data. D. falsifiable. Answer: B 80. Which memory system has an unlimited capacity and can keep information for hours or decades? A. Short-term memory B. Long-term memory C. Sensory memory D. Implicit memory Answer: B 81. The portion of memory that is more or less permanent is called A. primary memory. B. working memory. C. eidetic memory. D. long-term memory. Answer: D 82. The best analogy for the way long-term memory is conceptualized would be A. a revolving door. B. a filing cabinet. C. a desktop. D. a television. Answer: B 83. It is thought that long-term memory never can get filled up. The term used to describe the capacity of long-term memory is A. 7, plus or minus 2. B. about 10 000 items. C. limited by the size of a person’s brain. D. unlimited. Answer: D 84. Robert took a psychology course in 1951, and although he doesn’t remember a lot about the course, there are many concepts that he still remembers very well. The information that Robert can still remember in 2010 was likely A. a part of his eidetic memory. B. phonologically encoded. C. in permastore. D. because he has an encyclopedic memory. Answer: C 85. Which of the following comparisons between long-term and short-term memory is true? A. The duration of long-term memory is significantly shorter than that of short-term memory. B. The storage capacity of long-term memory is significantly smaller than that of short- term memory. C. The errors made in long-term memory are the same as those made in short-term memory. D. The errors made in long-term memory are different from those made in short-term memory. Answer: D 86. In his research on long-term memory, psychologist Harry Bahrick found that memory declined A. slowly, if at all. B. markedly for about two years, but only gradually thereafter. C. consistently the longer ago the information was learned and used. D. significantly for about one year, but then reverses and long-term memory increases. Answer: B 87. Memory errors in long-term memory tend to be _______________ and tend to be _______________ for short-term memory. A. acoustic; phonological B. visual; acoustic C. semantic; visual D. semantic; acoustic Answer: D 88. What does the result of research on primacy and recency effects suggest about human memory? A. The forgetting of information occurs in a random manner. B. We only recall information that is somehow unique and distinctive. C. Human memory abilities are quite poor. D. The forgetting of information occurs in predictable ways. Answer: D 89. You make a list of groceries you need to get but realize you have forgotten the list when you get to the store. These are the items on your list: Sugar, Salt, Flour, Vanilla, Muffins, Avocado, Black Pepper, Garlic Powder, Yeast, and Milk. According to the von Restorff effect, if you are trying to remember this list of grocery items, what item are you most likely to remember? A. Sugar B. Milk C. Muffins D. Avocado Answer: D 90. The _______________ effect is the tendency to remember stimuli later in a list and the _______________ effect is the tendency to remember stimuli early in a list. A. primacy; recency B. recency; von Restorff C. von Restorff; primacy D. recency; primacy Answer: D 91. According to the research on the primacy effect, if your father read you a list of 10 items to pick up at the hardware store, you would most easily recall those items A. that are most distinctive. B. in the middle of the list. C. from the end of the list. D. from early in the list. Answer: D 92. Which type of long-term memory is most resistant to loss with Alzheimer’s disease? A. Procedural B. Semantic C. Episodic D. None of these Answer: A 93. Which type of long-term memory is most difficult to bring into conscious awareness? A. Episodic memory B. Procedural memories C. Declarative memories D. Semantic memory Answer: B 94. Memories for general facts and personal information are called A. episodic memory. B. procedural memories. C. declarative memories. D. factual memory. Answer: C 95. Declarative memories are to _______________ memories as procedural memories are to _______________ memories. A. implicit; explicit B. explicit; implicit C. general knowledge; personal facts D. personal facts; general knowledge Answer: B 96. Which of the following statements is true about semantic and episodic memories? A. The former is always implicit, and the latter is always explicit. B. The former is always explicit, and the latter is always implicit. C. Both of them are always implicit. D. Under the right circumstances, both memories can demonstrate implicit and explicit characteristics. Answer: D 97. _______________ memory is constantly updated. A. Procedural B. Declarative C. Semantic D. Episodic Answer: D 98. General knowledge, language, and concepts are seen as parts of A. episodic memory. B. procedural memories. C. declarative memories. D. semantic memory. Answer: D 99. Personal facts and memories of one’s personal history are parts of A. episodic memory. B. procedural memories. C. declarative memories. D. semantic memory. Answer: A 100. In the game show Jeopardy! contestants are tested on general information. The type of memory used to answer these kinds of questions is A. procedural. B. semantic. C. episodic. D. working. Answer: B 101. Just before taking your French exam you were reviewing five terms that you had missed on the last vocabulary test. When you get to your exam, you find that you have an easy time answering several questions because they are related to the terms you just studied. This is an example of the A. primacy effect. B. von Restorff effect. C. serial position effect. D. recency effect. Answer: D 102. When given a list of items to remember, people tend to do better at recalling the last items on the list. This is known as the A. primacy effect. B. von Restorff effect. C. serial position effect. D. recency effect. Answer: D 103. The primacy effect is to _______________ as the recency effect is to _______________. A. phonological encoding; visual encoding B. long-term memory; short-term memory C. maintenance rehearsal; elaborative rehearsal D. short-term memory; sensory memory Answer: B 104. You and your friends are getting together on Friday to play Trivial Pursuit: Lord of the Rings Special Edition. What type of memory is most important for doing well in this game? A. Iconic memory B. Episodic memory C. Semantic memory D. Implicit memory Answer: C 105. Implicit memory is to _______________ as explicit memory is to _______________. A. procedural memory; priming B. priming; semantic memory C. episodic memory; procedural memory D. semantic memory; episodic memory Answer: B 106. Which of the following forms of memory requires conscious attention for encoding, storage, and retrieval? A. Priming memory B. Procedural memory C. Implicit memory D. Episodic memory Answer: D 107. Unlike explicit memory, implicit memory A. refers to our factual knowledge. B. involves no deliberate attention or effort. C. requires conscious awareness. D. keeps track of important events from our lives. Answer: B 108. Tasks that you perform regularly, such as driving, typing, or riding a bike, rely on what type of memory? A. Priming B. Implicit memory C. Episodic memory D. Semantic memory Answer: B 109. Jody is taking a course in abnormal psychology and learning about behaviours linked to various mental disorders. When she goes home, she starts noticing that her family is displaying a lot of these same behaviours. Jody’s experience is most likely influenced by what type of memory? A. Episodic memory B. Procedural memory C. Priming D. Semantic memory Answer: C 110. Which of the following groups have been used to provide existence proofs for the distinction between implicit and explicit memory? A. Patients with brain damage B. Schizophrenia patients C. Patients with hyperthymestic syndrome D. Individuals with dissociative identity disorder Answer: A 111. Which of the following is not a form of implicit memory? A. Priming B. Habituation C. Semantic D. Conditioning Answer: C 112. Exposing people to stereotype-consistent information before meeting with an individual from the stereotyped group is often sufficient to produce stereotypic interpretations of that person's actions and thoughts. This is an example of A. transference. B. encoding failure. C. priming. D. misinformation. Answer: C 113. Classical conditioning and habituation forms of learning are associated with _______________ memory. A. explicit B. episodic C. implicit D. semantic Answer: C 114. Casey has been shown a number of words very quickly on a computer screen, including flashes of the word KING multiple times. Later, he is asked to perform a stem completion task, and is given the stem Q. He is most likely to fill this in with the word QUEEN rather than QUILL or QUIET due to _______________. A. explicit memory B. priming C. semantic memory D. procedural memory Answer: B 115. Shaquin finished his term paper and handed it in. As he walked out of the classroom, he realized that there were a few more things he should have included in the paper. Shaquin’s problem is the _______________ component of memory. A. encoding B. storage C. retrieval D. retention Answer: C 116. Which of the following examples might we have the poorest memory for? A. A study group meeting with a classmate. B. A car accident you witnessed on the way to school. C. The image of a penny, nickel, and quarter. D. Ordering dinner at a new restaurant you decided to try. Answer: C 117. The first step in the memory process is _______________ information in a form that the memory system can use. A. encoding B. storage C. retrieval D. evaluation Answer: A 118. Which of the following is not one of the three processes of memory? A. Sensation B. Encoding C. Storage D. Retrieval Answer: A 119. Sally is in class and her professor is going down her row asking each student to answer her questions. Sally doesn’t really remember what the people in front of her said due to A. the recency effect. B. the von Restorff effect. C. the primacy effect. D. the next-in-line effect. Answer: D 120. Which of the following is not an effective method of improving your memory? A. Using the method of loci to remember lists. B. Imagining visual images to associate with information. C. Taking herbal remedies such as ginkgo biloba. D. Making rhymes to remember a series of names. Answer: C 121. According to the authors, most of the events we experience A. are encoded and easily retrieved from long-term memory. B. are never encoded and thus never stored in long-term memory. C. are encoded and lost in long-term memory. D. are implicitly encoded and thus lost within our long-term memory. Answer: B 122. During new worker orientation, you wish to make a good impression by being able to recall everyone's name. Research on encoding would suggest that you are most likely to forget the name of A. the last few people who introduced themselves. B. the person immediately before you. C. the person immediately after you. D. the first few people who introduced themselves. Answer: B 123. Jasmine needs to remember an 8-line poem for her 5th-grade English class next week. Her mother suggests that she link the first few words from each line with a different part of their home, starting with the front door. This suggestion is most similar to the memory strategy known as A. the keyword method. B. an acronym. C. the method of loci. D. the pegword method. Answer: C 124. Mnemonics will be most helpful as encoding devices if we A. have a nearly photographic memory to begin with. B. have only a few pieces of information to recall. C. stop making lists and other external memory aids. D. practise them on a regular basis. Answer: D 125. Taryn is trying to remember a list of terms for her biology class, so she decides to create rhymes to make the material more memorable. Taryn is using the mnemonic technique called _______________. A. method of loci B. pegword C. acronyms D. keyword method Answer: B 126. The argument that ginkgo biloba is an effective memory enhancer because it has been used for centuries is an example of what fallacy? A. Appeal to authority fallacy B. Argument from antiquity fallacy C. Naturalistic fallacy D. Bandwagon fallacy Answer: B 127. Your friend Karina wants to take a pill that will help her remember and perform better on her GRE exams. She has heard that Ritalin improves memory and asks your advice as to whether it will improve her GRE scores. Based on the information in your text, what would you tell her? A. Herbal supplements like ginkgo biloba have been proven more effective than Ritalin. B. Ritalin may improve her attention but will not drastically improve her GRE scores. C. Studies have reported Ritalin and other stimulants do have an enhancing effect on memory. D. Recent research has found that Ritalin reduces memory functioning due to overstimulation. Answer: B 128. Lamont is walking through his local health and nutrition store. An employee comes up and asks if he needs any assistance. Lamont asks what is the most effective and cheapest memory-enhancing herbal remedy they have. If the employee answers this question based on the evidence from controlled, scientific research, he or she would recommend A. gingko. B. any sugary liquid. C. lemonade. D. Prozac. Answer: B 129. _______________ is retention of memory for some period of time. A. Encoding B. Storage C. Retrieval D. Evaluation Answer: B 130. Jill and Ben are talking about a restaurant they went to the previous week, and have recommended this place to a few friends. Jill comments that the coffee at the restaurant was great, and Ben looks at her strangely and reminds her that she did not have coffee when they were there. Jill mistakenly remembers having coffee because she always has coffee after a meal at a restaurant. Jill’s mistake most likely resulted from A. false memories. B. schemas. C. retrieval errors. D. memory decay. Answer: B 131. Knowing how to navigate the route from one's residence hall room to the location of one's college algebra class is an example of a A. script. B. schema. C. priming cue. D. retrieval cue. Answer: B 132. Schemas are valuable memory tools because they A. facilitate the encoding of information in memory. B. reduce the amount of information that must be stored in long-term memory. C. often oversimplify a complex reality. D. assist us in interpreting new and unfamiliar situations. Answer: D 133. If memory were like the sea, we could say that _______________ is long-term memory, _______________ are the specific memories, and _______________ are retrieval cues. A. the sea; fish; hooks B. a boat; worms; fish C. a boat; hooks; worms D. an island; worms; fishing poles Answer: A 134. Someone asks you to name the twenty-second president of the United States, but you can’t remember. To aid your memory, the person then tells you that the president’s name is the same as that of a large city on Lake Erie. Upon hearing the hint, you instantly realize that Grover Cleveland is the answer. In this situation, the hint acted as a(n) _______________. A. elaborative rehearsal cue B. cross code C. structural cue D. retrieval cue Answer: D 135. When asked to recall the name of the first prime minister of Canada, Peter draws a blank; however, when asked whether it was Barack Obama, Jean Chretien, or Sir John A. MacDonald, he correctly answers with the last of the choices. This example most clearly demonstrates the value of A. state-dependent memory. B. retrieval cues. C. cross links in deep structure. D. mnemonic devices. Answer: B 136. Which of the following statements is true of retrieval cues? A. They are important in helping us remember items stored in long-term memory. B. They are aids in rote rehearsal in short-term memory. C. They can be helpful in both long- and short-term memory. D. They have been recently shown to have little effect on the accessibility of information. Answer: A 137. Which of the following statements is true about retrieval? A. It is a process that allows an extinguished CR to recover. B. It is a process of getting stored memories back out into consciousness. C. It is a process of getting information from the sensory receptors to the brain. D. It is the reason that conditioned taste aversions last so long. Answer: B 138. Janie is taking an exam in her history class. On the exam there is a question that asks her to state and discuss the five major causes of the War of 1812. Janie remembers four of them. She knows there is a fifth, but time is up. As Janie is walking down the stairs, all of a sudden, she remembers the fifth point, but it is too late. Janie had a problem with A. encoding. B. storage. C. retrieval. D. evaluation. Answer: C 139. If people today were shown a picture that contains stereotypic-inconsistent information, such as that of the black man being accosted by a white man with a razor, we would expect most of them to A. correctly report what they had seen. B. recall stereotypic-consistent, not inconsistent, information when questioned later. C. ignore social stereotypes and consider each person as an individual. D. look for other examples of stereotypic-inconsistent information in their social world. Answer: B 140. In answering this, and all other questions for this exam, you are making use of A. priming. B. retrieval. C. encoding. D. storage. Answer: B 141. An essay exam question or a fill-in-the-blank question with no word bank is similar to the _______________ method of assessing one's memory. A. recall B. relearning C. priming D. recognition Answer: A 142. A recognition memory task is often easier than a recall memory task because A. we only have to eliminate the incorrect options to get the correct answer. B. we compare the difference in the amount of time to remember the information correctly with the amount of time taken initially to remember the information. C. we have to both generate options and eliminate the incorrect options. D. we seem to prefer multiple-choice memory assessments to those involving self- generated recall. Answer: A 143. As Dominique reviews the vocabulary terms for her French class, she is most likely to experience the greatest degree of forgetting A. immediately after taking a test. B. immediately before taking a test. C. immediately after learning new words. D. immediately after finishing a semester. Answer: C 144. The most sensitive measure of memory is A. recognition. B. recall. C. priming. D. relearning. Answer: D 145. The best place to take your biology exam to ensure good retrieval of biology concepts is in A. the biology classroom. B. an auditorium to prevent cheating. C. the English classroom. D. the special testing room used for all exams. Answer: A 146. “The effectiveness of memory retrieval is directly related to the similarity of cues present when the memory was encoded to the cues present when the memory is retrieved.” What concept does this statement describe? A. Memorability B. Registered learning C. Encoding specificity D. Accessible decoding Answer: C 147. Multiple choice exams assess memory by testing for your _______________ of the concepts. A. recall B. learning C. recognition D. relearning Answer: C 148. Vinny studied hard last week for his upcoming chemistry exam, and when he goes to study again the night before the exam, he finds it does not take him as long to relearn and remember the material. This example demonstrates which of the following concepts? A. Retrieval cues B. Recognition C. Priming D. Savings Answer: D 149. Jenny participated in a psychology experiment where she had to study lists of hundreds of nonsense syllables, such as BIM and KAG. After a few days, how much information would Jenny be expected to remember? A. Jenny should remember most of the nonsense syllables she studied. B. Jenny will misremember most of the nonsense syllables and create false memories. C. Jenny will remember about 25% of the words she studied and forget the rest. D. Jenny will probably not remember many nonsense syllables at all until she tries to relearn them. Answer: C 150. Encoding specificity refers to A. using physical surroundings or emotions as retrieval cues for specific memories. B. particular codes such as Morse code to transform information into bits. C. the discrete and specific links that occur in a Collins and Quillan network. D. None of these Answer: A 151. Godden and Baddeley (1975) found that if you study on land, you do better when tested on land, and if you study underwater, you do better when tested underwater. This finding is an example of A. memorability. B. registered learning. C. encoding specificity. D. accessible decoding. Answer: C 152. The research on state-dependent learning would suggest that if you were really happy when you were learning math, you should be _______________ when taking the math exam to do well. A. calm B. nervous C. happy D. depressed Answer: C 153. Janie is taking an exam in her biology class. On the exam there is a question that asks her to identify the part of the brain that is primarily responsible for processing emotional stimuli. She can remember where this part is, feels like she can almost remember it, and thinks it starts with an “A”, but she can’t recall the name. After leaving the exam, Janie is walking down the stairs, when all of a sudden, she remembers that answer was amygdala! Janie was suffering from A. encoding problems. B. storage inversion. C. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. D. evaluation overload. Answer: C 154. When the sound of the word is the aspect that cannot be retrieved, leaving only the feeling of knowing the word without the ability to pronounce it, this is known as A. encoding failure. B. extinction of acoustic storage. C. auditory decay. D. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. Answer: D 155. For students to show the best performance on their exams, they are advised to engage in A. massed practice. B. distributed practice. C. delayed practice. D. none of the above. Answer: B 156. Darryl decides to start reviewing for his exam by studying 20 minutes a day for 10 days rather than just studying 3–4 hours the night before his exam. He is making use of A. delayed practice. B. massed practice. C. cramming. D. distributed practice. Answer: D 157. Leola has a comprehensive final for her organic chemistry class. For her to be able to retain the information from early in the semester, she should be advised to use _______________ in her studying throughout the term. A. distributed practice B. delayed practice C. massed practice D. cramming Answer: A 158. When listening to the radio, Ramona hears a song; she cannot immediately recall the band's name, but she is sure she knows the name. This is one example of A. encoding failure. B. priming. C. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. D. interference. Answer: C 159. Bill is standing in his living room and remembers that he needs to add an item to his grocery list (e.g., flour), but by the time he gets to the kitchen, he cannot remember what he needed to do. He walks back into his living room, hoping this will jog his memory. Bill is making use of which of the following processes? A. Encoding specificity B. Distributed practice C. Iconic memory D. State-dependent memory Answer: A 160. In their classic study on learning and memory in scuba divers, Godden and Baddeley found that A. scuba divers who learned words under water remembered them best when tested under water. B. scuba divers who learned words under water remembered them best when tested on land. C. scuba divers who learned words on land remembered them best when tested underwater. D. divers remembered the words similarly across both land and under water learning conditions. Answer: A 161. When someone attempts to recreate a retrieval environment that is as similar as possible to the initial encoding, or learning, environment as possible, he or she is making use of the principle of A. encoding specificity. B. distributed practice. C. priming. D. parsimony. Answer: A 162. If a researcher showed that people remember pleasant memories better when they are happy than sad, this would be one method for demonstrating the importance of A. trait-dependent learning. B. context-dependent learning. C. priming. D. state-dependent learning. Answer: D 163. Gretchen is clinically depressed. When asked to remember and discuss her childhood, her therapist noticed her memories of her past appeared to be distorted and quite negative relative to what the therapist already knew about Gretchen’s family history. Gretchen’s memory of her past is influenced by _______________. A. encoding specificity B. context-dependent learning C. a retrospective bias D. state-dependent learning Answer: C 164. Research seeking the engram, conducted by Lashley and Hebb among others, has conclusively demonstrated that A. the hippocampus is the place in the brain where memory is stored. B. the prefrontal cortex is the place in the brain where memory is stored. C. the cerebellum is the place in the brain where memory is stored. D. there is no single place in the brain where memory is exclusively stored. Answer: D 165. The logical conclusion from years of searching for the engram is that A. human memories are diffused throughout the brain in many different structures. B. human memory is a primary function of the occipital and temporal lobes. C. human memory is centred in the cerebellum. D. human memory is largely contained within the hippocampus. Answer: A 166. Long-term potentiation tends to occur at synapses where the sending neuron releases the neurotransmitter _______________ into the synaptic cleft, resulting in enhanced learning. A. acetylcholine B. dopamine C. glutamate D. GABA Answer: C 167. _______________ refers to the gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation over time. A. Habituation B. Adaptation C. Associative networking D. Long-term potentiation Answer: D 168. A police officer is shot in a gun battle with bank robbers. Although emergency brain surgery saves his life, it leaves him unable to store new information. The officer’s family is applying to the government for compensation for his injuries. When asked to provide a diagnosis of the difficulties he suffers, what will they write? A. Proactive amnesia B. Anterograde amnesia C. Retrograde amnesia D. Retroactive amnesia Answer: B 169. Patients with anterograde amnesia were taught to complete a mirror tracing task. It was later found that they A. remembered performing the task and improved in future performance. B. didn’t remember performing the task and didn’t improve in performance. C. remembered performing the task but didn’t improve in performance. D. didn’t remember performing the task but improved in performance over time. Answer: D 170. The major “bank” of memory (i.e., where memory is stored) primarily involves which brain structure? A. Hippocampus B. Prefrontal cortex C. Thalamus D. Amygdala Answer: B 171. In _______________ amnesia, we lose the capacity to form new memories, and in _______________ amnesia, we lose some memories of our past. A. retrograde; anterograde B. anterograde; retrograde C. generalized; psychogenic D. psychogenic; generalized Answer: B 172. Memory recovery from amnesia is A. sometimes gradual, sometimes sudden. B. gradual, if at all. C. usually sudden. D. never likely to happen. Answer: B 173. Although both Clive Wearing and a patient known as H.M. had severely damaged hippocampi or removed hippocampi, they both showed evidence of A. episodic memory. B. implicit memory. C. explicit memory. D. none of the above. Answer: B 174. You have just seen a new movie in which the main character loses all her memories of her previous life. Although very rare, this type of amnesia is referred to as _______________. A. anterograde amnesia B. generalized amnesia C. retrograde amnesia D. episodic amnesia Answer: B 175. Research on the biology of memory has indicated that the _______________ is involved in the factual components of memories and the _______________ is involved in the emotional components of memories. A. hippocampus; thalamus B. amygdala; thalamus C. corpus callosum; hippocampus D. hippocampus; amygdala Answer: D 176. Research has demonstrated that the drug _______________ may blunt the negative emotional effects of traumatic experiences. A. Prozac B. Ritalin C. Propranolol D. Modafinil Answer: C 177. Your friend Carrie was sexually assaulted, and can’t forget her experience. She has heard that there are pills that “erase traumatic memories” and wants to take one. She asks you what you know about these pills. What advice can you give Carrie? A. The drugs will completely block recall of her trauma. B. The drugs may only dampen the effects of the trauma, but not erase the memory. C. The drugs have no effect on memories for traumatic events. D. The drugs often make memories of trauma worse, and they persist longer. Answer: C 178. Charles is an 82 year old man who has just been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s Disease. It is likely that his memory for _______________ will be the first to degenerate, and memories of his _______________ will be the last things he forgets as the disease progresses. A. names; family B. unfamiliar people; favourite people C. his past; present situation D. recent events; distant past Answer: D 179. Conclusions from the Snowden nun study suggested that A. rates of dementia and Alzheimer’s occur independent of lifestyle. B. biological factors contribute more strongly to memory loss with age than environment. C. living a solitary and isolated life helps to prevent neuronal degeneration. D. physical and mental activity may help to protect against memory loss. Answer: D 180. The most common treatments for Alzheimer’s disease attempt to boost the amount of _______________ in the brain by inhibiting its breakdown. A. dopamine B. serotonin C. glutamate D. acetylcholine Answer: D 181. Which of these age groups has the strongest memory abilities? A. Children B. Infants C. Young adults D. Older adults Answer: C 182. As we age, our ability to recognize the strengths and limitations of our own memories improves. This is known as A. meta-cognition. B. transience. C. meta-memory. D. permastore. Answer: C 183. Roseanne claims that she can remember instances of childhood sexual abuse that started at 6 months of age. Why are most psychologists likely to be skeptical of this and other such claims? A. Because repression inhibits the conscious recognition of traumatic events such as childhood sexual abuse. B. Because decay leads to almost immediate forgetting of newly learned information. C. Because infantile amnesia makes it unlikely that these are true memories from that age. D. Because proponents of the realism of such claims are charging less to treat the victims of this abuse than those who are dubious of the claims. Answer: C 184. Which of the following is not a falsifiable explanation for why infantile amnesia occurs? A. The hippocampus is only partially developed in infancy. B. Episodic memory systems that are necessary for long-term memory are not yet formed. C. Memories of early experiences are repressed as fetal memories of negativity can be harmful. D. A sense of self is necessary to encode and store memories in a meaningful manner. Answer: C 185. Our earliest memories of personal events tend to be recalled from events that occurred as early as age _______________. A. 1.5 B. 2.5 C. 3.5 D. 4.5 Answer: C 186. Research on flashbulb memories indicates A. interference does not occur for these memories. B. decay does not occur for these memories. C. these memories are often the result of reconstruction rather than true memories. D. they are largely susceptible to the same errors as other types of memory. Answer: D 187. Researchers asked students about their initial recollections a few days after the Challenger explosion and then 2 1/2 to 3 years later. The results showed that A. most students showed dramatic changes from their initial recollections to their later recollections. B. few students failed to show changes in their memories with the passage of time, and about one-third showed dramatic changes in memory. C. few students showed significant changes in their memories with the passage of time, and their initial recollections were largely accurate. D. most students showed changes in their memories with the passage of time, but only a few showed dramatic changes in memory. Answer: B 188. An important source of false memories comes from A. anterograde amnesia. B. source monitoring confusion. C. retrograde amnesia. D. permastore. Answer: B 189. Seth is using visualization to imagine himself throwing pitches for strikes when he plays baseball. The ability to recognize that he is constructing these images rather than recalling them from an actual game in which he played results from accurate A. memory detection. B. source monitoring. C. sensory memory. D. encoding. Answer: B 190. You tell a joke to a friend and you believe you made up that joke. He tells you he told you that joke a week ago. You have experienced what memory phenomenon? A. The misinformation effect B. Cryptomnesia C. Retrograde amnesia D. Repressed memory Answer: B 191. _______________ occurs when we mistakenly forget that one of “our” ideas originated with someone else. A. The misinformation effect B. Cryptomnesia C. Retrograde amnesia D. Repressed memory Answer: B 192. Jermaine sees a car accident and he initially estimates the offending driver to be travelling at 60 kilometres per hour. However, after hearing another witness's report of the cars “bumping” and answering a police officer's questions about the rate of speed when the cars “contacted,” he subsequently revises his estimate to 45 kilometres per hour and his memory of the accident changes. This is an example of A. bias. B. the misinformation effect. C. decay. D. interference. Answer: B 193. False memories are easier to implant when the events that are said to have occurred are perceived as A. plausible. B. implausible. C. unusual. D. atypical. Answer: A 194. As an adult and a parent of a 4-year-old child, Camille has seen many children begin to cry when placed on the lap of the mall Santa or Easter Bunny. When discussing this with her brother, Luis, he reminds her of the time when she was 5 that she began crying hysterically, ran from Santa's lap, and was lost for nearly two hours. Luis has made this entire event up, but Camille has a clear and distinct memory of the event he described. This demonstrates the role of _______________ in producing false memories. A. plausible events B. exaggerated suggestion C. implausible events D. atypical events Answer: A 195. Researchers have attempted to implant false memories in the memories of students. To be certain that the event never occurred, they asked students if they recall getting to meet Yosemite Sam (a Warner Brothers character) at Disneyland. When approximately 41% of the students reported this memory, the researchers knew it was indeed evidence of a false memory because A. the memory occurred in the distant past. B. the memory was of a possible event. C. the memory occurred in the recent past. D. the memory was of an impossible event. Answer: D 196. _______________ are procedures that encourage patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place, often based on misleading information. A. Suggestive memory techniques B. Source monitoring views C. Flashbulb techniques D. Existence proofs Answer: A 197. One of the leading reasons for the conviction of innocent persons is A. racial prejudice. B. biased prosecutors. C. police corruption. D. faulty eyewitness identification. Answer: D 198. The most important factor in the majority of the cases, more than 75 percent, where DNA evidence led to the overturning of a unjust conviction of an innocent person was A. the use of “junk” science. B. faulty eyewitness identification. C. false confessions. D. the use of jailhouse snitches. Answer: B 199. Eyewitness testimony has been found to be most accurate when A. a weapon is used in the commission of a crime. B. the witness is presented a simultaneous, as opposed to a sequential, line-up. C. the witness has ample time to observe the person under good viewing conditions. D. the witness is distracted or must fill in gaps in their memory with stereotyped information. Answer: C 200. Evidence suggests that when the real criminal is not included in a “live” line-up, most witnesses A. will be inaccurate and select the person who most closely resembles the real criminal. B. will be accurate and inform the police that the person is not present. C. will refuse to answer and ask to leave the police station. D. None of the above Answer: A 201. In which case is eyewitness identification likely to be least accurate? A. When the victim gets a good look at the criminal B. When the victim and suspect are from the same racial group C. When the crime involves use of a weapon D. When a witness has not talked to other witnesses Answer: C 202. With regard to the idea of patients' memories being shaped by suggestive psychotherapy techniques, psychologists A. are in agreement that this rarely happens. B. need more evidence to demonstrate that false memories can be implanted. C. are sharply divided about whether such memories are real or false memories. D. are in agreement that this frequently happens. Answer: C 203. What point did the authors make regarding claims of recovered memories of childhood abuse? A. Childhood abuse frequently happens and all claims should be treated as accurate recall of past abuse. B. Childhood abuse rarely happens and all claims should be dismissed as implanted false memories. C. Childhood abuse claims need to be supported by supporting evidence in order to be believed as real. D. Recovered memories are always the result of faulty memory processes. Answer: C 204. Which of the following has not been associated with causing distortions in children’s memories? A. Schemas B. Repeated questioning C. Free recall D. Suggestive questions Answer: C 205. Children are especially susceptible to which of the “Seven Sins of Memory"? A. Interference B. Suggestibility C. Transience D. Decay Answer: B 206. A group of 3- to 6-year-old children were told about a man named “Sam Stone.” For several weeks “Sam” was described to them as being clumsy. Upon his visit, he did nothing to confirm this stereotype. How did this impact the children's memory? A. Over half the children, regardless of age, responded to these suggestions while lower percentages also reported that Sam soiled a bear and tore a book. B. Many 3- and 4-year-olds responded to these suggestions, but few of the older children did. C. Over half the children, regardless of age, responded to these suggestions as well as later information that Sam soiled a bear and tore a book. D. Many of the 5- and 6-year-olds responded to these suggestions, but few of the younger children did. Answer: A 207. The misinformation effect is most similar to which example below from the “Seven Sins of Memory”? A. Bias B. Absentmindedness C. Blocking D. Suggestibility Answer: D 208. The inability to momentarily remember a person's name, which you indeed know quite well, is an example of which of the “Seven Sins of Memory”? A. Decay B. Suggestibility C. Blocking D. Persistence Answer: C 209. The fading of memory with the passage of time marks decay and which of the “Seven Sins of Memory”? A. Transience B. Absentmindedness C. Misattribution D. Bias Answer: A 210. Mistaking an imagined memory for a real memory is an example of which of the “Seven Sins of Memory”? A. Transience B. Bias C. Misattribution D. Blocking Answer: C 211. Memories that intrude into our thoughts and disrupt our sleep are an example of which of the “Seven Sins of Memory”? A. Transience B. Persistence C. Misattribution D. Blocking Answer: B 212. If Sam holds a stereotype that “all blonde women are dumb,” he is likely going to expect them to act dumb, and may misremember a blond as acting dumb even though she didn’t. This is an example of which of the “Seven Sins of Memory”? A. Bias B. Persistence C. Misattribution D. Blocking Answer: A 213. Imagine you are sitting in class and you have your hand up to respond to the professors’ question. When the professor responds to your raised hand, you suddenly have forgotten what your answer was going to be. This is an example of which of the “Seven Sins of Memory”? A. Absentmindedness B. Persistence C. Misattribution D. Blocking Answer: D Critical Thinking Questions 1. A key theme in the topic of memory is that much of our past experience is reconstructed rather than stored and recalled as it actually happened. Why is this? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. • Our memory system is highly adaptive and seeks out information that is most vivid and important and seeks to understand the gist of the information by going beyond what occurred and assigning some meaning and coherence to the events. • Because of this we will lose certain information (via encoding failure, transience, or absentmindedness) and will attempt to fill in the gaps of information based on our prior expectations (bias, misinformation, suggestibility, and misattribution). Because of this process, our memory is a combination of fact and fiction. Memory is often reconstructed rather than stored and recalled exactly as it happened because the brain integrates past experiences with new information, filling in gaps and making sense of incomplete memories. This process is influenced by current beliefs, expectations, and social influences, leading to potential distortions. Additionally, memory retrieval involves reactivation of neural pathways that can be altered each time a memory is recalled. 2. Pretend for a moment that you are the chairperson of the Department of Psychology. Based on the information discussed on context-dependent learning, justify to your faculty why they should not reassign students to different seats on the day of an exam or should not give exams in different classrooms from where the material was learned. Answer: Answers will vary. A full-credit answer should discuss how information about the learning environment is encoded along with the information about facts learned during class lecture/discussion and also mention information that the authors covered in the chapter reading (students do better on exams in same classroom where they learned the material). • Researchers have noted that people tend to recall information better when the conditions associated with the original learning context are also present at the later retrieval context. It seems that this external, or incidental, information serves as retrieval cues that assist in the recall of information. One such context-dependent cue may be the student's location in the classroom. While it is the source of continued debate, some researchers have documented that students perform better when they are tested in the same classroom as opposed to a different classroom. The same may then be true of the location of their seat or being surrounded by the same persons on exam day as on lecture, or discussion, days. • Research has documented that persons who were asked to learn information either standing on a beach or submerged in 15 feet of water tended to have significantly better recall when tested in similar conditions at a later time versus being tested in a different environment. By moving the student from the back of the room, the student is placed in a different context. Because the location of others and the location of one's self within the room may provide explicit or implicit retrieval cues that assist the student in attempting to recall information for the exam, we respectfully ask that all of you as faculty refrain from shuffling student seating arrangements and locations within the classroom and thereby removing an important retrieval cue from your students. As the chairperson, I would explain that context-dependent learning suggests that students perform better when tested in the same environment where they learned the material. The familiar context (same seat and classroom) can trigger memory cues, aiding recall and enhancing performance. Changing seats or classrooms could disrupt these cues, potentially impairing students' ability to retrieve learned information effectively. 3. Suppose that you have been called as an expert witness for a defendant accused of robbing a bank. Prior to your being called as a witness, two bank tellers confidently identified the defendant as the robber. What research evidence might you introduce to the jury to caution them about assuming that the defendant must be guilty because he or she was identified in court? Answer: Answers will vary. A full-credit answer should mention at least three of the following points. • Research examining the phenomena of flashbulb memories has shown that people's initial and later recollections of events often differ dramatically. This should serve as a caution against automatically accepting them as evidence, and it challenges the conventional belief that certain memories are impervious to forgetting or other memory errors. • Post-event information, such as questions asked by the police, may become part of one's memory for the event. Therefore what one recalls and what one actually saw are two different events. People can be led astray in their recall of information by suggestive questioning. Researchers have documented several instances of false implanted memories that seemed to be plausible memories to the person. • Research involving people who were exonerated by DNA evidence points to errors in eyewitness identification as one important factor in the individual's being found guilty of a crime. Juries often believe eyewitness identification and are unaware that eyewitness confidence is, at best, a weak indicator of eyewitness accuracy. • Schachter summarizes the “seven sins of memory” and how they play a role in the accuracy of our memory, and he mentions several of the “sins” and describes how they would lead to problems in eyewitness identification. I would introduce research evidence showing that eyewitness testimony is often unreliable due to factors like stress, poor viewing conditions, and suggestive identification procedures. Studies indicate that confident witnesses can still be mistaken, as memory can be distorted by subsequent information and biases. Additionally, I would highlight the phenomenon of the misinformation effect and the role of leading questions in altering witness recollections. Essay Questions 1. Discuss how our memories both serve us well and lead to memory errors. Answer: Answers will vary. A full credit answer should address at least one of the points from each section of the answer suggested here. • Memories can serve us well in different ways. • When asking people to recognize whether they have seen a particular object previously, or presenting information in a multiple-choice format, many people are able to show strikingly good recall of information (above 90% accuracy). • There are certain persons who have naturally gifted memory abilities. For some, this allows them to remember quite clearly many of the events that have occurred throughout their lives. For others, it means that they are able to encode and retrieve large amounts of information from several specific domains (like Rajan's ability to recall long lists of digits from the number pi). • Human memory, however, is far from perfect. • Rather than functioning like an uncorrupted computer file or videotape of the event, our memories are reconstructions rather than re-presentations of the past. These reconstructions can be influenced by suggestions from authority figures, such as therapists or the police, and lead to the implanting of false memories. • Our normal adaptive memory processes lead us to remember seeing or hearing things that were not presented (i.e., remembering the word sleep after reading a list of words that were all related to the word sleep but did not actually contain it). This reconstruction can also occur because we fail to encode certain information and then fill in the gaps in our memories with our best guesses about what occurred. This can lead to errors in memory due to misattribution, bias, as well as transience and absentmindedness, blocking, and persistence. Our memories serve us well by allowing us to recall past experiences, learn from them, and make informed decisions. However, they can also lead to memory errors due to factors like misinformation, biases, or simply the fallibility of human memory. These errors can distort our recollection of events, impacting our perceptions and behaviors. Therefore, while memories are crucial for navigating life, it's essential to recognize their limitations and potential for inaccuracies. Our memories serve us well by allowing us to retain useful information, learn from past experiences, and navigate daily life efficiently. However, memory errors can occur because our brains reconstruct memories rather than recording them verbatim. This reconstruction process can introduce distortions, influenced by current knowledge, emotions, and external suggestions. While this adaptability aids in problem-solving and creativity, it also makes us susceptible to inaccuracies and false memories. Thus, our memory systems balance reliability and flexibility, sometimes at the cost of precision. 2. Discuss the three important ways in which the short-term and long-term memory systems differ. Answer: --Short-term and long-term memory processes differ in terms of storage capacity, duration, and in the types of memory errors that occur. Short-term memory seems to be limited to a storage capacity of approximately five to nine chunks of information, although some researchers have suggested an even more limited capacity (more chunking may be occurring than researchers can either assess or simply realise). Long-term memory, by contrast, has a seemingly unending storage capacity. • Short-term memories vanish after approximately 20 seconds while long-term memories endure for days, months, years, and even the rest of our lives. As long as we have appropriate retrieval cues we may be able to access information from our long- term memory. • Short-term memory errors seem to be based on acoustic information rather than the semantic information that accompanies long-term memory errors. While short-term memory errors are likely to involve mistaking what word we've heard (e.g., a heavily accented statement of lake is heard as like by someone unfamiliar with the dialect), long-term memory errors occur regarding the meaning of the information. For example, a witness to an automobile accident misremembers a car driving through a yellow light and hitting another car as the offending driver running through a red light. Short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) differ in three important ways: 1. Capacity: STM has a limited capacity, typically holding 7±2 items, whereas LTM has a vast, potentially unlimited capacity. 2. Duration: STM retains information for a brief period, usually around 20-30 seconds, while LTM can store information for a lifetime. 3. Encoding: STM primarily encodes information acoustically (by sound), whereas LTM encodes information semantically (by meaning), allowing for more complex and detailed storage. 3. Describe and differentiate by duration and capacity the various systems of memory. Answer: --Most psychologists believe that there are at least three separate systems of memory, sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. These systems differ in both span (amount of information that may be held) and duration (how long the information may be retained). Sensory memory is the initial memory system. Information from any of the five senses is briefly retained here and then either moves on to the next system or the information is "lost." Even though research by Sperling suggests that all information is available to use, our limited attention is only able to recall a few items of all possible items through sensory memory. For example, a student can only recall a few items of what a professor is saying during class lecture as he or she is writing down information in his or her notes. • The information that moves on is said to be in short-term, or working, memory. This system of memory can hold between 5 and 9 "pieces" of information at any single time and can keep this information for about 20 seconds. These pieces of information may either be individual pieces of information or may be "chunked" together (e.g., remembering Freud's three structures of personality—the id, ego, and superego—as a single chunk because they are interrelated. Or remembering the three types of memory systems as a "chunk" of memory systems—sensory, short-term, and long-term). The information may be lost here as well, through processes such as decay or interference, or moved on to the next system via either elaborative or maintenance rehearsal. • The third, and final, system is known as long-term memory. The capacity of this system is thought to be quite large and the information can remain here for years or decades. The information in memory is stored here until accessed through retrieval cues or priming. The various systems of memory include: 1. Sensory memory: Holds sensory information for a very brief period, typically less than a second, with a large capacity for all sensory input. 2. Short-term memory (STM): Maintains information for about 20-30 seconds with a limited capacity of 7±2 items. 3. Long-term memory (LTM): Stores information indefinitely with an essentially unlimited capacity, allowing for the retention of vast amounts of information over extended periods. 4. Describe how the three methods of measuring memory differ and provide an example of each. Answer: Answers will vary. A full-credit answer will provide information that distinguishes each method from the others and also includes an example to demonstrate the student's understanding of the difference. • Recall is sometimes referred to as the most difficult method of measuring memory because the individual has to generate the information on his or her own with little or no external information. The authors refer to recall as being similar to an essay question. There are the retrieval cues the student interprets from the question, but the information in the student's answer is entirely generated from his or her knowledge of the subject that is retrieved from their long-term memory. • Recognition involves choosing or selecting the previously stored information from an array of options (one is or some are correct and the remaining items are incorrect). This type of method gives the person more cues to work from. They have the cues in the item or question itself and then the cues from the options listed. This type of assessment method is like a multiple choice question. The question is posed, and thus may provide a retrieval cue, or several retrieval cues, and then the person looks over all of the options listed and makes his or her choice. • Relearning involves measuring memory by seeing how quickly a person can again learn information or a procedure to which they have had previous exposure (e.g., relearning the names of all 50 U.S. state capitals or correct basketball shooting technique). Relearning is considered a more sensitive measure of memory than the other two methods because we don't just make a correct/incorrect judgment (or right/wrong judgment) but rather we make a relative judgment (how much faster or quicker the information was correctly Identify and discuss the three main mnemonic devices described in your text and provide an example of each. The three methods of measuring memory—recall, recognition, and relearning—differ in their cognitive processes. Recall involves retrieving information from memory without external cues, like recalling a list of words. Recognition requires identifying previously encountered information from a set of options, such as recognizing a familiar face in a crowd. Relearning involves learning information again that was previously learned and forgotten, like relearning a skill or language. The three methods of measuring memory are: 1. Recall: Retrieving information without cues, as in essay questions (e.g., recalling a list of words from memory). 2. Recognition: Identifying previously learned information from a set of options, as in multiple-choice tests (e.g., recognizing a familiar face in a crowd). 3. Relearning: Measuring how quickly previously learned information is reacquired, indicating memory retention (e.g., relearning a foreign language faster the second time). 5. Why do you, as an adult, have a superior memory to an elementary school child? Answer: --There are several important reasons why an adult has a better memory than a child. First, as we grow older, our memory span increases. There is evidence that biological maturation plays a role in this increase. We have to wait for an individual's natural memory abilities to increase as we age. Memory span is seemingly influenced by both nature and nurture factors. • Second, a child's conceptual knowledge of the world is less than an adult’s. Children often have "poorer" memories because they have less experience in and with the world and all of the knowledge that an adult might have and take for granted. Because of this larger conceptual knowledge base, the adult learner can make better and more efficient use of this knowledge as he or she attempts to make newly encountered information easier to recall by relating it to information that is already meaningful. • Third, children are more likely to be unaware of the limitations of their own memory abilities. They have yet to consider the strengths and limitations of their strategies. As we grow older, we pick and choose between various memory strategies depending how effective each would be. Children are often unaware of how limited their abilities are and overestimate their ability to recall information at a later time. Again, with the passage of time—as they grow older, children begin to understand this and become more accurate, or at least more realistic, in their remembering abilities. As an adult, you have a superior memory compared to an elementary school child due to several factors: 1. Developmental changes: The brain undergoes maturation, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, enhancing memory processes such as organization and strategy use. 2. Experience: Adults have accumulated more life experiences and knowledge, providing a richer context for encoding and retrieving information. 3. Strategies: Adults typically employ effective memory strategies like rehearsal, organization, and mnemonic devices, improving memory efficiency. 4. Metacognition: Adults have better awareness and control over their memory processes, allowing for more intentional encoding and retrieval strategies. 5. Motivation and relevance: Adults often have stronger motivation and interest in remembering information that is personally relevant or important, leading to enhanced memory performance. 6. Discuss the serial position curve, and how the primacy effect and recency effects demonstrate differences between short-term and long-term memory. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. When we try to remember a large number of items, such as a grocery list or a schedule of events, we often forget some of them. To some extent, psychologists can predict which items we’re more likely to forget and which we’re more likely to remember. That’s the primacy effect: the tendency to remember stimuli, like words, early in a list. Also, you may have done a bit better with the later words, like cloud, hat, and vase. That’s the recency effect: the tendency to remember stimuli later in a list. Because the last few words in the list were probably lingering in your short-term memory, you were probably especially likely to recall them. So the recency effect seems to reflect the workings of short-term memory. What explains the primacy effect? This one is trickier, but there’s good evidence that you were more likely to recall the earlier words in the list because you had more opportunity to rehearse them silently. As a consequence, these words were more likely to be transferred from short-term memory into long-term memory. So the primacy effect seems to reflect the operation of long-term memory. In contrast to sensory and short-term memory, long-term memory retains information for substantial durations. The serial position curve illustrates how the likelihood of remembering items from a list depends on their position. The primacy effect, where items at the beginning of the list are remembered well, reflects the transfer of information into long-term memory. Conversely, the recency effect, where items at the end of the list are remembered well, demonstrates the retention of information in short-term memory. This contrast highlights the distinction between short-term and long-term memory storage mechanisms. The serial position curve illustrates how items in a list are remembered differently based on their position. The primacy effect shows better recall for items at the beginning of a list, attributed to effective transfer from short-term to long-term memory (LTM). Conversely, the recency effect demonstrates better recall for items at the end of a list, reflecting items still in short-term memory (STM). Together, these effects highlight distinct mechanisms: primacy involves LTM consolidation, while recency involves STM retrieval. 7. Identify and discuss the three main mnemonic devices described in your text and provide an example of each. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Mnemonic (pronounced “nee-mon-ick”): a learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall. Mnemonics help us encode memories in a way that makes them easier to recall. Pegword Method. Rhyming is a key component of the pegword method, often used to recall lists of words. To master this mnemonic, first associate each number in a list with a word that rhymes with each number, such as “One is a bun.” The word associated with the number is a “pegword.” It’s essential to memorise a list like the one that follows, but the fact that the numbers and words rhyme makes it easy to do so: (1) One is a bun, (2) Two is a shoe, (3) Three is a tree, and (4) Four is a door. After you’ve memorised the pegword associated with each number create an image that associates the word you want to remember with the pegword (such as bun). Method of Loci. The method of loci (pronounced low-sigh) relies on imagery of places, that is, locations, hence the name of the mnemonic. The method is straightforward: Think of a path with which you’re familiar and can imagine vividly. Perhaps it’s the route from your dorm to the cafeteria, or a stroll through the rooms in your apartment. Think of the path you take and the things that you encounter in a set order. For example, to get to the cafeteria, first you get in the elevator, then you walk under a huge tree before you pass by a fountain, and so on. If you need to remember five words in a particular order, think of five things you’ll encounter on your way to the cafeteria; if you need to recall ten words, imagine ten locations along your route. If you were trying to remember the list of memory terms with the method of loci, you might imagine chunks of rock or glass on the floor of the elevator. Keyword Method. If you’ve taken a foreign language course, you may be familiar with the keyword method. This strategy depends on your ability to think of an English word (the keyword) that reminds you of the word you’re trying to remember. Take the Spanish word casa, which means house in English. Think of an English word that sounds like or brings to mind casa.Many students come up with case. Now think of an image that combines case (or another word of your choice) and house. Perhaps you can picture a case of soda on the roof of your house. When you think of this image, it should help you retrieve the meaning of casa. The three main mnemonic devices are imagery, chunking, and acronyms. Imagery involves creating mental pictures to aid memory, like picturing a vivid scene to remember a list of items. Chunking involves organizing information into meaningful groups, such as remembering a long number by breaking it into smaller chunks. Acronyms involve creating a word or phrase where each letter represents something to remember, like using "HOMES" to recall the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). The three main mnemonic devices described are: 1. Acronyms: Creating a word from the first letters of items to be remembered (e.g., PEMDAS for the order of operations in mathematics: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction). 2. Method of loci: Associating items with locations along a familiar route or place (e.g., mentally placing items to remember in specific rooms of a house). 3. Rhymes and songs: Creating rhythmic patterns or melodies to aid in remembering information (e.g., "Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November" to recall the number of days in each month). These mnemonic devices leverage cognitive processes such as association, visualization, and auditory memory to enhance recall. 8. What is encoding specificity? Explain and describe both context- and state-dependent memory, and provide an example of each. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Encoding specificity: We’re more likely to remember something when the conditions present at the time we encoded it are also present at retrieval. Context-dependent learning refers to superior retrieval when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context (e.g., scuba diver study, taking exams in class where learned). State-dependent learning is similar to context-dependent learning, except that it refers to the internal “state” of the organism rather than the external context. That is, state- dependent learning refers to superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding (e.g., drunk learning). Encoding specificity refers to the principle that memory retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of encoding match the conditions at the time of retrieval. Context-dependent memory occurs when the environment or context at retrieval matches the environment or context at encoding, enhancing memory recall. An example would be studying in the same room where an exam will be held. State-dependent memory occurs when an individual's internal state at retrieval matches their internal state at encoding, facilitating memory retrieval. For instance, memories formed while intoxicated may be better recalled when in the same state of intoxication. Encoding specificity refers to the phenomenon where retrieval of information is enhanced when the conditions present during encoding match those during retrieval. Context-dependent memory involves better recall when the context or environment at retrieval matches that at encoding (e.g., remembering where you parked your car better when you return to the same parking lot). State-dependent memory occurs when retrieval is better if the individual's internal state during encoding matches their state during retrieval (e.g., recalling information studied while caffeinated better when in a caffeinated state again). These phenomena underscore how environmental and internal cues influence memory retrieval. 9. Differentiate between retrograde and anterograde amnesia, discuss the biological bases of these memory deficits, and describe how implicit and explicit memory differs between them. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Common types of amnesia are retrograde amnesia, in which we lose some memories of our past, and anterograde amnesia, in which we lose the capacity to form new memories. Findings with amnesia patients (anterograde) led researchers to hypothesise that large circuits connecting different parts of the limbic system—consisting of the hippocampus, hypothalamus, and amygdala—are critical to memory. The amygdala is where the emotional components of these and other memories, especially those governing fear, are stored. The amygdala interacts with the hippocampus during the formation of memory, but each structure contributes slightly different information. So the amygdala and hippocampus play distinctive roles in memory, with the amygdala helping us to recall the emotions associated with fear- provoking events and the hippocampus helping us to recall the events themselves. H.M.’s tragic case, like that of Damasio’s patient David, illustrates a striking dissociation between explicit and implicit memory. Researchers have asked H.M. to trace simple geometrical shapes from a mirror (Figure 7.20), a task that just about all people find infuriatingly difficult when they first try it. Although H.M. had no recollection of ever having performed this task before, his performance improved steadily over time (Milner, 1964, 1965). So although H.M. had no explicit memory for this task, he displayed clear-cut implicit—specifically, procedural—memory for it. Retrograde amnesia involves the inability to recall memories formed before the onset of amnesia, often due to brain injury or trauma affecting memory consolidation. Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories following the onset of amnesia, typically due to damage to the hippocampus or surrounding brain regions involved in memory encoding. Implicit memory, such as procedural memory, tends to be preserved in both types of amnesia, while explicit memory, including episodic and semantic memory, is impaired, demonstrating the dissociation between conscious and unconscious memory processes. Retrograde amnesia involves the inability to recall memories from before the onset of amnesia, often due to brain trauma or injury affecting memory consolidation or retrieval processes. Anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia, typically caused by damage to the hippocampus or surrounding areas crucial for memory encoding. Implicit memory, such as procedural memory (e.g., riding a bike), is often preserved in both types of amnesia, whereas explicit memory (e.g., recalling facts or events) is significantly impaired. This distinction highlights different neural circuits and processes involved in these memory types. 10. What is source monitoring? Describe and discuss how source monitoring is related to memory errors? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. According to a source monitoring view of memory, we try to identify the origins of our memories by seeking cues about how we encoded them. Source monitoring refers to our efforts to identify the origins (sources) of a memory. Whenever we try to figure out whether a memory really reflects something that happened or whether we merely imagined it, we’re engaging in source monitoring. For example, we typically rely on cues regarding how vivid and detailed our memories are. All things being equal, memories that are more vivid and detailed are more likely to reflect actual events (Lynn et al., 2003). If our memory of a conversation with a friend on campus is vague and fuzzy, we may begin to wonder whether it really happened or it was merely a product of our overactive imagination. Source monitoring confusion—a lack of clarity about the origin of a memory. Many other memory errors reflect confusions in source monitoring. Take the phenomenon of cryptomnesia (literally meaning “hidden memory”), whereby we mistakenly forget that one of “our” ideas originated with someone else. Some cases of plagiarism probably reflect cryptomnesia. Source monitoring refers to the cognitive process of identifying the origin of a memory, determining whether it came from a particular source, such as personal experience or external information. Memory errors can occur when individuals misattribute the source of a memory, leading to false memories or incorrect information being incorporated into one's recollection. This can result in confabulation or the acceptance of misinformation as genuine memories, highlighting the intricate relationship between source monitoring and memory accuracy. Source monitoring refers to the cognitive process of determining the origin or context of a memory—identifying where, when, or how information was acquired or generated. Memory errors can arise when individuals incorrectly attribute the source of information, leading to false memories or confusion between real and imagined events. This phenomenon is closely related to misattributions, where memories from one context are inaccurately associated with another, contributing to distortions and inaccuracies in recollection. Thus, accurate source monitoring is critical for maintaining the reliability and validity of memories. 11. Identify and describe any four of the seven sins of memory. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain descriptions of four of the following information for full credit. (1) Suggestibility. As we’ve learned, misleading information following events, leading questions, and explicit information and suggestions can increase the chances of our believing that fictitious events occurred. (2) Misattribution. Suggestions are often effective because they lead us to misattribute memories to incorrect sources, mistaking what’s imagined for a real memory. We can also misremember where we’ve read or heard about an event. (3) Bias. As we’ve seen, our schemas can bias our memories. For example, information that conveys stereotypes about people can influence our memories of them. If we expect people to act unethically, we may remember them as acting unethically even when they didn’t. (4) Transience. One thing is certain:Many of our memories will fade with time. This loss affects both short- and long-term memories. As we age, it’s increasingly difficult to access memories. In cases of massive brain injury or dementia, the ability to access memories can be severely impaired. (5) Persistence. The great author William Faulkner once wrote, “The past is never dead; it’s not even past.” Remember the last time someone “stole your parking space,” that is, sneaked in front of you even though you got there first? Or when someone insulted you in front of your friends? These events can linger in our minds for days or weeks and intrude into our thoughts, even disrupting our ability to sleep. (6) Blocking. Most of us have had the experience of starting to say something, and then suddenly and inexplicably losing all memory of what we intended to say. Although this experience can be embarrassing, most of us recover quickly from blocking, a temporary inability to access information. The TOT phenomenon is another example of blocking. (7) Absentmindedness. There’s the old stereotype of the “absentminded professor,” who looks for his glasses when they’re on his face. World-famous cellist Yo-Yo Ma once forgot something fairly important after departing a taxi: his multimillion-dollar cello. Yet virtually all of us suffer from occasional absentmindedness when we’re tired or distracted. People who get caught up in fantasies or daydream frequently are especially likely to report being absentminded (Lynn & Rhue, 1988;Wilson & Barber, 1981). Absentmindedness can stem from a failure either to encode memories because we’re not paying attention or to retrieve memories we’ve already stored. Four of the seven sins of memory are transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, and misattribution. Transience refers to the fading of memories over time. Absent-mindedness involves lapses in attention leading to forgetting. Blocking is the temporary inability to retrieve information. Misattribution occurs when memories are attributed to incorrect sources. These sins illustrate common memory failures that affect recall accuracy. The seven sins of memory, identified by Daniel Schacter, include: 1. Transience: The gradual fading of memories over time, especially short-term memories, due to interference or decay. 2. Absent-mindedness: Forgetting caused by lapses in attention or focus, leading to encoding failures (e.g., forgetting where you placed your keys). 3. Blocking: Temporarily unable to retrieve information, often due to interference (e.g., tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon). 4. Misattribution: Incorrectly attributing a memory to an incorrect source, such as confusing where or when a memory was acquired (e.g., remembering a story as personal experience when it was heard from someone else). These sins highlight common memory failures that can lead to errors and distortions in recall. Fill in the Blank Questions 1. Peter is trying to accurately remember what his wife, Lois, looked like and was wearing the first time he ever saw her. Research suggests this will involve actual details stored in his memory as well as his best guesses and hunches based on his current knowledge. This suggests that people _______________ many of their recollections of the past. Answer: actively reconstruct. 2. _______________ is the memory system for the information that a student taking an exam is currently thinking about or attending to. Answer: Short-term memory 3. LaShon has a quiz over research methods for both his psychology and biology classes. As he studies, he is continually getting information from one class confused with information from the other. The resulting memory loss is called _______________. Answer: interference 4. The “Magic Number,” 7 plus or minus 2 refers to the storage capacity of _______________ Memory. Answer: short-term 5. As he studies the different structures and regions of the brain, Jerious works to link nearby structures together to more easily remember and recall them during his test. This attempt to make the information more meaningful, and thereby easier to remember later, is one example of _______________. Answer: elaborative rehearsal 6. The memory system with the largest storage capacity is _______________. Answer: long-term memory 7. Loi is reading over the teams that have won the National Basketball Association (NBA) championship since 1980. His recall of the first nine and last nine champions at significantly higher rates than the ten champions in the middle would clearly demonstrate _______________. Answer: the serial position curve 8. The _______________ is heavily involved in moving information from short-term into long-term memory. Answer: hippocampus 9. An individual's knowledge about the world, like the fact Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of psychology or that Sigmund Freud claimed that the id, ego, and superego are three different structures of everyone's personality is called _______________. Answer: semantic memory 10. An undergraduate student hypothesises that having research participants perform arithmetic problems that produce an answer of 24 will make them more likely to respond with the word diamond when they are later asked to name a gemstone, than participants whose problems produce an answer other than 24. This research study clearly is examining the role that _______________ can play in memory. Answer: priming 11. Learning strategies that are used to enhance memories are called _______________. Answer: mnemonics 12. Controlled, scientific studies have cast doubts on claims that the herbal remedy _______________ can enhance one's memory abilities. Answer: gingko (or Gingko biloba is also correct) 13. The process of retaining information in memory is called _______________. Answer: storage 14. Although LaShonda has never actually been on a job interview before, she knows what to expect based on her three practice interviews with her high school guidance counsellor. This mental model of an interview is one example of what psychologists call a _______________. Answer: schema 15. Retrieving information through _______________ is the most difficult method of assessing memory. Answer: recall 16. In classes where comprehensive or cumulative exams are given, a student would be best advised to engage in _______________ practice. Answer: distributed 17. Scientific research suggests that the total loss of memory, or generalized amnesia, is _______________. Answer: extremely rare(frequency) 18. Some professors give students quizzes so that they can clearly and easily identify what material they know well and what material they need to spend more time reviewing or if they need to change their study strategy. Awareness of one's own memory limitations is what psychologists refer to as _______________. Answer: meta-memory 19. When someone attempts to determine if they merely imagined being lost in a department store as a child or if they really were lost in a department store as a child, that person is engaged in _______________. Answer: source monitoring 20. Diego witnessed an assault where a person with brown hair attacked another person. However, when he is later questioned by a police officer who mistakenly asked him to further describe the other characteristics of the person with black hair, Diego comes to hold a memory where the suspect has black, not brown, hair. This is an example of the _______________. Answer: misinformation effect 21. Springfield's Chief Wiggum is bringing Barney in to identify who robbed his Bowl-a-Rama. To lessen the chance of making a false eyewitness identification, he should consider the use of a _______________ line-up. Answer: sequential 22. According to the authors, when one is attempting to determine whether a claim of repressed childhood sexual abuse is based on real or false memories, we should look for additional _______________. Answer: corroborating evidence 23. The “sin” of _______________ is similar to the misinformation effect. Answer: suggestibility 24. A failure to encode information for an important exam is likely to lead to forgetting via the “sin” of _______________. Answer: absentmindedness 25. Because of Mr. Vargas's negative stereotype regarding the mathematical and scientific abilities of his female students, he often fails to recall exemplary female students whom he has taught. This forgetting is most likely the _______________. Answer: result of bias Test Bank for Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven J. Lynn, Laura L. Namy, Nancy J. Woolf, Kenneth M. Cramer, Rodney Schmaltz 9780205896110, 9780133793048, 9780133870282