CH-7 Attitudes – Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being : Book Guide

Chapter 7 Attitudes CHAPTER OBJECTIVES When students finish this chapter they should: •Understand that it is important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes. •Understand that attitudes are more complex than they first appear. •Understand that attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. •Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. •Understand that a need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them. •Understand that we use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude toward a product or brand. •Understand that social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence their behaviours. CHAPTER SUMMARY •An attitude is a predisposition to evaluate an object or product positively or negatively. •Attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. •Attitude researchers traditionally assumed that attitudes were learned in a fixed sequence, consisting first of the formation of beliefs (cognitions) regarding an attitude object, followed by some evaluation of that object (affect), and then some action (behaviour). Depending on the consumer’s level of involvement and the circumstances, however, attitudes can result from other hierarchies of effects as well. A key to attitude formation is the function the attitude performs for the consumer (e.g., is it utilitarian or ego-defensive?). •One organizing principle of attitude formation is the importance of consistency among attitudinal components; that is, some parts of an attitude may be altered to be in line with others. Such theoretical approaches to attitudes as cognitive dissonance theory and balance theory stress the vital role of the need for consistency. •The complexity of attitudes is underscored by multi-attribute attitude models, in which sets of beliefs and evaluations are identified and combined to predict an overall attitude. Factors such as subjective norms and the specificity of attitude scales have been integrated into attitude measures to improve predictability. •Social norms also have the ability to impact our attitudes and behaviours. Researchers have divided social norms into injunctive norms (information regarding what other people think we should do) and descriptive norms (information regarding what other people are doing). LECTURE/DISCUSSION IDEAS VIII. THE POWER OF ATTITUDES •Attitude: a lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), objects, or issues •Attitude Object (Ao): anything (tangible or intangible) toward which one has attitudes Class Interaction Opportunity: Ask the class to brainstorm all the ways the term “attitude” is used in our society. A. The Functions of Attitudes – Developed by psychologist Katz •Utilitarian function: related to the basic principles of reward and punishment •Value-expressive function: expresses the consumer’s central values (self-concept) •Knowledge function: related to a basic need for order, structure, and meaning •Ego-defensive function: protects person from external threats and internal feeling Class Interaction Opportunity: Bring in ads that illustrate each of the functions of attitudes. •Functional theory and strategic positioning – Attitudes can serve more than one function, but in a given situation one function will dominate B. The ABC Model of Attitudes and Hierarchies of Effects •Affect: the way a consumer feels about an attitude object •Behaviour: the way a person intends to respond toward an attitude object •Cognition: what the person really believes about the attitude object 1. Hierarchies of effects – Relative importance of ABC depends on motivation 2. The high-involvement hierarchy – e.g., Order of importance in problem solving is: cognition > affect > behaviour 3. The low-involvement hierarchy – e.g., Order of importance in buying a new candy bar is: cognition > behaviour > affect  Mood-management theory assumes that consumers strive to get rid of or at least diminish bad moods and perpetuate good ones by selecting appropriate programming. For example, when given a choice, bored subjects select exciting TV programs to watch, while stressed subjects opt for relaxing shows.i 4. Zajonc’s model of hedonic consumption – The experiential hierarchy, e.g., order of importance of an emotional response (e.g., attitude toward drunk drivers) is: affect > behaviour > cognition Class Interaction Opportunity: As far as you are concerned, which of the ABCs do you believe has the strongest influence on you when you want to buy a smartphone? When you take a special friend out to lunch? When you take this same friend to dinner? When you buy a drink? When you turn on the radio and the Howard Stern program is on? Explain your reasoning in each case. Class Interaction Opportunity: How can the three ‘hierarchy of effects’ models be applied to eCommerce and shopping on the Internet? Give illustrations of how marketers might use this information to make better decisions. C. Product Attitudes Don’t Tell the Whole Story – e.g., Attitudes toward shopping 1. Attitude toward the advertisement – Favourable or unfavourable response  While Aad does appear to affect brand attitudes, its impact can be inflated when items measuring the two components are presented contiguously, rather than being separated by filler items. This effect is particularly pronounced for brands that are familiar to the respondent.ii  Under some conditions, Aad may not exert as large an effect on consumer decisions as is commonly believed, and positive affect may even result in decreased ad effectiveness if liked executional cues draw the perceiver's attention away from the brand claims presented in the ad.iv 2. Ads have feelings too – Range from disgust to happiness o Upbeat feelings: amused, delighted, playful o Warm feeling: affectionate, contemplative, hopeful o Negative feelings: critical, defiant, offended Class Interaction Opportunity: Can you think of any ads that give you an upbeat feeling? Warm feeling? Negative feeling? What effect does the ad have on your attitude? Are you more likely to purchase the product? II. FORMING ATTITUDES – We have lots of attitudes but where did they come from? (learned) A. Not All Attitudes Are Created Equal – Strongly and weakly held B. Levels of Commitment to an Attitude – Related to level of involvement o Compliance: formed to gain reward or avoid punishment o Identification: formed to be similar to other o Internalization: has become part of a person’s value system (hard to change) Class Interaction Opportunity: Ask students for an example of how their attitudes were formed in each of the three ways (levels of commitment). C. The Consistency Principle – We want harmony among our thoughts, feelings and behaviours 1. Cognitive dissonance and harmony among attitudes – Conflict between attitude and behaviour •Reconciling cognitive elements – Conflict causes discomfort so we are motivated to reduce a negative state (e.g., “I smoke. Smoking causes health problems”). •Post-purchase dissonance – Evaluation of a product tends to increase after it is purchased (e.g., I don’t want to appear stupid). Class Interaction Opportunity: Why do people read the ads for products they already own? 2. Self-perception theory – We observe our own behaviour to determine our attitudes (e.g., I eat chocolates…I must have a sweet tooth) •The foot-in-the-door technique – A salesperson is more likely to make a sale if he can get the prospect to talk…and agree Use Power Point Slide 7-16 here Class Interaction Opportunity: What is a technique that salespeople use to help you to agree with whatever they are saying? (e.g., "You would rather have a matched set than a bunch of odds and ends, wouldn't you?") 3. Social judgment theory – Our attitude affects how we categorize new information (e.g., if someone we don’t like donates to a charitable cause, we brush it off with thoughts like ‘it’s just a tax write-off’) •Latitudes of acceptance and rejection – Ideas that fit our present attitudes are favourably received and those that don’t are not •Assimilation and contrast – e.g., The more I get involved with a product, the less I am to accept ideas different from mine Class Interaction Opportunity: Why do you suppose some people tend to keep buying cars from the same manufacturer every time they get a new car? Why do you suppose some people go out of their way not to? Class Interaction Opportunity: Have students apply the latitude of acceptance and rejection to shopping on the Internet. Have them explain what they did and why the concept might apply. 4. Balance theory – Consists of three elements: a person’s perceptions, an attitude object, and some other person or object •Perceptions are either positive or negative •Perceptions are altered to make them consistent  The easy way to determine if a triad is balanced is to use the multiplicative rule: a positive times a positive is positive, a positive times a negative is negative, and a negative times a negative is positive. Simply multiply all three signs in a triad to determine if it is stable •Marketing applications of balance theory – If a likeable personality is in a new product ad, we assume it must be all right Class Interaction Opportunity: Who are some celebrity endorsers who have fallen in disfavour with the public? How do you suppose this has affected the sales of the product they endorsed? Did any of the companies stop using these endorsers? III. ATTITUDE MODELS – Developed to specify the different elements A. Multi-Attribute Attitude Models – Consumer’s attitude affected by object’s attributes •Attributes: characteristics of the attitude objects •Beliefs: cognitions about the specific attitude object •Importance of weight: reflects the priority consumers place on the object 1. The Fishbein model – Measures three components of attitudes •Salient beliefs people have about Ao (beliefs considered during survey) •Object-attitude linkages (probability of importance of each attribute) •Evaluation of each important attribute •By combining the three, overall attitude toward object can be computed: Aijk = SBijkIik where i = attribute j = brand k = consumer I = the importance weight given attribute I by consumer k B = consumer k’s belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute i A = a particular consumer k’s attitude score for brand j 2. Strategic applications of the multi-attribute model •Capitalize on relative advantage – e.g., a superior attribute •Strengthen perceived product attribute linkages – ‘new and improved’ •Add a new attribute – product positioning •Influence competitors’ ratings – comparative advertising IV. USING ATTITUDES TO PREDICT BEHAVIOUR – Can’t always predict from knowledge of attitudes, e.g., a consumer can love a commercial but not buy the product A. The Extended Fishbein Model – Called the ‘theory of reasoned action’ 1. Intentions versus behaviour – Past behaviour is a better predictor than intentions (e.g., old saying ‘the road to hell is paved with good intentions’)  For a study assessing the effects of elements of the theory of reasoned action, as well as past behaviour, in the context of coupon usage, see referencev  One difficulty in addressing the relationship between intention and behaviour is that the mere act of measuring intent can alter the likelihood of the behaviour being enacted.vi  For a study that found subjective product knowledge to be an important mediator between attitudes and purchase intentions see reference.vii 2. Social pressure – Others have strong influence on our behaviour  Some researchers have also advocated distinguishing between normative and personal motivations underlying behaviour by adding another component, personal normative beliefs (NBp), to the norm component of the theory of reasoned action.viii 3. Attitude toward buying – Focuses on perceived consequences of purchase Class Interaction Opportunity: Can you think of something you bought that you really didn't want to buy? Do you know why you bought it anyway? B. Obstacles to Predicting Behaviour in the Theory of Reasoned Action – The improved Fishein model •It was designed to deal with actual behaviour not outcomes of behaviour •Some outcomes are beyond the consumer’s control •Behaviour is not always intentional (impulse actions) •Direct personal experience is stronger than indirect exposure (saw an ad) •Measures of attitudes do not always correspond with the behaviour they are supposed to predict •Culture roadblocks reduce the universality of the theory of reasoned action: •The model was not developed to predict the performance of involuntary acts •The relative impact of subjective norms may vary across cultures •Not all cultures have a linear sense of time •Some cultures do not believe in the concept of free will  Two factors can influence the strength of the linkage between attitude and object. One is the type of experience with the Ao (direct versus indirect), and the other is the number of times the attitude is expressed (i.e., a single instance versus repeated occasions). If accessibility to an attitude is low, it will not have much of a relationship to behaviour. If accessibility is high, even very general attitudes can predict behaviour.ix IV. TYPES OF NORMATIVE INFLUENCE •Descriptive norms: convey information about what other people commonly do •Injuncitve norms: convey information regarding what is commonly approved and disapproved of by others •Both can be powerful influencers on consumer attitudes and behaviours END-OF-CHAPTER SUPPORT MATERIAL Summary of Special Feature Boxes 1. Marketing Insight I: Strongly Held Attitudes This box highlights what can happen when marketers mess with strongly held attitudes. It uses the classic example of the Coca-Cola reformulation failure to make the case. Savvy marketers are aware that consumer attitudes toward their products often have to do with more than simple functional attributes such as taste! 2. Marketing Insight II: Token Support of Causes This box highlights the fact that token support for causes can lead to slacktivism, wherein people are willing to give a relatively costless, token display of support for a social cause (such as liking a page on Facebook), but are unwilling to subsequently devote significant effort to enact meaningful change (such as donating money or volunteering to support the cause). However, when the initial act of token support is private, people are more likely to subsequently help in response to a subsequent, more meaningful request for support. 3. Consumers in Focus I: Basking in Reflected Glory This box presents research on the idea of basking in reflected glory, when people publicize their connections with successful people or organizations to enhance their own standing. Research shows that people’s desires to identify with a winning image influence their consumption behaviours – for instance people buy and wear more associated apparel when sports teams are winning. 4. CB As I See It Dr. Robert Fisher, University of Alberta conducts research on where consumer attitudes about eating come from – particularly that our attitudes are often a reflection of the attitudes of those around us (parents, friends, social institutions) and which are communicated to us through injunctive norms (what others think we should do) and descriptive norms (what others are typically doing). He examines consumer beliefs about the appropriateness of eating behviours, effects of advertising on these beliefs, and subsequent influences on behaviours. 5. Marketing Insight III: Attitude-Behaviour Gap What consumers say and what they actually do is often different – and this gap is particularly prevalent when looking at sales of environmentally friendly and health/wellness products. This box discusses why this might be the case, suggesting economic factors might play a role, but that more likely it is a matter of authenticity, with authentic brands seeing growth even during recessive times. 6. Consumers in Focus II: Medical Adherence The (in)consistency between attitudes and behaviour links to a major public health problem: medical adherence. This term describes the extent to which people fill and actually take prescribed medicines. While some patients unfortunately don’t adhere to prescriptions because they can’t afford them, many simply forget or don’t want to swallow their pills. 7. CB As I See It: Grasscycling Grasscycling refers to leaving grass clippings on the lawn so they can decompose and return nutrients to the soil, rather than bagging them up for garbage collection. How do we get citizens to buy in? Three different strategies were used: 1) informing people about the actions of others: descriptive norm appeals; 2) injunctive norms—those that communicate what others think a person should do; 3) benefit appeal, which highlights how an action will provide a benefit. What appeal type worked best? It depends on the consumer’s mind-set. When a group level mind-set was activated, descriptive and injunctive norms worked best. When a message was directed at the individual level of the self, consumers were most likely to adopt the action if paired with a benefit appeal Review Questions 1. How can an attitude play an ego-defensive function? Answer: Attitudes we form to protect ourselves either from external threats or internal feelings perform an ego-defensive function. An early marketing study indicated that housewives in the 1950s resisted the use of instant coffee because it threatened their conception of themselves as capable homemakers. 2. Describe the ABC model of attitudes. Answer: Most researchers agree that an attitude has three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. Affect refers to the way a consumer feels about an attitude object. Behaviour involves the person’s intentions to do something with regard to an attitude object (however, an intention does not always result in an actual behaviour). Cognition refers to the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object. We can remember these three components of an attitude as the ABC model of attitudes. 3. List the three hierarchies of attitudes and describe the major differences among them. Answer: The three hierarchies are, 1) the High-Involvement Hierarchy (beliefs/affect/behaviour), 2) the Low-Involvement Hierarchy (beliefs/behaviour/affect), and 3) the Experiential Hierarchy (affect/behaviour/beliefs). 4. How are emotions (affect) and cognitions (beliefs) related to how attitudes are formed? Answer: That all depends on which of the three hierarchies is in process. But the basis of the ABC model of attitudes is that both affect and beliefs, along with behaviour, are the main components that comprise an attitude. 5. How do levels of commitment to an attitude influence the likelihood it will become part of the way we think about a product in the long term? Answer: Consumers vary in their commitment to an attitude; the degree of commitment is related to their level of involvement with the attitude object. Consumers are more likely to consider brands that engender strong positive attitudes. High levels of commitment to an attitude, such as strong personal beliefs or emotional investment, make it more likely to become a lasting part of our perception of a product. This deep-rooted attitude influences how we evaluate and remember the product, shaping our long-term preferences and loyalty. Conversely, low commitment results in more superficial and changeable attitudes. 6. We sometimes increase our attitude toward a product after we buy it. How does the theory of cognitive dissonance explain this change? Answer: The theory of cognitive dissonance states that when a person is confronted with inconsistencies among attitudes or behaviours, he or she will take some action to resolve this “dissonance,” perhaps by changing an attitude or modifying a behaviour. The theory has important ramifications for attitudes, because people are often confronted with situations in which there is some conflict between their attitudes and behaviours. Thus, if a person encounters negative information about a product after purchasing it, they may discount that information and focus on positive information that would reaffirm their reasons for having purchased. 7. What is the foot-in-the-door technique? How does self-perception theory relate to this effect? Answer: Self-perception theory helps to explain the effectiveness of a sales strategy called the foot-in-the-door technique that is based on the observation that a consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to comply with a smaller request. 8. What are latitudes of acceptance and rejection? How does a consumer’s level of involvement with a product affect his latitude of acceptance? Answer: People form latitudes of acceptance and rejection around an attitude standard. Ideas that fall within a latitude will be favourably received, but those falling outside of this zone will not. 9. According to balance theory, how can we tell if a triad is balanced or unbalanced? How can consumers restore balance to an unbalanced triad? Answer: Components of a triad can be either positive or negative. More importantly, people alter these components in order to make relations among them consistent. The theory specifies that people desire relations among elements in a triad to be harmonious, or balanced. If they are not, a state of tension will result until somehow the person changes his perceptions and restores balance. 10. Describe a multi-attribute attitude model, listing its key components. Answer: A multi-attribute model assumes that a consumer’s attitude (evaluation) toward an attitude object (Ao) depends upon on the beliefs he or she has about several or many attributes of the object. The use of a multi-attribute model implies that identifying these specific beliefs and combining them to derive a measure of the consumer’s overall attitude can predict an attitude toward a product or brand. 11. “Do as I say, not as I do.” How does this statement relate to attitude models? Answer: Many studies have obtained a very low correlation between a person’s reported attitude toward something and his or her actual behaviour toward it. Some researchers have been so discouraged that they have questioned whether attitudes are of any use at all in understanding behaviour. The statement “Do as I say, not as I do” reflects a disconnect between expressed attitudes and actual behaviors, highlighting the limitations of some attitude models. For example, the Theory of Reasoned Action suggests attitudes should predict behavior, but discrepancies often occur when real actions do not align with stated beliefs, revealing the complexity of human decision-making. 12. What is a subjective norm, and how does it influence our attitudes? Answer: The value of SN is arrived at by including two factors: (1) the intensity of a normative belief (NB) that others believe an action should be taken or not taken, and (2) the motivation to comply (MC) with that belief (i.e., the degree to which the consumer takes others’ anticipated reactions into account when evaluating a course of action or a purchase). 13. What are three obstacles to predicting behaviour even if we know a person’s attitudes? Answer: There are too many obstacles to list here. See the section entitled, “Obstacles to Predicting Behaviour in the Theory of Reasoned Action.” 14. Describe the theory of reasoned action. Why might it not be equally valuable when it is applied to non-Western cultures? Answer: The theory of reasoned action has primarily been applied in Western settings. Certain assumptions inherent in the model may not necessarily apply to consumers from other cultures. Several cultural roadblocks diminish the universality of the theory of reasoned action. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR CHALLENGE Discussion Questions 1. Contrast the hierarchies of effects outlined in the chapter. How should marketers’ strategic decisions related to the marketing mix change depending on which hierarchy is operative among target consumers? Answer: The “standard learning” hierarchy assumes a purposeful and involved process in attitude formation leading to a decision that may lead to brand loyalty. On the other hand, the “low-involvement” hierarchy assumes a minimal amount of knowledge and sees the attitude formed “after-the-fact.” The chapter specifically notes that the use of marketing stimuli would be more effective in the low-involvement situation because the consumer uses these inputs as a basis for selection and attitude formation, instead of product-related characteristics. However, students should note that the product is the key ingredient in the marketing mix and consequently, long-term success is less likely to result from simple low-involvement attitude formation. Experiential Exercises 2. Think of someone who exhibits a behaviour that is inconsistent with his or her attitudes (e.g., attitudes toward cholesterol, drug use, or even buying things to make them stand out or attain status). Ask the person to explain the behaviour, and try to identify the way he or she has resolved dissonant elements. Answer: Students should be able to generate many diverse examples of this type of consumer behaviour. Assume you are a person who is health conscious but who may smoke occasionally because your friends smoke. The reason you smoke may be to “fit in” with a group, or the behaviour may serve as some type of initiation into the group. You may resolve dissonant elements by telling yourself that an occasional cigarette won't hurt you as long as you keep exercising and eating right. When a person exhibits behavior inconsistent with their attitudes, such as someone who values health but consumes high-cholesterol foods, they might resolve this dissonance by justifying the behavior with rationalizations (e.g., "I deserve a treat" or "It's a special occasion"). They might also downplay the importance of their health attitude or focus on other aspects of their lifestyle to reconcile the inconsistency. 3. Devise an attitude survey for a set of competing automobiles. Identify areas of competitive advantage or disadvantage for each model you incorporate. Answer: The semantic-differential scale often is used to describe a consumer's beliefs about product, brands, and /or companies. Students are likely to develop scale items reflecting a variety of beliefs about individual products, where a set of product attributes are rated on a series of scales. For example: My travel agent is: very efficient 1--2--3--4--5--6--7 very inefficient very accessible 1--2--3--4--5--6--7 very inaccessible very friendly 1--2--3--4--5--6--7 very unfriendly Semantic-differential scales also may be used to compare the images of competing brands, as in the following example: Honda Accords have good interior features. Agree 1--2--3--4--5--6--7 Disagree Ford Fusion have good interior features. Agree 1--2--3--4--5--6--7 Disagree Toyota Camry have good interior features. Agree 1--2--3--4--5--6--7 Disagree (Possible Individual or Team Field Project) You can refer students to the following site: https://www.honda.ca/compare/accord_sedan/2016/lx_10350-competitors 4. Construct a multi-attribute model for a set of local restaurants. Based on your findings, suggest how restaurant managers can improve their establishments’ images via the strategies described in the chapter. Answer: The multi-attribute models that students develop for a set of local restaurants should include: (1) a number of product attributes--characteristics of the restaurants, such as price, type of foods, number of menu items, location, etc. (2) beliefs regarding specific restaurants (in terms of attributes)
(3) important weights reflecting the relative priority of specific attributes for them individually While there are likely will be some common elements in the models developed, students should be encouraged to think about how each model is reflective of the individual responsible for the product evaluation. The instructor should point out to students the complexity of consumer attitudes, as demonstrated by the diversity of attitudinal statements, product attributes, beliefs, and importance weights that might be chosen. (Possible Individual or Team Field Project) 5. Read the case on implementing warning labels on gas pumps. Tweet your suggestions or questions to Robert Shirkey at @OurHorizonOrg or @robshirkey and see what he thinks! Answer: To engage with Robert Shirkey about implementing warning labels on gas pumps, you might tweet: "@OurHorizonOrg @robshirkey What are your thoughts on using impactful visuals for warning labels on gas pumps to highlight environmental risks? How can we ensure they effectively influence consumer behavior?" 6. Many universities use commercial companies to run campus websites and email services. These agreements provide Web services to colleges at little or no cost. But these actions arouse controversy because major companies pay to place advertising on the sites. That gives marketers the opportunity to influence the attitudes of thousands of students who are involuntarily exposed to product messages. University administrators argue that they could not provide the services by themselves—students expect to be able to fill out financial aid forms and register for classes online. Colleges that do not offer such services may lose their ability to attract students. How do you feel about this situation? Should companies be able to buy access to your eyeballs from the school you pay to attend if it means you get access to enhanced online services in return? Answer: Hopefully, the responses to this question will take in the full range of possibilities and a healthy debate will ensue. Business and marketing students, however, often favour the rights of the company to engage in practices such as this to promote their brands. Some will likely bring up the argument that as long as promotional practices are legal, there is nothing wrong with them. Others may disagree from an ethical perspective. CASE STUDY TEACHING NOTES I. Do you think Robert’s idea here has merit? Will warning labels in this context really change attitudes and create change? Why or why not? Answer: This question sets up an opportunity for the class to have a formal debate on the issue. Instructors might consider assigning the class into two sides here and have them develop arguments for their respective position – i.e., the idea has merit and will change attitudes vs. the idea has no merit and won’t work. We do know that warning labels in general have been successful in changing consumer behaviours. As noted in the case, there has been success with safety and regulations here. Further, Canada has seen great success in putting warning labels on cigarette packaging and this use of warning labels has been adopted around the world. The question students will need to pose is: does the success seen in warning label usage in these previous case studies transfer to the context here? There are two sides to this question. On one hand, the context here is not as concrete as that with cigarettes, lawn-mowers, or poison. Global warming does not create such dire outcomes immediately and is less centered on the individual. On the other hand, the beauty of warning labels is the simple and consistent reminder that does become processed repetitively by the consumer. Attitude change has been shown to happen under this type of repetitive messaging. II. What aspects of attitude theory that you have discussed in this chapter have applicability to this initiative? Answer: The term attitude refers to a lasting general evaluation of people, objects or issues. Given that the Robert’s idea is communicated via a warning label advertisement on the gas pump, the consumer is predisposed to forming an attitude toward the advertisement (Aad) in a favourable or unfavourable manner. Determinants of Aad include the viewer’s attitude toward the advertiser, evaluations of the ad execution, the mood evoked by the ad and the degree to which the ad affects viewers’ arousal levels. In this instance, consumers will likely have an attitude towards environmentalists and their efforts (like this one), they will have an immediate reaction to the ad execution due to its novelty, and the impact of their actions (that contravene the ad message on the warning label) will likely evoke an affective reaction. Models like the theory of reasoned action also have applicability here. They capture the complexity of predicting behaviours by capturing the role of attitudes and other factors that influence actual behavioural outcomes. In this instance the normative beliefs a consumer might have with respect to global warming and environmentalism is likely to have a significant role on behavioural outcomes. III. Do you accept Robert’s reasoning for why this initiative will be successful? Develop arguments for and against his three points of support. Answer: Students should be able to identify directly from the case the arguments for why this initiative has potential for success: a) the delay between cause and effect is met, b) the problem of diffusion of responsibility is addressed, and c) the medium is the message. Arguments for and against each of these points can be constructed relatively easily. For example, for point a) it can be argued that the pictorial imagery on the warning label will directly link the consumption activity to the outcome for the consumer. In contrast, this argument might be ineffective if the consumer does not believe that carbon consumption does cause global warming. For point b) the warning label here directly speaks to the consumer and identifies that the consumption activity that the consumer is taking is having a direct impact. However, consumers might seek to mitigate any cognitive dissonance here by rationalizing the behavior by thinking simply “that everyone is doing it”. Finally, for point c) it is clear that by having the warning label actually on the gas pump the consumer can see the impact as they consume (i.e., pump the gas). Against this point, most consumers are unlikely to see or catch the linkage that Robert thinks is so apparent here. As we know, most consumer do not think deeply during their daily consumption activities – and as such, they are likely to miss the point. For Robert's Reasoning: 1. Increased Awareness: Warning labels can heighten awareness about environmental impacts, prompting more eco-conscious behaviors. 2. Behavioral Influence: Clear, prominent warnings may encourage consumers to consider alternative energy options. 3. Policy Precedents: Similar initiatives, like cigarette warnings, have proven effective in changing public attitudes and behaviors. Against Robert's Reasoning: 1. Limited Impact: Labels might be ignored or dismissed, especially if consumers are already aware of the risks. 2. Behavioral Resistance: Some individuals may resist changing their habits despite the warnings, due to convenience or cost factors. 3. Implementation Challenges: Designing and enforcing standardized, effective labels could face bureaucratic and logistical hurdles. IV. What would your recommend that Robert do next? What does he need to do to be successful in changing the attitudes and behaviours of the end-consumer? Answer: The current strategy Robert is pursuing seems reasonable. Working through municipal governments to enact change has been successful and if he can keep up the momentum there is some likelihood that his success here will snowball. It is possible that he could also target higher levels of government as well (provincial/federal) to continue building pressure and a general acceptance of the initiative. If he is able to get broad adoption of his initiative he will then have to plan for the future – e.g., how can he continue to keep his messaging fresh? How will he test for the effectiveness of the labels? What about international expansion of the initiative? Students should be challenged with each of these questions. FIELD PROJECT IDEAS Individual Assignments 1. Invite students to prepare a short paper and report to the class about three experiences that led to cognitive dissonance (buyer's remorse), for example, buying expensive jewelry for a girlfriend/boyfriend, buying a car, buying expensive clothing, buying electronic equipment, choosing a college or university, renting an apartment, buying a house. Answer: Cognitive Dissonance Experiences: Students might discuss scenarios like feeling regret after buying an expensive car, remorse after investing in a high-end gadget that quickly becomes obsolete, or anxiety over choosing an expensive college despite financial strain. These experiences typically involve recognizing a mismatch between the anticipated benefits and the actual outcomes, leading to cognitive dissonance or buyer's remorse. 2. Have students design a product positioning map for a weight-loss product. Perhaps the student could use types of diets, exercise, emphasis on changing habits, and use of nutritional supplements, in designing a map, or perhaps they might like to include the degree to which social pressure is brought to bear in the process. Then address the various niches in the weight loss industry, identifying some of the more successful ones and giving reasons why this is so. Answer: Product Positioning Map for Weight-Loss: Students could create a map positioning weight-loss products by categories such as diet types, exercise regimens, habit changes, and supplements. Niches like keto diets, gym memberships, and holistic approaches can be analyzed. Successful niches often cater to specific consumer needs and trends, such as personalized plans or high social engagement. 3. Have students assemble ads for physical fitness and/or weight loss programs or products, and have them analyze these ads in terms of how they are trying to influence or change consumers attitudes toward their body image. What emotional and rational appeals were used (e.g. fear, health, vanity, social acceptance, peer pressure...)? See how students evaluates the effectiveness of the ads. Answer: Ad Analysis for Fitness Products: Students should analyze ads for fitness programs focusing on body image, noting emotional appeals (fear of obesity, vanity) and rational appeals (health benefits, effectiveness). They should evaluate how these ads influence attitudes towards body image and their effectiveness in persuading consumers. 4. Ask students to keep track of five television commercials that use celebrities to endorse brands. What were the products and what types of shows were these aired on? Find out whether students thinks that the particular celebrity was the right person to use in representing the particular product or service to the public. (This assignment can be used to explain congruity theory.) Answer: Celebrity Endorsements: Track five commercials featuring celebrities and their products, noting the product types and show contexts. Evaluate whether the celebrity's image and persona align with the product’s message, applying congruity theory to assess if the endorsements seem appropriate or if mismatches exist. 5. Have students explain the congruity, balance, and Fishbein theories to a friend. Then ask the friend to analyze two of his or her recent experiences that seem to confirm or disconfirm one or more of these theories. Answer: Theory Explanation and Analysis: Students should explain congruity, balance, and Fishbein theories to a friend. The friend should then analyze two recent experiences to see if they align with or challenge these theories, reflecting on how attitudes and behaviors match or diverge according to these models. 6. Have students describe three instances when their purchase behaviour was inconsistent with their attitude toward the product or service they were buying. Ask students to try to explain why this happened. Now ask the class if they agree with the explanation or whether they have other notions. Answer: Inconsistent Purchase Behavior: Students might describe instances like buying a luxury brand despite advocating for minimalism or choosing fast food despite valuing healthy eating. They should explore reasons behind this inconsistency, such as situational factors or emotional influences, and discuss if these explanations resonate with the class. Team Assignments 7. Have a team of students lead a class discussion. Give the class a list of eight or ten common generic products (e.g. cars, peanut butter, detergent, toothpaste, gasoline, toilet paper, microwave dinners, professional football team, airline, soft drink) and ask them to list their favourite brand(s) of the product. See if those who are participating know how they developed their brand preference and how the products attributes are related to their attitudes toward the product. Answer: The discussion can explore how brand preferences develop through personal experiences, marketing, and product attributes. For example, preference for a specific toothpaste might stem from its flavor, effectiveness, or advertising. Analyzing these factors helps understand how attitudes are shaped and maintained. 8. Ask students to write down on a piece a paper a consumer product that they just "love" and one they just "hate". Find out if they can remember how long they have felt this way. Do they remember when they first developed these attitudes? Why do they suppose that they still feel this way? See if they have ever tried to change their attitude. Answer: Students can reflect on their emotional attachment to products by noting the origins and reasons for their feelings. This introspection can reveal how long-standing preferences or aversions are influenced by personal experiences or changes in product attributes. 9. Divide the class into teams and have each team come up with a set of about ten descriptive words that could be used to positively or negatively describe a consumer good (e.g. stereo, car, expensive clothing...). Send out to interview a friend who owns this product. Determine the length of time the respondent has owned the product and then have the respondent evaluate the product according to some criteria determined by the class.
See if the people who more recently purchased the product have a more positive attitude toward it than those who have owned it for a longer period of time. Answer: Comparing attitudes of recent vs. long-term owners can reveal if initial excitement fades over time or if the product’s performance meets expectations long-term. Recent owners might have more positive evaluations due to novelty, while long-term owners might show more nuanced or critical perspectives. 10. Ask a team of students to have three people write down the names of the best and worst provider of an identical service—e.g., a bank, a dentist, a drycleaner, a hair dresser, an airline, a fast food restaurant. Have the respondents give five descriptive words for each provider; ask them to use negative words that can be used in polite society. How could both service providers use this information? Answer: Both service providers can use descriptive feedback to improve their offerings. For example, understanding negative perceptions can guide improvements in customer service or operational efficiency, while positive feedback highlights strengths to maintain and build upon. Individual or Team Assignments 11. Ask a team of students to think about restaurants they like and don't like to patronize. Have them design a multi-attribute model for three of these restaurants, making sure both spectrums are included. Have students make suggestions how the managers could improve the restaurant's images by following the strategies and tactics found in this chapter. Answer: Students can design a multi-attribute model comparing restaurants on factors like food quality, service, ambiance, and price. Suggestions for improvement could include enhancing food quality, training staff for better service, or updating the decor based on feedback to elevate the restaurant's overall image. 12. You can either facilitate this project yourself or have a team of students do it. Bring to class a number of products (or pictures of products) and ask those assembled about their attitude toward the products. This is a good way to start a conversation about the characteristics of attitudes. Answer: By discussing attitudes toward various products, students can explore how attributes like design, functionality, and branding influence perceptions. This exercise helps illustrate how attitudes form and how they can be shaped by product characteristics and marketing strategies. 13. Have a team of students search various types of magazines that appeal to different target markets, and then ask them to lead a discussion on how these ads were designed to appeal to the specific target market. Answer: Analyzing magazine ads allows students to see how visual elements, language, and themes are tailored to specific target markets. This discussion can reveal insights into how ads address the values, preferences, and needs of different consumer segments. eLAB Individual Assignments 6. Go to www.levistrauss.com. Levi Strauss used to dominate the jeans market. It was a mainstay product for youth in the ’50s, ’60s, and ’70s. Something happened in the ’80s and ’90s, however, which caused the youth to begin shifting their attention to other brands and different ways of dressing. What did attitudes have to do with this shift? How should the company best deal with these changes? Using yourself as an example, tell Levi’s what they must do to once again secure your business. If you are already a customer, explain what the company must do to keep your business. Answer: Levi's lost market dominance as youth attitudes shifted towards more diverse and trendy fashion choices in the '80s and '90s. To regain market share, Levi's should innovate with contemporary designs, align with current youth culture, and utilize effective marketing strategies. As a consumer, I'd be drawn back by unique, stylish collections and a refreshed brand image that resonates with modern trends. 7. Go to www.hottopic.com. This clothing website provides clothing alternatives for the new millennium. Evaluate the website as to its use of lifestyle marketing. What attitudes seem to be most important to Hot Topic’s customers? How did you determine this? Any suggestions for the company on how they might expand their business? Answer: Hot Topic’s website effectively uses lifestyle marketing by featuring edgy, pop-culture-driven clothing appealing to niche subcultures. Key attitudes include a desire for individuality and rebellion. Expanding the business could involve diversifying product lines to include more mainstream yet trendy items while maintaining its unique edge. 8. Go to www.dropzone.com. Apply the ABC model of attitudes to the activity of skydiving. Which of the three hierarchies is most applicable? What modifications could be made to this? Answer: Applying the ABC model to skydiving: Affective (emotional excitement), Behavioral (participation), and Cognitive (knowledge of skydiving benefits) are key. The experiential hierarchy fits best, where emotions drive the decision to engage in skydiving. Modifications could involve enhancing emotional appeals and providing more engaging educational content. 9. Go to www.ge.com. Pick a product from the huge portfolio of General Electric. This product should be one that you do not use or do not have a negative attitude. Design a brief advertising campaign that would persuade you to use the product. Explain the process that you went through and the principles from the chapter you used in your campaign. Answer: For a GE appliance like a smart refrigerator, the campaign should emphasize convenience, energy efficiency, and advanced technology. The process involved identifying consumer pain points and highlighting how the product solves these issues. Principles used include focusing on functional benefits and leveraging persuasive messaging to create a compelling call to action. eLAB Team Assignments 1. Go to www.lego.com. Once your group visits this site they will recognize how far Danish toymaker Lego has come from the days when they only made plastic blocks. Today, the company is into robotics in a big way. That’s right—robotics. Assume that Lego has made a functioning personal assistant robot. What attitudes must be identified, formed, or changed for this product to be successful? Be complete in your appraisal. Lastly, what features should the robot have? What would be its name? Answer: To make Lego’s personal assistant robot successful, it must address attitudes towards technology, usability, and brand perception. Identifying and forming positive attitudes about its functionality and integrating it seamlessly into daily life is crucial. The robot should have features like voice recognition, smart home integration, and educational capabilities. A fitting name could be “LegoBot,” emphasizing both the brand and its advanced functionality. 2. Go to www. axe.ca. Go to the various links for the website of Axe body spray. Analyze the content in terms of message appeals. Answer: Axe's website uses a mix of emotional and aspirational message appeals, emphasizing confidence, attraction, and personal enhancement. The content targets young men with themes of empowerment and allure, using bold visuals and persuasive language to create a strong, appealing brand identity. PROFESSORS ON THE GO! Chapter Objectives
When students finish this chapter they should understand why: •It is important for consumer researchers to understand the nature and power of attitudes Have students bring in examples of promotional material that illustrate each of the four functions identified in the functional theory of attitudes. Students should assemble ads for physical fitness and/or weight loss programs or products and analyze these ads in terms of how they are trying to influence or change consumers’ attitudes toward their body image. What emotional and rational appeals were used (e.g., fear, health, vanity, social acceptance, peer pressure, etc.)? Have students write a short paper identifying both a consumer product that they just “love” and one they just “hate.” They should address how long they have felt this way, if they remember when they first developed these attitudes, why they still might feel this way, and if they have ever tried to change their attitude. •Attitudes are more complex than they first appear Ask students to write about the sources that are influential in their attitude toward one of the following: their college or university, the Liberal Party, Prime Minister Trudeau (or any recently elected Prime Minister), David Suzuki, Ralph Nader, their own religious faith, or any organized group (e.g., labor movement, Planned Parenthood, Canadian Civil Liberties Association, Greenpeace, Moveon.org, etc.). As an alternative, interview a few friends about one of these organizations. Have students share their findings with the class. What can be learned about attitudes by having these discussions? What would be of value to a marketer? Divide the class into teams and have each team come up with a set of about ten descriptive words that could be used to positively or negatively describe a specific consumer good (e.g., stereo, car, expensive clothing, etc.). Send students out to interview a friend who owns this product. Determine the length of time the respondent has owned the product, and then have the respondent evaluate the product according to some criteria determined by the class. See if the people who more recently purchased the product have a more positive attitude toward it than those who have owned it for a longer period of time. Because of time length, the instructor may wish to do this in class between groups or have only a few students participate in the project. Attitudes change over time. Have groups of students brainstorm a list of products for which consumer attitudes have changed over time. Be sure to have them identify the change agent involved (either some aspect of the external environment or some aspect of the company itself). •Attitudes are made up of three components: affect, behaviour, cognition Have students identify a list of three products and describe how the ABC model of attitudes applies to their own attitudes towards the products. For instance, they may like the product, and think it’s interesting, but what is the likely behavioural outcome? •We form attitudes in several ways Attitudes change over time. Have groups of students brainstorm a list of products for which consumer attitudes have changed over time. Be sure to have them identify the change agent involved (either some aspect of the external environment or some aspect of the company itself). Have students identify one specific example for each of the three hierarchies of the ABC model. For each, they should give details as to the application of each component. Go to www.dropzone.com. Apply the ABC model of attitudes to the activity of skydiving. Which of the three hierarchies is most applicable? What modifications could be made to this? •A need to maintain consistency among all of our attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or more of them Think of a behaviour someone does that is inconsistent with his or her attitudes (e.g., attitudes toward cholesterol, drug use, or even buying things to make them stand out or attain status). Ask the person to elaborate on why he or she does the behaviour and try to identify the way the person has resolved dissonant elements. Have students describe three instances when their purchase behaviour was inconsistent with an attitude toward the product or service they were buying. Explain why this happened. Share this with the class by asking them if they agree with the explanation or whether they have other notions. Have groups of students decide on a purchase situation that they all have experience with. Then, have them discuss situations involving cognitive dissonance (buyer’s remorse). What led to such? •We use attitude models to identify specific components and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall attitude toward a product or brand Construct a multi-attribute model for a set of local restaurants. Based on your findings, suggest how restaurant managers can improve their establishments’ images via the strategies described in the chapter. Have students explain the consistency, balance, and Fishbein theories to a friend, and then ask the friend to analyze two of his or her recent experiences that seem to confirm or disconfirm one or more of these theories. Report the findings to the class. There are four strategic applications of the multi-attribute model given in the text. Have groups identify cases where companies have applied each of them. Visit www.izod.com. Is a multi-attribute model a good one to apply to this product to explain how attitudes are formed? Why or why not? Suggest an alternative model. •Social norms can impact the degree to which consumer attitudes will influence behaviours Have students bring in examples of advertising that appeals to both descriptive and injunctive norms. Have them discuss what the marketer is trying to accomplish. Is it working? Why or why not? ENDNOTES i Dolf Zillman, "Mood Management Through Communication Choices," American Behavioural Scientist 31 (1988) 3: 327-40. ii Karen A. Machleit and Arti Sahni, "The Impact of Measurement Context on the Relationship Between Attitude Toward the Ad and Brand Attitude for Familiar Brands," Advances in Consumer Research 19, eds. John F. Sherry, Jr., and Brian Sternthal (Provo, Utah: Association for Consumer Research, 1992), 279-83. iii Srinivas Durvasula, J. Craig Andrews, Steven Lysonki, and Richard G. Netemeyer, "Assessing the Cross- National Applicability of Consumer Behaviour Models: A Model of Attitude Toward Advertising in General," Journal of Consumer Research 19 (March 1993): 626-636. iv Amitava Chattopadhyay and Prakash Negungadi, "Does Attitude Toward the Ad Endure? The Moderating Effects of Attention and Delay," Journal of Consumer Research 19 (June 1992): 26-33. v Richard P. Bagozzi, Hans Baumgartner, and Youjae Yi, "State Versus Action Orientation and the Theory of Reasoned Action: An Application to Coupon Usage," Journal of Consumer Research 18 (March 1992): 505-18. vi Vicki G. Morwitz, Eric Johnson, and David Schmittlein, "Does Measuring Intent Change Behaviour?" Journal of Consumer Research 20 (June 1993) 1: 46-61. vii Ida E. Berger, Brian T. Ratchford, and George H. Haines, Jr., "Subjective Product Knowledge as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Attitudes and Purchase Intentions for a Durable Product," Journal of Economic Psychology 15 (1994): 301-314. viii Paul W. Miniard and Joel B. Cohen, "Modeling Personal and Normative Influences on Behaviour," Journal of Consumer Research 10 (September 1983): 169-80 ix Russell H. Fazio, Martha C. Powell, and Paul M. Herr, "Toward a Process Model of the Attitude Behaviour Relation: Accessing One’s Attitude Upon Mere Observation of the Attitude Object," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44 (1983): 723-35. Solution Manual for Consumer Behaviour: Buying, Having, Being Michael R. Solomon, Katherine White, Darren W. Dahl 9780133958096