This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 10 CHAPTER 7: The Emergence of Homo sapiens Multiple Choice Questions 1. Recent finds in Africa date Homo sapiens to about __________ years ago. a. 300,000 b. 200,000 c. 160,000 d. 50,000 2. In __________, fossils were found in the Neander Valley, near Düsseldorf, Germany. a. 1859 b. 1856 c. 1850 d. 1846 3. Darwin’s The Origin of Species was published in __________. a. 1859 b. 1856 c. 1850 d. 1846 4. Differences in Neandertal skulls from modern human skulls include the following, except for ___________. a. sloping foreheads b. large brow ridges c. protruding chins d. flattened braincases 5. In __________, researchers from the United States and Germany published findings from mtDNA taken from the original Neandertal and compared with modern humans, forcing a reconsideration of the relationship of modern humans and Neandertals. a. 1990 b. 1995 c. 1997 d. 1999 6. Researchers from the United States and Germany have argued that the common ancestor of Neandertal and modern humans existed about _________ years ago. a. 1,000,000 b. 600,000 c. 400,000 d. 100,000 7. The only source of change for mitochondrial DNA is random mutation, which is thought to occur at the rate of __________. a. 2 percent per million years b. 4 percent per million years c. 6 percent per million years d. 8 percent per million years 8. New evidence suggests that people were hunting big game as long as _________ years ago. a. 1,000,000 b. 400,000 c. 100,000 d. 50,000 9. The two main theories about the origin of Modern humans are the single-origin theory and the ___________ theory. a. multiregional b. pluralistic c. multi-national d. multi-linear 10. __________ and her colleagues presented evidence that the modern ancestor of people in the United States, New Guinea, Africa, and East Asia lived about 200,000 years ago. a. Rebecca Cann b. Mary Leakey c. Nancy Minugh-Purvis d. Sally Binford 11. Which of the following is not a theory about what happened to the Neandertals? a. interbreeding b. genocide c. extinction d. multi-national 12. Toward the end of the Acheulian period a technique was developed, called the __________ method, which enabled the toolmaker to produce flake tools of a predetermined size. a. Mousterian b. Oldowan c. Levalloisian d. none of the above 13. __________ thinks that the Klasies River people in Africa hunted large and small game. a. Lewis Binford b. Sally Binford c. Richard Klein d. Charles Darwin 14. At ___________, a stack of seven bear skulls was found with evidence of Neandertal habitation. a. Neander Valley b. Shanidar c. Java d. Drachenloch cave 15. _________ is the main evidence used by the multiregional theorists to support their theory. a. MtDNA b. Extinction c. Interbreeding d. Continuity 16. Y chromosome evidence traces descent only from __________. a. males b. females c. both males and females d. neither males nor females 17. Explaining the disappearance of the Neandertals, the ___________ scenario has the clearest archaeological evidence to support it. a. interbreeding b. genocide c. extinction d. intermediate 18. The Neandertal period in Africa is called the __________. a. Middle Paleolithic b. Mesolithic c. Neolithic d. Middle Stone Age 19. It took about ___________ years from first discovery for scholars to accept the possibility that Neandertals were not that different from modern humans. a. 1,000 b. 500 c. 100 d. 50 20. Many of the excavated home sites from the Middle Paleolithic in Europe and the Near East are located in __________. a. caves b. river beds c. mountain tops d. trees 21. Cro-Magnon first appeared in Europe about _________ years ago. a. 75,000 b. 65,000 c. 45,000 d. 35,000 22. To explain why human evolution would proceed gradually and in the same direction in various parts of the Old World, multiregional theorists point to cultural improvements in ______________. a. clothing b. hunting tools and cooking technology c. teeth care d. language and communication 23. The Upper Paleolithic is characterized by a preponderance of blades and also __________. a. burins b. microliths c. bone and antler tools d. all of the above 24. Pressure flaking would be used in the __________ of making a tool. a. initial stages b. middle stages c. final stages d. sharpening stage 25. Tools made in the Upper Paleolithic suggest that the people were much more effective hunters and fishers than their predecessors because __________ have been discovered. a. atlatls b. spears c. hand axes d. bows and arrows 26. Upper Paleolithic art has been discovered at __________ where engraved pieces of red ocher date back to 77,000 years ago. a. Lascaux caves in France b. Blombos Cave in South Africa c. Koonalda Cave in Australia d. Altamira caves in Spain 27. Based on similarities in biological traits such as tooth forms and blood types, anthropologists agree that Native Americans originally came from __________. a. Africa b. Asia c. Australia d. Europe 28. __________ spear points are found in many locations in North America. a. Acheulian b. Levalloisian c. Mousterian d. Clovis 29. According to comparative linguists Joseph Greenberg and Merritt Ruhlen, there were __________ waves of migration into the New World. a. two b. three c. four d. five 30. Archaeologists believe some populations at the end of the Upper Paleolithic times were induced to alter their food-getting strategies due to __________. a. overpopulation b. political upheaval c. environmental changes d. animal extinctions Essay Questions 31. Evaluate the three scenarios for what happened to Neandertals. 32. Evaluate the theories on the origin of modern humans. 33. Discuss the arguments on the relationship between Neandertals and early modern humans. 34. What do we know about Middle Paleolithic Cultures? 35. Compare the Mousterian and Levalloisian tool assemblages. 36. Discuss the evidence for Neandertal religion. 37. Food gathering is essential to hominid survival. How did Neandertals and early modern humans get their food? 38. Why is it important to discover the ways in which Homo erectus evolved into early modern humans? 39. Explain the importance of mtDNA and Y chromosome evidence. Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. c 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. b 7. a 8. b 9. a 10. a 11. d 12. c 13. c 14. d 15. d 16. a 17. c 18. d 19. c 20. a 21. d 22. b 23. d 24. c 25. a 26. b 27. b 28. d 29. b 30. c Essay Answer 31. The three main scenarios for what happened to Neanderthals are: 1. Interbreeding and assimilation: Neanderthals interbred with early modern humans, contributing to the genetic diversity of modern human populations. 2. Competition and replacement: Modern humans outcompeted Neanderthals for resources, leading to their decline and eventual extinction. 3. Environmental factors: Changes in climate and habitat may have also played a role in the decline of Neanderthals, affecting their ability to adapt and survive. These scenarios are not mutually exclusive, and a combination of these factors likely contributed to the disappearance of Neanderthals. 32. Theories on the origin of modern humans suggest: 1. Out-of-Africa theory: Modern humans evolved in Africa and migrated out, replacing other hominid species like Neanderthals. 2. Multiregional theory: Modern humans evolved simultaneously in multiple regions from diverse ancestral populations, with gene flow between groups. 3. Assimilation model: Modern humans emerged in Africa and interbred with archaic humans outside of Africa, incorporating some of their genetic traits. Current evidence strongly supports the Out-of-Africa theory, with genetic and fossil data indicating a single origin in Africa around 200,000 years ago, followed by migrations that replaced other hominid species worldwide. 33. The relationship between Neanderthals and early modern humans is debated, but evidence suggests: 1. Interbreeding: Genetic studies indicate interbreeding between Neanderthals and early modern humans, with modern humans outside Africa carrying Neanderthal DNA. 2. Cultural exchange: Archaeological evidence shows similarities in tool technologies and symbolic behavior, suggesting cultural exchange or shared behaviors. 3. Competition: Some evidence suggests competition for resources, possibly leading to displacement or assimilation of Neanderthals by modern humans. These factors indicate a complex interaction between Neanderthals and early modern humans, involving genetic admixture, cultural exchange, and possibly competition. 34. Middle Paleolithic cultures, spanning roughly from 300,000 to 30,000 years ago, are characterized by: 1. Tool technology: Development of sophisticated stone tools, including Mousterian tools associated with Neanderthals. 2. Hunting and gathering: Reliance on hunting large game and gathering plant resources, with evidence of systematic hunting strategies. 3. Shelter and fire: Use of caves and rock shelters for habitation, and evidence of controlled use of fire for warmth, cooking, and tool production. 4. Social organization: Possible burial practices, symbolic behavior, and evidence of early forms of language and communication. These cultures represent a significant period of human prehistory marked by advancements in technology and adaptations to various environments. 35. Mousterian and Levalloisian tool assemblages are both characteristic of Middle Paleolithic cultures, but they differ in key aspects: 1. Mousterian tools: • Associated with Neanderthals. • Tools are typically flaked by percussion and pressure techniques. • Common tools include points, scrapers, and handaxes. • Emphasizes versatility and adaptation to various tasks. 2. Levalloisian tools: • Found across various hominid groups including Neanderthals and early modern humans. • Tools are prepared cores where flakes are systematically removed to create a desired shape. • Blades and points are common, showing a more standardized and efficient tool-making technique. • Reflects a higher level of planning and skill in tool production compared to Mousterian tools. Overall, Levalloisian assemblages demonstrate a more advanced and efficient method of tool production compared to the versatile but less standardized Mousterian tools. 36. The evidence for Neanderthal religion is limited and debated, but some findings suggest: 1. Burial practices: Neanderthals buried their dead with grave goods and in specific orientations, suggesting ritualistic behavior. 2. Symbolism: Evidence of personal ornaments and use of pigments for body decoration imply symbolic or ritualistic activities. 3. Cave markings: Some caves associated with Neanderthals show markings and deliberate arrangements of stones, possibly for symbolic or ritual purposes. 4. Shamanistic practices: Hypotheses suggest Neanderthals may have had shamans or individuals with special roles in rituals, although evidence is speculative. While these findings hint at possible religious or ritual practices among Neanderthals, the interpretation remains contentious due to the scarcity and ambiguity of evidence. 37. Neanderthals and early modern humans obtained food through: 1. Hunting: Both hunted large game animals, such as mammoths, deer, and bison, using tools like spears and possibly cooperation strategies. 2. Gathering: They gathered plant foods like berries, nuts, and roots, supplementing their diet with vegetation. 3. Fishing: Evidence suggests both groups exploited aquatic resources, such as fish and shellfish, where available. 4. Seasonal adaptations: They adapted hunting and gathering strategies to seasonal changes in food availability, using shelters and fire for warmth and food preparation. These adaptive strategies ensured their survival and allowed them to thrive in diverse environments during the Middle Paleolithic period. 38. Understanding how Homo erectus evolved into early modern humans is important because it sheds light on key aspects of human evolution, including: 1. Biological adaptations: Insights into changes in anatomy, brain size, and physiology that contributed to the emergence of modern human traits. 2. Behavioral advancements: Understanding advancements in tool technology, social behaviors, and cognitive abilities that distinguish modern humans. 3. Migration and dispersal: Tracing the routes and timing of early human migrations out of Africa and across continents. 4. Cultural developments: Examining the development of language, symbolic behavior, and complex social structures that define modern human societies. By studying this evolutionary transition, researchers gain a deeper understanding of the factors that shaped human diversity and the origins of our species. 39. mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) and Y chromosome evidence are crucial in evolutionary studies because: 1. mtDNA: Passed down exclusively from mothers to offspring, mtDNA provides insights into maternal lineage and evolutionary relationships over long periods. It helps trace ancient migrations and population movements. 2. Y chromosome: Inherited only through paternal lines, the Y chromosome reveals information about paternal lineage, genetic diversity, and male-specific evolutionary patterns. It aids in understanding male population history and genetic mutations. Both mtDNA and Y chromosome evidence contribute to reconstructing human evolutionary history, migration patterns, and genetic adaptations, offering valuable insights into our ancestral origins and genetic diversity. CHAPTER 8: Food Production and the Rise of States Multiple Choice Questions 1. The first clear indication of a changeover to food production took place in the Near East about __________. a. 10,000 B.C b. 8000 B.C c. 4000 B.C d. 2000 B.C 2. The shift to food production is called the __________. a. Paleolithic Revolution b. Neolithic Revolution c. Cambrian Revolution d. Mesolithic Revolution 3. Settled life is called __________. a. sedentarism b. nomadism c. hunting d. wandering 4. Tools found at Natufian sites suggest they harvested _________ intensively. a. wild cows b. wild fruit c. wild grain d. domesticated grain 5. Among archaic peoples of Mesoamerica, ___________ were located near seasonally abundant resources. a. microbands b. mesobands c. macrobands d. broadbands 6. Unlike the Natufians, there was _________ evidence of social differences among the Archaic peoples of the Mesoamericas. a. great b. some c. little c. no 7. Which is not put forth as a possible reason for broad-spectrum collecting? a. climate change b. overkill c. population growth d. average height of the population 8. At present, archaeologists define the Neolithic in terms of the presence of __________. a. pottery and ground-stone tools b. domesticated plants and animals c. plows d. monogamous marriage 9. Archaeologists speak of domestication only when there is evidence that plants and animals show a _________ wild plants and animals. a. similarity to b. difference from c. relationship with d. none of the above 10. Animals were first domesticated in __________. a. Africa b. Mesoamerica c. Japan d. the Middle East 11. Most archaeologists believe that the __________ was one of the earliest centers of plant and animal domestication. a. Kansas plains b. Sahara Desert c. African savanna d. Fertile Crescent 12. In Ali Kosh in southwestern Iran after about 5500 B.C., __________ were two important innovations. a. irrigation and the use of domesticated cattle b. the steel plow and crop rotation c. intercrop cultivation and fertilizer d. the growth of legumes and artificial fertilizer 13. The earliest evidence of domesticated dogs comes from a site in northern Israel dated to about __________ years ago. a. 50,000 b. 32,000 c. 20,000 d. 15,000 14. Food production developed because of __________. a. climate change b. population pressure c. a shortage of desired products d. all of the above 15. The rise of food production led to __________. a. accelerated population growth b. declining health c. elaboration of material possessions d. all of the above 16. Cities first appeared in the Near East about __________. a. 5500 B.C b. 4500 B.C c. 3500 B.C d. 2000 A.D 17. Domestication in Africa is dated to around __________. a. 12000 B.C b. 6000 B.C c. 300 B.C d. 1000 A.D 18. Evidence of increased long-distance trade comes from villages established __________. a. in Paleolithic times b. in Mesolithic times c. after the rise of food production d. long before the rise of food production 19. Evidence of textile making and painted pottery comes from villages established __________. a. in Paleolithic times b. in Mesolithic times c. after the rise of food production d. long before the rise of food production 20. By about __________ B.C., archaeologists had found most of the major characteristics of civilizations. a. 5500 b. 4500 c. 3500 d. 2500 21. Some archaeologists suggest that states first evolved in __________. a. Africa b. China c. Arabia d. Mesopotamia 22. The first evidence of writing in Sumer is found about __________ B.C. a. 6000 b. 3000 c. 1500 d. 1000 23. Sumerian writing is called __________. a. spiral form b. cuneiform c. hieroglyphics d. alphabetic 24. By A.D. 500, there were over __________ people in Teotihuacán. a. 1,000,000 b. 2,000,000 c. 500,000 d. 100,000 25. The Harappan civilization was found in the __________ Valley. a. Nile b. Yangtse c. Indus d. Niger 26. One way states change the lifestyles of people is __________. a. by allowing for larger populations b. by encouraging hunting c. by providing more leisure d. by improving health 27. In the state, many people are relieved of the need for __________. a. making a living b. being a specialist of some sort c. food production d. food consumption 28. A negative result of the development of states is __________ a. the use of force to govern b. class stratification c. health issues due to concentration of people in cities d. all of the above 29. A major reason for the decline of states appears to be __________ a. environmental degradation. b. love of the simple life c. expansion of art d. taxes 30. Cahokia collapsed due to __________. a. disease b. over-population c. environmental degradation d. the over-use of wood Essay Questions 31. What factors account for the switch to broad-spectrum collecting? 32. How did broad-spectrum collecting differ in Europe from Mesoamerica? 33. Why are the Natufians important in the archaeological record? 34. How do archaeologists discover what food ancient peoples ate and why is it important to do so? 35. What is the relationship between broad-spectrum collecting and sedentarism? 36. Discuss the various hypotheses concerning the origin of food production. 37. List and discuss the consequences of the rise of food production. 38. Discuss the relationship between early agriculture and health. 39. Discuss how archaeologists know that they have discovered sites that show evidence of a switch to food production. Why is that important? 40. The chapter discusses movements that led to great changes in human culture all over the inhabited world. Did culture lead to these technological and adaptive changes or did the changes lead to changes in culture? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. b 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. d 8. b 9. b 10. d 11. d 12. a 13. d 14. d 15. d 16. c 17. b 18. c 19. c 20. c 21. d 22. b 23. b 24. d 25. c 26. a 27. c 28. d 29. a 30. d Essay Answer 31. Broad-spectrum collecting evolved due to the need to integrate various types of consumer data (e.g., demographics, behaviors, psychographics) to gain deeper insights into consumer preferences, habits, and decision-making processes, enabling more targeted marketing strategies and personalized customer experiences. 32. Broad-spectrum collecting in Europe focused on gathering diverse data types across demographics, behaviors, and psychographics to understand consumer preferences and habits. In contrast, in Mesoamerica, it may have involved collecting a wide range of artifacts and data related to cultural practices, agriculture, and environmental conditions for anthropological and historical insights. 33. The Natufians are important in the archaeological record because they represent one of the earliest known societies to transition from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to a more settled, semi-sedentary lifestyle. This transition laid the groundwork for the development of agriculture and the establishment of permanent settlements, marking a significant shift in human socio-economic evolution. 34. Archaeologists discover ancient diets through analyzing preserved food remains such as plant seeds, animal bones, and residues on pottery. Understanding ancient diets helps reconstruct lifestyles, health, social structures, and cultural practices of past societies, offering insights into human adaptation and development over time. 35. Broad-spectrum collecting, which involves gathering diverse data for comprehensive insights, correlates with sedentarism by supporting the development of settled lifestyles. This data collection aids in understanding resource management, agricultural practices, and community dynamics crucial for sustaining sedentary societies. 36. Various hypotheses on the origin of food production include: 1. Population Pressure Hypothesis: Suggests that increasing population density led to resource depletion, prompting the shift from foraging to cultivation. 2. Climate Change Hypothesis: Posits that environmental shifts, such as the end of the Ice Age, influenced the availability and predictability of food sources, encouraging domestication. 3. Social Hypothesis: Proposes that social and cultural factors, such as status differentiation or rituals, drove the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals. 4. Optimal Foraging Strategy Hypothesis: Argues that transitioning to food production provided more predictable and efficient access to food compared to hunting and gathering. 5. Dual-Processual Model: Integrates environmental and social factors, suggesting that both played complementary roles in the transition to food production. These hypotheses highlight diverse factors that potentially influenced the beginnings of agriculture and animal domestication in different regions and contexts globally. 37. The consequences of the rise of food production include: 1. Population Growth: Agriculture allowed for more reliable food supplies, leading to population increases as societies could support larger numbers. 2. Settlement and Urbanization: Agriculture enabled permanent settlements and the development of cities as people congregated around fertile land and trade routes. 3. Social Stratification: Surpluses from agriculture led to social classes based on access to resources, wealth, and power, contributing to hierarchical societies. 4. Technological Advancements: Agricultural societies developed tools, irrigation systems, and storage techniques, advancing technology and trade networks. 5. Environmental Impact: Agriculture altered landscapes through deforestation, soil erosion, and water management, influencing biodiversity and ecosystems. 6. Health Changes: Transitioning to agriculture affected nutrition and health, leading to both improvements (stability in food supply) and challenges (dietary deficiencies and diseases). 7. Cultural and Religious Developments: Agricultural practices influenced cultural beliefs, rituals, and governance structures, shaping societies' identities and values. These consequences highlight the transformative impact of food production on human societies, shaping their development, environment, and social structures. 38. Early agriculture impacted health both positively and negatively: • Positive Impacts: It provided a more stable food supply, reduced seasonal food shortages, and supported larger populations. • Negative Impacts: Agricultural diets sometimes lacked diversity, leading to nutritional deficiencies. Additionally, sedentary lifestyles and proximity to livestock increased the risk of infectious diseases 39. Archaeologists identify sites showing evidence of a switch to food production through various indicators such as the presence of domesticated plants and animals, agricultural tools, storage facilities, and changes in settlement patterns. This evidence is crucial as it marks a significant transition in human history, revealing insights into societal changes, economic practices, and environmental impacts associated with the advent of agriculture. 40. The relationship between culture and technological/adaptive changes is complex and often reciprocal. Culture influences technological and adaptive changes by shaping values, beliefs, and social norms that drive innovation and adaptation. Simultaneously, technological and adaptive changes can alter culture by introducing new practices, tools, and social structures that reshape societal norms and behaviors. This interaction highlights a dynamic process where cultural and technological/adaptive changes often reinforce and evolve together. CHAPTER 9: Culture and Culture Change Multiple Choice Questions 1. The anthropological attitude that a society’s customs and ideas should be described objectively and understood in the context of that society’s problems and opportunities is called __________. a. ethnocentrism b. cultural relativism c. humanistic d. empathetic 2. Why would !Kung individuals of the Kalahari Desert give away all of the animals they kill every day? a. They are really nice people who care for each other. b. They have learned the true meaning of life. c. To keep the meat to one’s self would be wasteful, as it would rot. d. Spiritual beings show them the true way to live in communal harmony. 3. A group within a society that holds commonly shared customs is a __________. a. subculture b. sodality c. sub society d. subgroup 4. Anthropologists, as well as other social scientists, feel that culture is __________. a. inherited b. learned and shared c. transmitted only from one group to another d. only a small part of how people learn their behaviors 5. The most powerful transmitter of culture is probably __________. a. parents b. the elders of a society c. the school system d. language 6. Because a word or phrase can represent what it stands for, whether or not that thing is present, we say that language is __________. a. interpretive b. adaptive c. symbolic d. naturalistic 7. Variations in individual behavior are confined within __________ acceptable limits. a. legally b. a group’s c. socially d. normally 8. A __________ is a group of people who occupy a particular territory and speak a common language. a. family b. culture c. society d. subculture 9. Standards or rules about what is acceptable behavior are referred to by social scientists as __________. a. major rules b. laws c. mores d. norms 10. In discovering cultural patterns, it is sometimes necessary to conduct surveys. What sampling technique is necessary to guarantee a representative sample? a. Population sampling b. Redundant sampling c. Random sampling d. Marginal sampling 11. Why are maladaptive customs likely to disappear from a society? a. No one likes them. b. They diminish the chances of survival and reproduction. c. They are immediately destructive of the group. d. They are too unique for the group. 12. Participant observation refers to the __________ a. observation of how people interact in carefully contrived situations b. use of a laboratory to standardize measurements c. practice of living among the people being studied d. employment of natives to gather information from their peers for the anthropologists to study 13. The concept of cultural integration means that __________. a. cultural elements or traits are adjusted to or constant b. various subgroups in the society work together c. cultural traits that are maladaptive can be made to work with adaptive traits d. cultural elements relate only in certain ways 14. Known as accidental juxtaposition or __________, Ralph Linton suggests these were the result of literally dozens of tiny initiatives. a. unconscious invention b. conscious invention c. diffusion d. migration 15. In the Asch experiment, ___________ of the subjects retained their independent opinions. a. 2/3 b. 1/2 c. 1/4 d. 5/8 16. Emile Durkheim stressed that culture is something __________ us exerting a strong __________ power on us. a. inside/coercive b. outside/limiting c. inside/limiting d. outside/coercive 17. A person who judges other cultures solely in terms of his or her own culture is said to be _________. a. integrated b. maladaptive c. ethnocentric d. prejudiced 18. In anthropology, the term “culture” refers to __________. a. the care of plant and animal resources b. the artistic heritage of any society, including painting and sculpture, music and the performing arts c. the long-standing traditions of a particular society d. all the learned behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, values, and ideals that are characteristic of a particular society or other social group 19. For something to be cultural it must be __________. a. traditional b. learned and commonly shared c. part of a society’s ideals d. unchanging 20. __________ may differ from actual behavior because the ___________ is/are based on the way society used to be. a. Ideal cultural traits/ideal b. Accepted cultural traits/ideal c. Ideal cultural traits/accepted traits d. Norms/mores 21. The term “subculture” refers to __________. a. the conscious behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals of a society b. the unconscious behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals of a society c. a cultural pattern considered inferior by members of a society d. the variant culture of a group of people within a larger society 22. The fact that monkeys and apes can learn new behaviors from each other __________. a. does not necessarily mean that they have culture, since their social life may be purely instinctual b. suggests that they have a culture c. suggests that they are ancestral to modern humans d. suggests that they are classified as more cultural than many mammals that spend their lives in isolation 23. Anthropologists can generate interpretations on the basis of worldwide comparisons by looking for differences between those societies having, and those lacking, a particular characteristic. This type of research is called __________. a. nonhistorical controlled comparison b. within-culture comparison c. cross-cultural d. historical research 24. A complex system of spoken, symbolic communication, which we call “language,” __________. a. probably originated in a few societies 20,000 years ago b. has existed in all people known to anthropologists c. does not exist among many of the world’s simpler societies d. probably originated about the same time as agriculture 25. __________ is a behavior that would most likely be subject to direct cultural constraints in American society. a. Choosing to wear nothing b. A young man’s attempt to kiss his girlfriend c. A woman carrying her child in a soft basket hung from her head d. Dancing in the street before going to work 26. The ideal cultural patterns of a society __________. a. generally reflect the way a society was in the past b. consist of the cultural patterns that most people always exhibit c. consist of the ideas people have about how they ought to behave d. are usually followed by the most respected members of a community, though not necessarily by others 27. __________ is an example of an ideal cultural pattern in the United States. a. The belief that God is full of anger and vengeance b. The belief that students go on to college to get away from their parents c. The belief that everybody is equal before the law d. The high value given to apple pie in American society 28. One example of a(n) __________ is how far apart people stand when they are having a conversation. a. custom b. random sample c. integration d. cultural pattern 29. The frequency distribution of behavior patterns in a group very often takes the form of __________. a. a bell-shaped curve b. a straight line graph c. an S-shaped curve d. a Poisson curve 30. Which type of behavior would most appropriately be studied with a random sample of individuals? a. Public behavior b. Unconscious behavior c. Private behavior d. Both b and c Essay Questions 31. Define ethnocentrism. What forms does it take in our own society? What can be done to reduce attitudes of ethnocentrism between various groups? 32. How are the two statements “culture is adaptive” and “culture is always changing” related? 33. Why may it be necessary for anthropologists to abandon the strong form of cultural relativism in favor of the weaker form? 34. Describe an action that would lead to imprisonment. How does prison act as a constraint to an individual? Why do some people violate norms (and end up in prison)? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. b 2. c 3. a 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. c 9. d 10. c 11. b 12. c 13. a 14. a 15. c 16. d 17. c 18. d 19. b 20. a 21. d 22. b 23. c 24. b 25. a 26. c 27. c 28. d 29. a 30. d Essay Answer 31. Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one's own cultural group, often accompanied by a tendency to judge other groups by one's own standards. In our society, ethnocentrism can manifest as prejudice, discrimination, or stereotypes towards people of different cultural backgrounds, races, or ethnicities. To reduce ethnocentrism, promoting cultural awareness, education about diversity, and fostering empathy through exposure to different perspectives are crucial. Encouraging intercultural dialogue, respecting cultural differences, and challenging biased attitudes and behaviors can also help mitigate ethnocentric tendencies. 32. The statements "culture is adaptive" and "culture is always changing" are related because they both acknowledge that cultures evolve in response to environmental, social, and historical factors. Adaptation implies that cultures adjust to new circumstances or challenges, leading to changes over time. Therefore, the dynamic nature of cultural adaptation inherently involves ongoing transformations, illustrating why culture is seen as constantly changing. 33. Anthropologists may find it necessary to abandon the strong form of cultural relativism, which suggests all cultural practices are equally valid, in favor of the weaker form because the strong form can overlook human rights abuses or harmful practices justified by cultural norms. The weaker form allows for critical evaluation of cultural practices while still respecting cultural differences and contexts. 34. An action that could lead to imprisonment includes committing a serious crime such as robbery or murder. Prison acts as a constraint by physically confining individuals, limiting their freedom and autonomy. It also imposes societal disapproval and stigma, affecting personal relationships and future opportunities. People may violate norms and end up in prison due to various reasons such as socio-economic disadvantages, psychological factors like impulsivity or antisocial behavior, lack of opportunities, or exposure to criminal influences. Factors like upbringing, peer pressure, and societal inequalities can also contribute to norm violation and subsequent incarceration. CHAPTER 10: Language and Communication Multiple Choice Questions 1. A person’s ____________, or pronunciation, can tell a lot about the person’s background. a. lexicon b. syntax c. grammar d. accent 2. When we say that a communication is __________, we mean at least two things. First, the communication has meaning even when the referent is not there, and second, the meaning is arbitrary. a. understandable b. symbolic c. representative d. rhetorical 3. To a linguist, __________ consists of the actual, often unconscious principles that predict how most people talk. a. dialect b. lexicon c. grammar d. syntax 4. The earliest writing systems are about _________ years old. a. 5,000 b. 10,000 c. 3,500 d. 6,000 5. How many mutually unintelligible languages have been identified? a. none b. 2,000 c. 4,000-5,000 d. 8,000-10,000 6. A __________ language is one which developed from a pidgin language. a. dialect b. creole c. native d. dominant 7. ___________ is/are variant forms of language. a. Syntax b. Inductive c. Dialects d. Descriptive grammar 8. Children the world over tend to progress to two-word sentences by what age? a. 12 months b. 16 months c. 12 to 18 months d. 18 to 24 months 9. A __________ is a sound to a linguist. a. phone b. phoneme c. morph d. morpheme 10. A set of sounds that make a difference in language is a __________. a. phone b. phoneme c. morph d. morpheme 11. The smallest unit of language that has meaning is a __________. a. phone b. phoneme c. morph d. morpheme 12. One way a society may reflect its corresponding culture is in its lexical content, or ________. a. syntax b. linguistics c. terminology d. vocabulary 13. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that __________. a. societies are heavily influenced by their languages b. language is a force in its own right, that affects how individuals in a society perceive and conceive reality c. culture is the molder of language; languages reflect the values, attitudes, and beliefs of the society d. language is neutral to society. It is the society that forms the language 14. The word “communicate” comes from the Latin word meaning __________. a. to transmit b. to share c. equality d. to travel 15. With which animal have researchers demonstrated the symbolic meaning of vocal communication used naturally in the wild? a. ants b. bees c. hyenas d. vervet monkeys 16. One explanation for gender differences, particularly with regard to pronunciation, is that women in many societies may be more concerned with being “______________.” a. exact b. right c. perfect d. correct 17. Children learn spoken language __________. a. at a relatively later age in simpler societies b. at about the same age in all cultures c. at a surprisingly wide range of ages, but with no observable correlation with societal complexity d. at a relatively later age in more complex societies 18. A pidgin language __________. a. is a symbolic system of communication used by certain birds b. resembles language spoken by early humans c. is a simplified language based on the language of a dominant group d. is a creole language to which additional, key grammatical forms have been added 19. __________ refers to a language that is reconstructed by comparing its derived languages. a. Body language b. Lexicon c. Symbolic language d. Protolanguage 20. The language family that English belongs to is called __________. a. Indo-European b. Indo-Iranian c. Latin d. Sanskrit 21. The use of more than one language in the course of conversation is referred to as _________. a. spanglish b. code-switching c. annoying d. bilingual 22. The roles that determine how phrases and sentences are formed make up a language’s __________. a. morphology b. descriptive grammar c. syntax d. phonology 23. About 50 percent of the English general vocabulary originated in __________. a. Finnish b. Norman c. German d. French 24. Historical linguists reconstruct changes that have occurred __________. a. primarily through the study of children’s speech b. primarily through the use of written records c. by noting how modern languages are undergoing change and extrapolating these tendencies into the past d. by comparing contemporary languages that are similar 25. The lexicon of a language approximates a __________ of the language a. phoneme b. dictionary c. morpheme d. syntax 26. About ___________ of the world’s people speak Indo-European languages. a. 5% b. less than 1% c. 50% d. 10% 27. If a language has a basic color term for “yellow” it is most likely also to have a color term for __________. a. green b. chartreuse c. brown d. red 28. Which society would probably have the fewest basic color terms? a. a society that lacks a written language b. a society located near the north pole c. a society whose people have darker eyes d. an industrialized agricultural society 29. Compared to people in simpler societies, people in complex societies __________. a. commonly have fewer terms for basic colors b. commonly can give a larger number of general or life-form terms for plants and animals c. commonly have the same number of general terms for plants, but more terms for specific plants d. usually have more names for specific plants, but the same number of general plant terms 30. The idea that language influences culture __________. a. has been rejected by most anthropologists b. is accepted by most anthropologists, but not by linguists c. is supported by a comparative study of gender identity learning among Hebrew, Finnish, and American children d. is accepted by most linguists 31. This scholar argues that all humans have an innate language-acquisition device, leading to a basic, “universal” grammar. a. Roger Fouts b. Noam Chomsky c. Cecil Brown d. Derek Bickerton 32. In which language would you expect children to develop a concept of gender permanence at the earliest age? a. one in which many nouns are clearly defined as either masculine or feminine b. one in which relatively few words have a gender c. one in which no generalized words have a gender d. there is no difference in the development of this concept based on language 33. What is the difference between an open and a closed communication system? a. open systems have no grammar or syntax, while closed systems are more formal b. open systems are found only in written languages, while closed systems do not require writing c. open systems allow for sounds to be combined in unique ways, while closed systems are more limited d. open systems are vocal or gestural, while closed systems are gestural only 34. Which of the following is an example of a phoneme in English? a. the suffix –es b. the word dog c. the sound /b/ d. the root word –lit- 35. What cultural pattern predicts whether a language will alternate consonant and vowel sounds more or less regularly? a. whether or not the language is written b. how old the language is c. whether the language developed from Proto-Indo-European or Proto-Bantu d. how many native speakers the language has 36. Which of the following statements is true of dialects? a. dialects are a good predictor of a person’s education and intelligence b. dialects are improper variants of a standardized language c. dialects are very similar to each other, and unlikely to develop into different languages d. dialects are equally viable variations of a single language Essay Questions 37. State the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in your own words. Give an example of how this hypothesis may be applied using the concept of time as your model. Give an example of how you use speech in various social contexts. 38. How does human communication differ from chimpanzee communication? 39. How do languages change over time? Explain how dialects and language variants are likely to develop. 40. How does a creole language develop? 41. Why are differences in pronunciation difficult to hear for native speakers and yet simple for non-native speakers? 42. Do you believe that preservation of language is important to human cultures? Why or why not? Multiple Choice Answer Key 1. d 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. c 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. b 11. c 12. d 13. b 14. b 15. d 16. d 17. b 18. c 19. d 20. a 21. b 22. c 23. d 24. d 25. b 26. c 27. d 28. c 29. b 30. c 31. b 32. a 33. c 34. c 35. a 36. d Essay Answer 37. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language shapes the way individuals perceive and think about the world. For example, different languages may have varying concepts of time. In English, time is often conceptualized as linear (past, present, future), whereas in some Indigenous cultures, time might be viewed cyclically or as interconnected with natural events. In social contexts, I adjust my speech to fit the situation. For instance, I use formal language during presentations to convey professionalism and clarity, while in casual conversations with friends, I use informal language and slang to foster rapport and ease. 38. Human communication differs from chimpanzee communication primarily in complexity and versatility. While chimpanzees use gestures, vocalizations, and facial expressions to convey basic needs and emotions, human communication includes complex language with grammar, syntax, and the ability to convey abstract concepts, emotions, and ideas. Humans also use written language, sign language, and non-verbal cues in highly nuanced ways that facilitate social bonding, cooperation, and cultural transmission to a much greater extent than chimpanzees. 39. Languages change over time through several processes such as linguistic drift, borrowing from other languages, and shifts in pronunciation and grammar. Dialects and language variants develop when groups of speakers geographically or socially isolate themselves, leading to distinct regional or social variations in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. Over time, these differences can become more pronounced, resulting in mutually unintelligible dialects or even new languages altogether. 40. A creole language develops when speakers of different languages come into prolonged contact, typically under conditions of social upheaval or colonization. Initially, they communicate using a simplified pidgin language. Over generations, as children grow up hearing and learning this pidgin as their native tongue, it develops into a more complex and stable creole language with its own grammar, vocabulary, and rules of usage. 41. Differences in pronunciation are often difficult for native speakers to hear because they are deeply ingrained in their linguistic patterns and may not consciously notice slight variations. Non-native speakers, on the other hand, often approach pronunciation more analytically and may be more attuned to differences due to their learning process, making them more likely to notice and adjust their own pronunciation accordingly. 42. Yes, the preservation of language is important to human cultures. Language is not just a means of communication but also a repository of cultural identity, history, and collective knowledge. Each language encapsulates unique ways of thinking, expressing ideas, and understanding the world. Preserving languages helps maintain cultural diversity, fosters intergenerational transmission of cultural heritage, and supports the continuity of traditions and values that are integral to communities' identities and well-being. Test Bank for Human Evolution and Culture: Highlights of Anthropology Carol R. Ember, Melvin R. Ember, Peter N. Peregrine 9780205924776, 9780205232390, 9780136036357, 9780133976069
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