This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 9 Chapter 7 Political Participation: Activating the Popular Will Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: • Analyze factors in voter participation. • Differentiate conventional forms of participation other than voting. • Explain political movements and protest politics. • Describe Americans’ participation in politics. • Describe the election process in the United States. Identify how technology will likely continue to transform the political landscape. Chapter Outline I. Voter Participation A. Factors in Voter Turnout: The United States in Comparative Perspective 1. Registration Requirements 2. Frequency of Elections B. Why Some Americans Vote and Others Do Not 1. Education and Income 2. Age 3. Civic Attitudes 4. Political Interest and Partisanship II. Conventional Forms of Participation Other Than Voting A. Campaign and Lobbying Activities B. Virtual Participation C. Community Activities III. Unconventional Activism: Political Movements and Protests A. Recent Protest Movements and Their Success 1. Tea Party Movement 2. Occupy Wall Street 3. Black Lives Matter 4. The MeToo Movement 5. Movement Against Gun Violence 6. Factors in the Success of Social Movements C. The Public’s Response to Protest Activity IV. Participation and the Potential for Influence V. Summary Focus and Main Points As this chapter will show, the United States provides citizens with abundant opportunities for meaningful participation while at the same time having structures that work against full participation by some citizens, particularly those of lower income and education. The chapter will also show that the pattern of participation in the United States differs from that of most Western democracies. It has comparatively low levels of voter participation while having comparatively high levels of other types of participation, including volunteer work in local communities.The chapter’s main points are the following: • Voter turnout in U.S. elections is low in comparison with that of other Western democracies. The reasons include U.S. election laws, particularly those pertaining to registration requirements and the scheduling of elections. • Most citizens do not participate actively in politics in ways other than voting. Only a minority of Americans can be classified as political activists. Nevertheless, Americans are more likely than citizens of other democracies to contribute time and money to political and community organizations. • Most Americans make a distinction between their personal lives and public life. This outlook reduces their incentive to participate and contributes to a pattern of participation dominated by citizens of higher income and education. Chapter Summary Political participation is involvement in activities designed to influence public policy and leadership. A main issue of democratic government is the question of who participates in politics and how fully they participate. Voting is the most widespread form of active political participation among Americans. Yet voter turnout is significantly lower in the United States than in other democratic nations. The requirement that Americans must personally register in order to become eligible to vote is one reason for lower turnout among Americans; other democracies place the burden of registration on government officials rather than on the individual citizens. The fact that the United States holds frequent elections also discourages some citizens from voting regularly. Only a minority of citizens engage in the more demanding forms of political activity, such as work on community affairs or on behalf of a candidate during a political campaign. Nevertheless, the proportion of Americans who engage in these more demanding forms of activity exceeds the proportion of Europeans who do so. Most political activists are individuals of higher income and education; they have the skills and material resources to participate effectively and tend to take a greater interest in politics. More than in any other Western democracy, political participation in the United States is related to economic status. Political movements are broad efforts to achieve change by citizens who feel that government is not properly responsive to their interests. These efforts typically take place outside established channels; demonstrations and marches are common means of protest. A number of major protest movements have had varying levels of success, such as Black Lives Matter and the movement against gun violence. Despite America’s tradition of free expression, protest activities are less common in the U.S. than in many other democracies. Although public support for protests depends on the issue at stake, most Americans do not embrace it as much as they do voting. Overall, Americans are only moderately involved in politics. Although they are concerned with political affairs, they are mostly immersed in their private pursuits, a reflection in part of a cultural belief in individualism. The lower level of participation among low-income citizens has particular significance in that it works to reduce their influence on public policy and leadership. Major Concepts political participation Involvement in activities intended to influence public policy and leadership, such as voting, joining political groups, contacting elected officials, demonstrating for political causes, and giving money to political candidates. suffrage The right to vote. voter turnout The proportion of persons of voting age who actually vote in a given election. registration The practice of placing citizens’ names on an official list of voters before they are eligible to exercise their right to vote. apathy A feeling of personal disinterest in or lack of concern with politics. alienation A feeling of personal powerlessness that includes the notion that government does not care about the opinions of people like oneself. civic duty The belief of an individual that civic and political participation is a responsibility of citizenship. social capital The sum of the face-to-face interactions among citizens in a society. political (social) movements Active and sustained efforts to achieve social and political change by groups of people who feel that government has not been properly responsive to their concerns. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. The focus of this chapter is on political participation and its various forms. The author highlights voting as the most common form of political activity, examining the impact of registration requirements, the structure and frequency of elections, socioeconomic status, and other important factors on voter turnout. Differences in the extent and forms of other conventional form sof political participation are examined, and the effects of both individual and systemic factors are analyzed. Despite very high stakes, strong partisan competition, and intense get-out-the-vote drives, millions of eligible voters did not bother to go to the polls in the 2016 elections. I. Voter Participation For much of American history, suffrage—the right to vote—was largely restricted to white males. African American males were granted the right to vote after the Civil War with the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment, though effective barriers precluded many from fully exercising this right until the 1960s. Women were not guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections until 1920 with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment. Although voting laws are less restrictive today, voter turnout in the United States is lower than in other democracies. This pattern is due to a variety of systemic factors. • Americans must personally register to vote, which puts an added burden on would-be voters, thus contributing to lower turnout rates. The Motor Voter law increased registration, but many states do little else to publicize registration. • Americans are asked to vote with a frequency that is unmatched anywhere else in the Western world, which reduces their willingness to vote. • Registration requirements remain restrictive in some states, which are allowed to form their own requirements independently of each other. Some states require voting ID cards, and registration periods and locations are often not well publicized. Some Americans do vote more regularly than others. • Regular voters tend to have a higher economic status and education level. Barriers to voting such as personal registration are more likely to discourage participation by individuals of low income and education. • Regular voters are generally older than nonvoters. Younger Americans are much less likely to vote than their older counterparts. • Some American citizens are characterized by apathy—a lack of interest in voting—and some by alienation, which is a belief that they cannot affect the government or that it does not care about them. Many Americans see voting as a civic duty. In recent years there has been an increase in the turnout of young voters, partly attributable to an increase in their feelings of civic responsibility. • Levels of political interest that encourage voting are often a consequence of partisanship. Party identifiers turn out much more often than independents. II. Conventional Forms of Participation Other Than Voting There are other forms of political participation besides voting. Those that are within the bounds of accepted, normal, or expected citizen behavior are considered conventional. • These forms include contributing money to campaigns, participating in community activities, lobbying public officials, and joining political organizations. • Even though U.S. voter turnout is lower than in most European countries, the level of other forms of political participation, such as group involvement, is higher in the United States than in other democracies. • Community activities offer the citizen substantial opportunities to participate, and in general Americans are more active in community participation than are Europeans. III. Unconventional Activism: Political Movements and Protests • Political movements are broad efforts by citizens to change policy whenever they feel that government has been unresponsive to their interests. These efforts are channeled through conventional forms of participation, such as political lobbying, but citizens sometimes take to the streets in protest against government. • The past few years have witnessed a rise in protest activity, in large part due to a widening partisan divide and gridlock in Washington. • The Tea Party and Occupy Wall Street movements each started in response to anger at established economic interests, but they otherwise have little in common. Black Lives Matter has worked to highlight the differences in how white and black citizens are treated by law enforcement. The MeToo movement to protest and raise awareness of sexual harrassment against women, and mass shootings helped launch the movement against gun violence into a new and more visible phase. • Americans tend to support conventional political activism (e.g., voting, contributing money to campaigns, and writing senators) over unconventional activism (e.g., pickets and marches). Despite the popular disapproval of unconventional behavior, such actions have sometimes had a definite impact on government officials, changing their agenda and policies. IV. Participation and the Potential for Influence The emphasis that the American culture places on individualism tends to discourage a sense of urgency about political participation. Americans tend not to view their material well-being as greatly dependent on collective political involvement. • Less-affluent Americans may have different opinions compared to wealthier Americans, yet they tend to be a relatively weak force in the nation’s political system. • The pattern of individual political participation in the United States parallels the distribution of influence that prevails in the private sector. Complementary Lecture Topics Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. • Even in a presidential election, only about 60 percent of the eligible adults exercise their right to vote. What are the consequences of a low voter turnout? Does it have any possible benefits? • How would policies and leaders change in America if the poorer segments of society became politically mobilized and began to vote in large numbers? • The United States was born from a revolution, and many historical changes were instituted through protest politics (e.g., women’s suffrage and civil rights). Yet, the large majority of Americans disapprove of political protests and demonstrations as a form of participation. Why is this the case? What are the implications of this attitude for fringe groups in the political system? • Why is voter turnout higher in countries where political conflict is organized along class lines than in the United States, where it is focused on rival candidates with similar agendas? Discuss this pattern as a larger explanation for the nature of American politics. • Other nations have mandatory voting laws. Can such provisions be instituted in the United States, and what effects would they have, especially on policy making? Class Discussion Topics 1. What is the process for registering to vote in your area? What process does a person need to go through to vote by absentee ballot? Are there too many restrictions? What suggestions does the class have for increasing voter turnout? Do students think that low turnout is a problem that needs to be addressed? Answer: Process for Registering to Vote: 1. Eligibility: Generally, individuals must be U.S. citizens, meet state residency requirements, and be at least 18 years old by Election Day. Some states have additional requirements or restrictions. 2. Registration Methods: • Online: Many states offer online registration through their state election website. • In-Person: Voters can register at designated government offices, such as the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) or local election offices. • Mail: Voters can download a registration form, complete it, and mail it to the appropriate local election office. • Same-Day Registration: Some states allow voters to register on Election Day at their polling place. Absentee Voting Process: 1. Application: Voters must request an absentee ballot, typically by completing an application form available online or at local election offices. 2. Eligibility: Requirements vary by state. Some states require a valid reason, such as being out of the county on Election Day, while others offer "no-excuse" absentee voting. 3. Receiving the Ballot: Once the application is approved, the voter will receive the absentee ballot by mail. 4. Returning the Ballot: The completed ballot must be returned by mail or dropped off at designated locations, such as the election office or secure drop boxes, by the specified deadline. Restrictions and Suggestions for Increasing Voter Turnout: • Discussion on Restrictions: Students can discuss whether they find the current registration and absentee voting processes too restrictive. Topics might include voter ID requirements, deadlines, and limitations on early voting or absentee voting. • Suggestions for Increasing Turnout: Ideas might include implementing automatic voter registration, expanding early voting and absentee voting options, providing more voting locations, or making Election Day a national holiday. • Low Turnout Concerns: The class can discuss whether they believe low voter turnout is a significant issue. Consider the implications of low turnout on democratic representation and policy outcomes. 2. Discuss several tactics available for protest and the channels that most people would go through to draw attention to grievances. How are protests handled on your campus? What avenues do students have for drawing attention to their concerns and suggesting change? What are the most effective ways to get attention and achieve change? What are the consequences of violence? Answer: Tactics for Protest: 1. Peaceful Demonstrations: Includes marches, rallies, sit-ins, and vigils. Peaceful protests are protected under the First Amendment and are a common way to draw attention to issues. 2. Petitions and Campaigns: Collecting signatures to support a cause or call for a specific action. 3. Media Campaigns: Utilizing social media, traditional media, and digital platforms to raise awareness and mobilize support. 4. Boycotts: Refusing to purchase goods or services from a specific company or organization to protest their policies or actions. 5. Civil Disobedience: Nonviolent resistance to laws or policies perceived as unjust, often involving deliberate law-breaking to make a point. Campus Protest Channels: 1. Student Government: Students can work through student government organizations to advocate for changes and voice concerns. 2. Student Organizations: Groups focused on specific issues can organize events, discussions, and protests. 3. Media Outlets: Campus newspapers, radio stations, and social media channels can be used to highlight issues and mobilize support. 4. Administration and Faculty: Engaging with university officials, faculty, and committees to discuss and address concerns. Effective Methods and Consequences of Violence: • Effective Methods: Discuss which methods are most effective in gaining attention and achieving change, such as well-organized peaceful protests, clear messaging, and building coalitions. • Consequences of Violence: Address the potential negative consequences of violent protests, including legal repercussions, loss of public support, and the potential for escalated conflict. Discuss how violence can overshadow the message and undermine the goals of the protest. Class Discussion: • Experiences and Perspectives: Encourage students to share their experiences with protests, either as participants or observers. Discuss the balance between making a strong statement and maintaining public support. • Case Studies: Analyze past protests, both successful and unsuccessful, to identify key factors that influenced their outcomes. Discuss the role of leadership, organization, and public perception. Chapter 8 Political Parties, Candidates, and Campaigns: Defining the Voter’s Choice Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: • Trace the historical development of U.S. political parties. • Explain two-party domination in U.S. politics. • Describe the election process in the United States. • Assess the impact of third parties on U.S. electoral politics. • Describe the organization of U.S. political parties. • Identify the functions political parties perform. • Discuss candidate-centered campaigns. Chapter Outline I. Party Competition and Majority Rule A. The First Parties B. Andrew Jackson and Grassroots Parties C. Republicans versus Democrats: Realignments and the Enduring Party System D. The Nature and Origins of Today’s Party Alignment E. Parties and the Vote II. Electoral and Party Systems A. The Plurality (Single-Member-District) System of Election B. Politics and Coalitions in the Two-Party System 1. Seeking the Center, Without Losing the Support of the Party Faithful 2. Party Coalitions C. Minor (Third) Parties III. Parties and Candidates in the Campaign A. Primary Elections and Candidate Control B. The Parties’ Role in Campaigns 1. Local Political Parties 2. State Party Organizations 3. National Party Organizations B. Media Changes and Candidate Control 1. Rise of Televison 2. Rise of the Internet 3. Rise of Campaign Money 4. Rise of Political Consultants 5. How Much Difference Do Campaigns Make? IV. Parties, Candidates, and the Public’s Influence V. Summary Focus and Main Points This chapter examines political parties and the candidates who run under their name. U.S. campaigns are party centered in the sense that the Republican and Democratic parties compete across the country election after election. Yet campaigns are also candidate centered in the sense that individual candidates devise their own strategies, choose their own issues, and form their own campaign organizations. The following points are emphasized in this chapter: • Political competition in the United States has centered on two parties, a pattern that is explained primarily by America’s single-member district system of elections. Minor parties exist in the United States but have been unable to attract enough votes to win legislative seats. • To win an electoral majority, candidates of the two major parties must appeal to a large number of voters. This can lead them to advocate moderate policies, although in recent years they’ve increasingly positioned themselves away from the political center because of party polarization and a decline in the number of competitive states and districts. • U.S. party organizations play an important role in campaigns, although one that is less substantial than in their heyday. The introduction of primary elections and the emergence of televised campaigning gradually shifted primary control of elections from the parties to the candidates. Nevertheless, party organizations at the local, state, and national levels are major players in election campaigns. • Presidential and congressional campaigns are largely candidate centered. These campaigns are based on money and media and utilize the skills of professional consultants. Chapter Summary Political parties serve to link the public with its elected leaders. In the United States, this linkage is provided by the two-party system; although there have been a number of different parties in U.S. history, changing during major party realignments, the two-party system has dominated. That two-party system continues to be strong. Only the Republican and Democratic parties have any chance of winning control of government. The fact that the United States has only two major parties is explained in large part by an electoral system (single- member districts) that makes it difficult for third parties to compete for power; by each party’s willingness to accept differing political views; and by a political culture that stresses compromise and negotiation rather than ideological rigidity (though compromise and negotiation has decreased in recent years). Because the United States has only two major parties, each of which seeks to gain majority support, their candidates have typically avoided controversial or extreme political positions. There are exceptions, notably when the country is experiencing disruptive social or economic change. Ordinarily, however, Republican and Democratic candidates pursue moderate and somewhat overlapping policies. Each party can count on its party loyalists, but U.S. elections can hinge on independent voters, who respond to the issues of the moment either prospectively, basing their vote on what the candidates promise to do if elected, or retrospectively, basing their vote on their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with what the party in power has already done. Independent voters, however have become less important than in the past, and more voters now are solidly positioned to either the right or left of center. Geographic realignment has also contributed to increased partisanship in electoral results. Party coalitions are important to long-term party support, and as demographics change in the United States, it will become important for both parties to expand and evolve their coalitions of support. National party organizations are not as powerful as they once were in American politics. They do not control the policies and activities of the state organizations, and these in turn do not control the local organizations. Traditionally, the local organizations have controlled most of the party’s workforce because most elections are contested at the local level. Local parties, however, vary markedly in their vitality. Whatever their level, America’s party organizations are relatively weak. They lack control over nominations and elections. Candidates can bypass the party organization and win nomination through primary elections. Individual candidates also control most of the organizational structure and money necessary to win elections. The state and national party organizations have recently expanded their capacity to provide candidates with modern campaign services. Nevertheless, party organizations at all levels have few ways of controlling the candidates who run under their banners. They assist candidates with campaign technology, workers, and funds, but they cannot compel candidates to be loyal to organizational goals. The rise of television, the internet, campaign money, and political consultants have all contributed to providing candidates with independent means of launching and supporting their campaigns without the help of party organizations. American political campaigns, particularly those for higher office, are candidate centered. Candidates for federal office spend much of their time raising campaign funds and creating personal organizations built around pollsters, media producers, fundraisers, and campaign managers. Strategy and image making are key components of the modern campaign, as is televised political advertising, which accounts for half or more of all spending in presidential and congressional races. The advantages of candidate-centered politics include a responsiveness to new leadership and local concerns. Yet this form of politics can result in campaigns that are personality driven, depend on powerful interest groups, and blur responsibility for what government has done. Major Concepts candidate-centered campaigns Election campaigns and other political processes in which candidates, not political parties, have most of the initiative and influence. gender gap The tendency of white women and men to differ in their political attitudes and voting preferences. grassroots party A political party organized at the level of the voters and dependent on their support for its strength. hard money Campaign funds given directly to candidates to spend as they choose. linkage institution An institution that serves to connect citizens with government. Linkage institutions include elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media. median voter theorem The theory that parties in a two-party system can maximize their vote by locating themselves at the position of the median voter—the voter whose preferences are exactly in the middle. money chase A term used to describe the fact that U.S. campaigns are very expensive and candidates must spend a great amount of time raising funds in order to compete successfully. multiparty system A system in which three or more political parties have the capacity to gain control of government separately or in coalition. nomination The designation of a particular individual to run as a political party’s candidate (its “nominee”) in the general election. packaging (of a candidate) A term of modern campaigning that refers to the process of recasting a candidate’s record into an appealing image. party-centered campaigns Election campaigns and other political processes in which political parties, not individual candidates, hold most of the initiative and influence. party coalition The groups and interests that support a political party. party competition A process in which conflict over society’s goals is transformed by political parties into electoral competition in which the winner gains the power to govern. party organizations The party organizational units at national, state, and local levels; their influence has decreased over time because of many factors. party realignment An election or set of elections in which the electorate responds strongly to an extraordinarily powerful issue that has disrupted the established political order. A realignment has a lasting impact on public policy, popular support for the parties, and the composition of the party coalitions. plurality (winner-take-all) system An electoral system in which the candidate who gets the most votes (the plurality) in an election district is elected to office from that district. political party An ongoing coalition of interests joined together to try to get their candidates for public office elected under a common label. primary election (direct primary) A form of election in which voters choose a party’s nominees for public office. In most states, eligibility to vote in a primary election is limited to voters who designated themselves as party members when they registered to vote. proportional representation system A form of representation in which seats in the legislature are allocated proportionally according to each political party’s share of the popular vote. This system enables smaller parties to compete successfully for seats. single-member districts The form of representation in which only the candidate who gets the most votes in a district wins office. two-party system A system in which only two political parties have a real chance of acquiring control of the government. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. The author traces the historical development of political parties in the United States, examining the role of minor parties and the reasons for the emergence and persistence of the two-party system. He also discusses the effects of this system on policy and coalition formulation. The structure and roles of current party organizations are discussed, as are the reasons behind the prevalence of candidate-centered campaigns over party-centered campaigns in the U.S. The author also discusses the demanding nature of American political campaigns and the myriad influences that further complicate them. In 2016, American citizens went to the polls to select a new president. The Democrats and the Republicans both offered not only a platform covering major issues, but a candidate whose personal appeals and stances would help to decide the election. While American parties do not have such a clear set of policy choices as class-based European parties, they can offer clear choices at certain times or with specific issues. I. Party Competition and Majority Rule Political parties developed as a spontaneous response to the need to organize for common purposes. • The first parties originated from the rivalry between those who favored a strong national government that defended commercial interests and the supporters of states’ rights and small landholders (Hamilton’s Federalist Party versus Jefferson’s Republicans). • The emergence of the grassroots political party during the Jacksonian era strengthened the power of popular majorities. • Dissension over the issue of slavery, resulting in the Civil War, ended nearly three decades of competition between the Whigs and the Democrats. • Following the political and geographical realignment caused by the Civil War, the Democratic and Republican parties emerged as the new competitors. Their political rivalry has since dominated the U.S. electoral system, though its nature has altered over time. A party realignment is the rare event when the electorate, in response to some overwhelming issue disrupting the established order (e.g., the Civil War, the Great Depression), forces government to take a new policy direction. • Realignments took place during the Civil War, the 1890s, and the Great Depression of the 1930s. A more gradual shift in voters’ allegiance occurred over the span of the last half of the twentieth century. • An important and lasting impact of a realigning election is that the distribution of party identification in the electorate undergoes significant and enduring change. • Realignments strengthen party voting along new social cleavages and shape new party coalitions. • The major political parties have become more polarized over the last few decades, a trend that seems to be continuing. The practice of split-ticket voting, a prominent feature of the 1970s, has noticeably subsided, and the “middle” of congressional representatives has been hollowed out. II. Electoral and Party Systems Throughout nearly all of its history, the U.S. has had a two-party system, though minor parties have existed throughout that history. This is different than most democracies, which have multiparty systems. • America’s two-party system is due largely to the fact that the nation chooses its officials through plurality voting in single-member districts. In contrast, most European democracies use some form of proportional representation. • Election victory based on a plurality of the votes in single-member districts reinforces the two-party tendency in American politics and hurts the chances of minor parties. • The two major American parties tend to seek the political “center” because of the nature of single-member districts. In order to win a plurality of the vote, American parties must capture the largest segment of the population they can. • The groups and interests that support a party are collectively referred to as the party coalition. Republican and Democratic coalitions overlap somewhat, but are far from identical, and the partisan lines between the parties continue to become more rigid. These coalitions have been reshaped over time; a key to the future of both parties is absorbing the Hispanic vote into their coalition. Women are also key to continued electoral success. • Few minor parties have had a significant effect on American politics or the two-party system. Minor parties that do attract a strong following force the major parties to address otherwise neglected issues, though these parties are typically short-lived. Minor parties can be divided into categories: • Single-issue parties form around one issue of overriding concern to their supporters (e.g., right-to-life, prohibition). • Irreconcilable conflict within the major parties produces factional parties who split from the major party. Theodore Roosevelt’s Bull Moose Party split Republicans in 1912, and in 1948 and 1968 the Democrats had southern factions leave and form the States’ Rights Party and the American Independent Party, respectively. • Ideological parties form around an ideological commitment or belief in a broad and radical philosophical position (e.g., Populists, Libertarian). The Populist Party of the 1890s was one of the strongest ideological parties in American history. • Reform parties such as the early twentieth-century Progressive Party and Ross Perot’s influential Reform Party of the 1990s propose sweeping changes and run against not just other parties but also against partisanship as it is practiced. III. Parties and Candidates in the Campaign Party activity in the United States primarily centers on election campaigns. This is an activity, however, over which the American parties exercise limited control. Over the years, authority over party nominations has shifted from parties to the voters. • Until the early twentieth century, nominations were controlled by the parties, and a prospective candidate’s loyalty was essential to solicit party support. • The power of the parties declined with the introduction of primary elections (direct primaries) as the system of selection for party nominations. • In Europe, primaries are not used to determine party nominations. They use the system of party-designated nominees and control their own affairs, unregulated by state legislation. American political parties have declined in importance at the local, state, and national levels. • Party organizations in the cities were once party machines that could guarantee electoral victory. In the modern era, most local parties have steadily weakened, though they still play a part during election season in local, state, and even national elections. • State party organizations concentrate on state-wide races and the state legislature, but their central committees do not meet regularly and provide only general policy guidance for the state organization. • National party organizations concentrate on elections of national significance and run the presidential conventions every four years. However, neither the Democratic National Committee (DNC) nor the Republican National Committee (RNC) has great power. • National parties play an important role in campaign finance, but are subject to legal limits on campaign contributions. Candidate-centered campaigns have been characterized as “the election game.” The game has several elements. • The game begins with lots of money. The money chase is relentless. Incumbents have the advantage in raising money. • Today’s campaigns are based on the mass media and require an organizational structure of campaign consultants that include political consultants, pollsters, media producers, and fundraising specialists. • Packaging the candidate is the process of recasting a candidate’s record into an appealing image. • The political battleground is the mass media. Air wars are the candidates’ use of television ads, which are often negative. Candidates try to put a positive spin on their news coverage. Television ads are the main reason for the high cost of campaigns. • The Internet has begun to emerge as an important source of revenue and connection with voters, with some candidates showing more web savvy than others. While television continues to be the better medium for building name recognition and reaching less interested voters, the Internet has shown to be better for fundraising and mobilizing supporters. • Nothing affects voting in close races more than voters’ satisfaction with the party that holds power as a result of the previous election. • The key operatives in today’s campaigns are political consultants that help run a game plan for the campaign. • The reduction in the number of competitive states and districts in national elections have made campaigns for office less important overall than in the past. Strong campaigns are still essential, but they only become critical in a smaller number of races. V. Parties, Candidates, and the Public’s Influence There are advantages and disadvantages to candidate-centered campaigns. • Advantages include contributing flexibility and new blood to electoral politics and encouraging national officeholders to be responsive to local interests. • Disadvantages include diminished officeholder accountability; the inordinate influence of special interests; and a tendency for campaigns to degenerate into meaningless showmanship. • Candidate-centered campaigns strengthen the relationship between the voters and their individual representative, while at the same time weakening the relationship between the full electorate and its representative institutions. Complementary Lecture Topics Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. • Ralph Nader attacked the Republican and Democratic parties in 2000 and 2004 by arguing that there are no substantive differences between them. To what extent is this true, especially when compared with the party systems of other democracies? How much difference would it make if the United States had a major socialist party that could compete for control of Congress and the presidency? • Independent candidates face a variety of barriers to winning the presidency. Does an independent candidate have any real chance for election? Would it be desirable for independent candidates to have a real chance of winning the presidency? • What are the advantages and disadvantages of proportional representation, as compared with our electoral system of single-member districts and plurality voting? • American party organizations are presently weaker and more fragmented than was once the case. Furthermore, Americans have never felt completely comfortable with parties. Are these two tendencies related? If so, in what way? • Candidate freedom from parties has resulted in candidate-centered elections. Why has this development resulted in a weakening of the public’s influence on policy? • Can elected officials be truly accountable in the absence of relatively cohesive parties? Why or why not? Can American parties become more cohesive, and what impact would this have on public policy? • The reforms that have reduced the role of parties in both candidate selection and public policy formulation have also enhanced the influence of money, television, and interest groups over both elections and national policy. What reforms could be enacted to achieve greater accountability of elected officials to the voters for the content and direction of the nation’s public policy? • Perhaps no major-party presidential candidicacy in history was as independent from party organization and platform as Donald Trump’s. Does his victory, despite independence and even open hostility toward his adopted (Republican) party, suggests a weakening of current alignment or a solidification of it? Class Discussion Topics 1. Would America’s democracy be better served if our system of elections and representation were altered in order to allow minor parties a better opportunity to compete for governing power? Would this truly increase the variety of policy options available to the voting public? Answer: Potential Benefits: 1. Increased Representation: A system that allows minor parties better opportunities to compete could lead to a more representative democracy. Voters with diverse viewpoints might feel more represented if they have more choices beyond the two major parties. 2. Broader Policy Options: With minor parties gaining power, the range of policy options available to the public could expand. This could lead to more nuanced debates on issues and a greater emphasis on specialized concerns (e.g., environmental issues, civil liberties). 3. Reduced Polarization: A multiparty system might reduce polarization by encouraging coalition-building and compromise among various parties to form a government. Challenges and Considerations: 1. Political Stability: More parties in the legislature could lead to fragmented governance and difficulty forming stable governments. This might result in frequent elections and shifting coalitions. 2. Implementation of Policy: Minor parties may struggle to implement their policies without a majority, potentially leading to legislative gridlock. 3. Voter Confusion: A wider array of parties and candidates might confuse voters, especially if the distinctions between platforms are not clear. Conclusion: Allowing minor parties greater opportunities could potentially enrich American democracy by increasing representation and policy diversity. However, it could also introduce challenges related to governance and stability. The overall impact would depend on how the electoral system is structured and how well parties can cooperate to govern effectively. 2. Will the continued development of electronic media and Internet campaigning further diminish the power of political parties to influence the course of elections, or has the power of the candidate to determine the course of a campaign reached its zenith? Answer: Diminished Power of Political Parties: 1. Direct Candidate-Voter Interaction: The rise of social media and digital platforms allows candidates to communicate directly with voters, bypassing traditional party structures. This can diminish the role of parties in shaping campaign messages and strategies. 2. Individual Branding: Candidates can build personal brands that are independent of their party affiliations. This trend has empowered candidates to influence the course of their campaigns and connect with voters based on personal appeal rather than party loyalty. 3. Crowdfunding and Digital Fundraising: Online fundraising platforms enable candidates to raise significant amounts of money independently, reducing reliance on party funding. Ongoing Importance of Parties: 1. Organizational Support: Despite the growth of electronic media, parties still provide essential organizational support, including voter outreach, data analytics, and ground operations. 2. Candidate Vetting: Parties play a crucial role in vetting candidates and providing endorsements, which can still carry significant weight with voters. 3. Policy Platforms: Political parties offer coherent policy platforms and collective identities, which can help voters understand where candidates stand on various issues. Conclusion: While the development of electronic media and Internet campaigning has undoubtedly shifted some power from political parties to individual candidates, parties continue to play a vital role in the electoral process. The balance of power may fluctuate, but the structural and organizational advantages that parties offer will likely remain relevant. As technology and media continue to evolve, both parties and candidates must adapt to the changing landscape to effectively influence the course of elections. Chapter 9 Interest Groups: Organizing for Influence Learning Objectives Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following: • Describe interest groups. • Identify types of interest groups. • Identify strategies and tactics used by interest groups. • Describe PACs. • Analyze the contributions of groups to self-government and discuss the flaws in pluralism. • Identify the patterns of membership in interest groups. Chapter Outline I. The Interest-Group System A. Economic Groups B. Citizens’ Groups C. The Organizational Edge: Economic Groups versus Citizens’ Groups 1. Unequal Access to Resources 2. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Size II. Inside Lobbying: Seeking Influence through Official Contacts A. Acquiring Access to Officials 1. Lobbying Congress 2. Lobbying the Executive Branch 3. Lobbying the Courts B. Webs of Influence: Groups in the Policy Process 1. Iron Triangles 2. Issue Networks III. Outside Lobbying: Seeking Influence through Public Pressure A. Constituency Advocacy: Grassroots Lobbying B. Electoral Action: Votes and Money 1. Political Action Committees (PACs) 2. Super PACs IV. The Group System: Indispensable but Biased in Favor of Economic Groups A. The Contribution of Groups to Self-Government: Pluralism B. Flaws in Pluralism: Interest-Group Liberalism and Economic Bias C. A Madisonian Dilemma V. Summary Focus and Main Points This chapter examines the degree to which various interests in American society are represented by organized groups, the process by which interest groups exert influence, and the costs and benefits of group politics. The main points made in the chapter are: • Although nearly all interests in American society are organized to some degree, those associated with economic activity, particularly business activity, are by far the most thoroughly organized. Their advantage rests on their superior financial resources and on the private goods (such as wages and jobs) they provide to those in the organization. • Groups that do not have economic activity as their primary function often have organizational difficulties. These groups pursue public or collective goods (such as a safer environment) that are available even to individuals who are not group members, so individuals may free ride, choosing not to pay the costs of membership. • Lobbying and electioneering are the traditional means by which groups communicate with and influence political leaders. Recent developments, including grassroots lobbying and political action committees, have heightened interest groups’ influence. • The interest-group system overrepresents business interests and fosters policies that serve a group’s interest more than the society’s broader interests. Thus, although groups are an essential part of the policy process, they also distort that process. Chapter Summary An interest group is any organization that actively seeks to influence public policy. Most interest groups owe their existence to factors other than politics. These groups form for economic reasons, such as the pursuit of profit, and maintain themselves by making profits (in the case of corporations) or by providing their members with private goods, such as jobs and wages. Economic groups include corporations, trade associations, labor unions, farm organizations, and professional associations. Collectively, economic groups are by far the largest set of organized interests. The group system tends to favor interests that are already economically and socially advantaged. Citizens’ groups do not have the same organizational advantages as economic groups. They depend on voluntary contributions from potential members, who may lack interest and resources or who recognize that they will get the collective good from a group’s activity even if they do not participate (the free-rider problem). Citizens’ groups include public-interest, single-issue, and ideological groups. Their numbers have increased dramatically since the 1960s despite their organizational problems. Organized interests seek influence largely by lobbying public officials and contributing to election campaigns. Using an inside strategy, lobbyists develop direct contacts with legislators, government bureaucrats, and members of the judiciary in order to persuade them to accept the group’s perspective on policy. Groups also use an outside strategy, seeking to mobilize public support for their goals. This strategy relies in part on grassroots lobbying—encouraging group members and the public to communicate their policy views to officials. Outside lobbying also includes efforts to elect officeholders who will support group aims. Through political action committees (PACs), organized groups now provide nearly a fourth of all contributions received by congressional candidates. A more recent development is the emergence of super PACs. They are independent campaign committees that can raise and spend nearly unrestricted amounts of money on elections as long as they do not coordinate their efforts with those of the candidate they are supporting. The policies that emerge from the group system bring benefits to many of society’s interests and often serve the collective interest as well. But when groups can essentially dictate policies, the common good is rarely served. The majority’s interest is subordinated to group (minority) interests. In most instances, the minority consists of individuals who already enjoy a substantial share of society’s benefits. Major Concepts citizens’ (noneconomic) groups Organized interests formed by individuals drawn together by opportunities to promote a cause in which they believe but that does not provide them significant individual economic benefits. collective (public) goods Benefits that are offered by groups (usually citizens’ groups) as an incentive for membership but that are nondivisible (such as a clean environment) and therefore are available to nonmembers as well as members of the particular group. economic groups Interest groups that are organized primarily for economic reasons but that engage in political activity in order to seek favorable policies from government. free-rider problem The situation in which the benefits offered by a group to its members are also available to nonmembers. The incentive to join the group and to promote its cause is reduced because nonmembers (free riders) receive the benefits (for example, a cleaner environment) without having to pay any of the group's costs. inside lobbying Direct communication between organized interests and policymakers, which is based on the assumed value of close (“inside”) contacts with policymakers. interest group Any organization that actively seeks to influence public policy. iron triangle A small and informal but relatively stable group of well-positioned legislators, executives, and lobbyists who seek to promote policies beneficial to a particular interest. issue network An informal and relatively open network of public officials and lobbyists who come together in response to a proposed policy in an area of interest to each of them. Unlike an iron triangle, an issue network disbands after the issue is resolved. lobbying The process by which interest-group members or lobbyists attempt to influence public policy through contacts with public officials. outside lobbying A form of lobbying in which an interest group seeks to use public pressure as a means of influencing officials. political action committee (PAC) The organization through which an interest group raises and distributes funds for election purposes. By law, the funds must be raised through voluntary contributions. private (individual) goods Benefits that a group (most often an economic group) can grant directly and exclusively to individual members of the group. super PACs Election committees that are unrestricted in their fundraising and spending as long as they do not coordinate their campaign efforts with those of a candidate. Lecture Outline This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid. In this chapter the author focuses on interest groups and the degree to which various interests in American society are represented through organized groups. The greater power of economic groups as compared to citizens’ groups is discussed, as is pluralist denial that there is such an imbalance of power. The chapter begins with a delineation of various types of interest groups, and an explanation of differences in the degree to which various interests are organized is offered. The lobbying process by which interest groups seek to achieve their policy goals is highlighted, evaluating its impact on national policy. The author examines the differences between inside and outside lobbying, and the various forms of activity each entails. The chapter ends with a discussion of how the group system is indispensable yet flawed. An interest group is any organization that actively seeks to influence public policy. • Political parties are distinguished from interest groups by the breadth of their focus. Parties build coalitions by addressing a wide range of issues, while interest groups focus on a narrow set of issues of immediate concern to their membership. • Pluralist theory holds that society’s interests are represented most effectively by groups. These interests benefit from organized group activity. • Whereas party politics emphasizes the building of coalitions and the balancing of the needs of specific interests with the broader needs of society, groups concentrate on policies directly affecting their interests. I. The Interest-Group System Americans are very active in groups and community causes. This tendency, as well as the nation’s separation of powers and federalism, contribute to the prevalence of interest groups. The extraordinary number of interest groups in the U.S., however, does not indicate that all interests are equally well represented. Many interest groups function chiefly to produce economic goods and services. These economic interest groups also engage in political activity, seeking favorable government policies. The types of economic groups include the following: • Business groups are numerous and have an advantage over many other groups. They concentrate their efforts on issues directly affecting business interests. • Labor groups promote policies that benefit workers in general and union members in particular. The largest today represent service and public employees rather than skilled and unskilled laborers. • Farm groups consist of general and specialty farm associations. • Most professions have lobbying associations; an example of a powerful professional group is the American Medical Association. Citizens’ (noneconomic) interest groups emphasize purposive incentives—opportunities to promote a cause in which the members believe. They offer collective or public goods as incentives and thus have a free-rider problem. Recently, these groups have learned to use the Internet and computer-aided direct mails to improve fundraising. Citizens’ interest groups are particularly difficult to classify. • Some citizens’ groups work to advance the interests of a particular social grouping; an example is the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). • Single-issue groups are organized to influence policy in just one area. This category represents most interest groups. • Ideological groups are concerned with a broad range of policies from a general philosophical or value perspective. The success of any interest group is directly related to its ability to organize effectively. Citizens’ groups are outnumbered by economic groups and have less influence. • Economic groups have naturally stronger financial resources because they offer members a powerful incentive for membership in the form of private (individual) goods, which accrue benefits to members exclusively; noneconomic groups offer public (collective) goods to their members and thus suffer from the free-rider problem. • Economic groups have the advantage of ready access to resources, such as money from profits or dues that facilitate organization. • Business associations and economic groups can benefit from small size, which can confer the ability to organize and react quickly. • There can be strength in numbers, such as in the citizens’ group AARP, which can leverage a huge membership for voting power and advocacy. II. Inside Lobbying: Seeking Influence through Official Contacts Inside lobbying refers to efforts of groups to develop and maintain close (inside) contacts with policymakers. • Inside lobbying focuses on gaining access to public officials, providing them with vital information, and expressing group concerns in order to promote the group’s perspective. • Money is an essential ingredient of inside lobbying due to the high level of funding required to mount an effective lobbying effort in Washington. • Lobbyists target multiple points of access in the decision-making process: Congress, executive agencies, and the courts. All efforts center on supplying reliable information in an attempt to persuade; it is a mistake to view lobbying as a practice that employs old-fashioned coercive techniques. Lobbying of the executive branch has increased as the power and reach of that branch has increased. Iron triangles and issue networks describe two patterns of group influence through which most public policy is decided. • An iron triangle is a small, informal, but stable set of bureaucrats, legislators, and lobbyists who are preoccupied with policies beneficial to their common goal. • An issue network is based on a common expertise, instead of a common goal, and is an informal relationship between officials and lobbyists brought together temporarily by a shared concern about a current policy issue. Interest groups function in both iron triangles and issue networks. Unlike iron triangles, which are now less prevalent, issue networks involve interest groups of opposing viewpoints. III. Outside Lobbying: Seeking Influence through Public Pressure Outside lobbying is designed to promote group goals through public pressure. • Grassroots lobbying, or pressure designed to convince government officials that a group’s policy position has strong public support, is a major form of constituency advocacy. Electoral action is another form of outside lobbying. • As part of an outside strategy, organized groups work to elect their supporters and keep their opponents out of office. • The Supreme Court ruling in Citizens United found that federal laws restricting campaign spending by corporations and unions violated their right of free expression. • This and other subsequent rulings have spawned super PACs or, as they are officially called, independent-expenditure-only-committees (IEOCs). • Super PACs can accept contributions of any size and can focus their spending entirely on the election or defeat of a single candidate. Unlike regular PACs, they are also not required by law to disclose in a timely way the sources of their funds. • Regular PACs have been criticized as giving groups too much influence over lawmakers; however, super PACs do not have the small-contribution restrictions that regular PACs have and thus have been the subject of hot debate. • PAC supporters claim that a campaign finance system based on pooled contributions is superior to one dominated by a few wealthy contributors. Critics claim that PACs give interest groups excessive influence over elected officials. • Contribution records show that PAC funding practices tend to favor incumbents, reducing the traditional partisan divisions that previously characterized campaign finance. IV. The Group System: Indispensable but Biased in Favor of Economic Groups The pluralist argument that organized groups provide adequate representation of society’s many diverse interests has both strengths and weaknesses. • Group activity is basic to self-government; groups are a means of representation and political expression especially for organized minorities and for raising issues neglected by the party system. • One of the problems with pluralism is its claim that the group system is reasonably representative. Organization is a political resource that is distributed unequally in society. Certain interests are more powerful than others; these advantaged interests are primarily economic (business) in nature. • It cannot be assumed that what a lobbying group receives is what the majority would also want. Pluralism and interest-group liberalism offer different views regarding the connection between interest groups and the common good. • Pluralists believe that the collective good arises out of the competition between society’s many and diverse interests. • Interest-group liberalism proponents such at Theodore Lowi maintain that there is no concept of society’s collective interest in a system that allows special groups to determine the policy benefits they receive, irrespective of the number of interests served by such a system. • Madison’s constitutional system of checks and balances was designed to prevent special interests from gaining unwarranted control over public policy; today, however, this system makes it easier for small sets of officials and special interests to monopolize a particular policy area. The mutual benefits that members of the group system derive from participation in a decision-making process that has multiple points of access works against the pursuit of the common good that was to be preserved by the constitutional mechanisms of separation of powers and checks and balances. Complementary Lecture Topics Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students have read the chapter beforehand. • Pluralists believe that nearly all of society’s interests are substantially and adequately represented through the activities of groups. However, the interest-group system over-represents business interests and higher income groups. Is this a minor shortcoming in the pluralist framework, or a basic flaw undermining the entire argument? • Economic groups possess the lure of private goods to attract members, while noneconomic groups offer collective goods. Explore in depth the differences between these incentives and their relationship to the level and effectiveness of each organizational type. • It is routine for Americans to criticize special interests. However, nearly all citizens are a part of one or more special interests. Have students evaluate their personal ties to special interests and consider the group system in the context of their personal situation. • James Madison identified the conflict between the advocacy of self-interest in a free society and the government’s duty to promote the public interest. What changes in the political process will help temper the role of special interests without undermining the liberty of the individual? • The constitutional systems of separation of powers and checks and balances provide interest groups with numerous opportunities to influence the decision-making process, albeit at the expense of the common good. Ask students to identify aspects of the political process that favor private over public interest. Have them consider whether or not institutional changes are advisable to protect the greater public good. Class Discussion Topics 1. Ask your students whether they would rather join a political party or an interest group. Why did they select one and reject the other? What advantages do they perceive they can receive from their choice? Relate to the class how interest groups often have to channel their activities through parties (especially in Congress) in order to accomplish their goals. Answer: Discussion Question: • Preference for Joining: Would you rather join a political party or an interest group? Why did you select one and reject the other? Considerations for Choice: 1. Political Parties: • Advantages: Political parties offer a broad platform that encompasses various issues, provide opportunities for political involvement and leadership, and can directly influence elections and policy-making. • Perceived Disadvantages: Parties may require adherence to a specific platform, limiting flexibility on individual issues. Some may view parties as too bureaucratic or partisan. 2. Interest Groups: • Advantages: Interest groups allow for focused advocacy on specific issues, providing a platform for individuals to support causes they are passionate about. They can influence policy through lobbying, public campaigns, and grassroots organizing. • Perceived Disadvantages: Interest groups may have limited influence compared to political parties, especially in electoral politics. They may also be narrowly focused, lacking the broader policy perspective of a party. Relation to Political Parties: • Channeling Activities: Interest groups often need to work with political parties, especially in Congress, to achieve their goals. This collaboration can involve lobbying party leaders, aligning with party platforms, and supporting party candidates who champion their causes. Political parties, in turn, rely on interest groups for financial support, policy expertise, and grassroots mobilization. 2. Would your students be more tempted to join economic interest groups or noneconomic groups? Why? With which groups do they already have links? Answer: Discussion Question: • Preference for Joining: Would you be more tempted to join economic interest groups or noneconomic groups? Why? Considerations for Choice: 1. Economic Interest Groups: • Focus: These groups represent business, labor, and professional interests. They often advocate for policies that affect industries, trade, and economic regulations. • Attraction: Students might be drawn to these groups for career-related reasons, economic advocacy, or potential professional benefits. 2. Noneconomic Interest Groups: • Focus: These groups advocate for social, environmental, cultural, or ideological causes. Examples include human rights organizations, environmental advocacy groups, and social justice movements. • Attraction: Students may prefer these groups if they are passionate about specific social issues or causes. They may also feel that noneconomic groups align more closely with their values or moral beliefs. Existing Links: • Student Affiliations: Encourage students to share if they are already members of any interest groups, whether economic or noneconomic. Discuss the nature of these groups and the type of involvement or benefits they receive. 3. Is there really a problem that needs to be addressed regarding the imbalance between wealthy business interests and less-wealthy interests? Can one address this issue without bringing in issues of free speech and individual liberty? Answer: Discussion Points: 1. Perceived Problem: • Wealth and Influence: Wealthy business interests often have greater resources to lobby, fund campaigns, and influence policy. This can lead to an imbalance in political power and representation, potentially marginalizing less-wealthy interests. • Impact on Democracy: The dominance of wealthy interests can undermine democratic principles by skewing policy decisions toward the interests of a few rather than the broader public. 2. Addressing the Issue: • Regulation of Campaign Finance: Proposals to address the imbalance often include campaign finance reform, such as limiting contributions, increasing transparency, or providing public funding for campaigns. • Lobbying Regulations: Strengthening lobbying regulations, including disclosure requirements and restrictions on revolving door employment, can help mitigate undue influence. 3. Free Speech and Individual Liberty: • Balancing Act: Any regulation of campaign finance and lobbying must balance the need to reduce undue influence with the protection of free speech and individual liberty. The U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Citizens United v. FEC highlighted the complexity of this issue, ruling that political spending is a form of protected speech. Conclusion: • Class Discussion: Encourage students to explore whether the current system adequately balances the interests of all groups or if reforms are needed. Discuss the potential challenges and implications of implementing reforms while respecting constitutional rights. Instructor Manual for We The People: An Introduction to American Government Thomas L. Patterson 9781259912405
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