CH-7-9 Physiological Approaches to Personality – Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 9 Chapter 7 Physiological Approaches to Personality Chapter Outline A Physiological Approach to Personality Physiological Measures Commonly Used in Personality Research Electrodermal Activity (Skin Conductance) Most obtained by electrodes or sensors placed on the skin surface Advantage: Noninvasive, no discomfort Disadvantage: Movement constrained Electrodermal activity (EDA)—due to increased sweat with arousal, skin conductance of electricity increases Can measure responses to various stimuli, including sudden noises, emotionally charged pictures, pain, anxiety, fear, guilt Some people show EDA in the absence of external stimuli—associated with anxiety and neuroticism Cardiovascular Activity Blood pressure—measure of, e.g., stress reactivity Heart rate—increases with anxiety, fear, arousal, cognitive effort Cardiac reactivity—greater than normal increase in blood pressure and heart rate when performing task such as backward serial subtraction Associated with Type A personality—impatience, competitiveness, hostility Cardiac reactivity (and Type A) associated with coronary heart disease Brain Activity Brain spontaneously produces small amounts of electrical activity; can be measured by electrodes on scalp—electroencephalograph (EEG) Evoked potential technique—uses EEG, but the participant is given a stimulus and the researcher assesses specific brain response to stimulus Brain imaging techniques—map structure and function of brain Positron emission tomography (PET) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Using imaging techniques to assess brain structure Which areas of the brain would be responsible for generating the behaviors or responses relevant to each trait Other Measures: Biochemical analyses of blood and saliva Physiologically Based Theories of Personality Extraversion–Introversion Measured by Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) High extraversion: Talkative, outgoing, likes meeting new people and going to new places, active, sometimes impulsive, bored easily, hates routine Low extraversion: Quiet, withdrawn, prefers being alone or with a few friends to large crowds, prefers routines and schedules, prefers familiar to unexpected Eysenck’s theory Introverts have a higher level than extraverts of activity in the brain’s ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) People strive to keep ARAS activity at optimal level—introverts work to decrease it and avoid stimulation; extraverts work to increase it and seek out stimulation Research indicates that introverts and extraverts are NOT at different resting levels, but introverts ARE more reactive to moderate levels of stimulation than extraverts This work led Eysenck to revise his theory—the difference between introverts and extraverts lies in arousability, not in baseline arousal When given a choice, extraverts prefer higher levels of stimulation than introverts Geen (1984): Introverts and extraverts choose different levels of stimulation, but equivalent in arousal under chosen stimulation Introverts and extraverts perform task best under their chosen stimulation level, poor when performing under a stimulation level chosen by other group
Sensitivity to Reward and Punishment Personality based on two hypothesized brain systems Behavioral Activation System (BAS): Responsive to incentives (cues to reward) and regulates approach behavior Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): Responsive to cues to punishment, frustration, uncertainty, and motivates ceasing, inhibiting, or avoidance behavior Active BIS produces anxiety, active BAS produces impulsivity Integration with Eysenck’s model: Impulsive = high extraversion, moderate neuroticism; Anxious = moderate introversion, high neuroticism According to Gray, impulsive people do not learn well from punishment because of weak BIS; learn better from reward—supported by research Sensation Seeking Tendency to seek out thrilling, exciting activities, take risks, avoid boredom Early sensory deprivation research Hebb’s theory of optimal level of arousal Zuckerman: High sensation seekers are less tolerant of sensory deprivation; require much stimulation to get to optimal level of arousal Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale Moderate positive correlation between extraversion and sensation seeking Physiological basis for sensation seeking Neurotransmitters—chemicals in nerve cells are responsible for the transmission of nerve impulse from one cell to another Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)—enzyme that maintains a proper level of neurotransmitters Too little MAO = too much neurotransmitter; too much MAO = too little neurotransmitter High sensation seekers have low levels of MAO, producing a need for stimulation to reach the optimal level of arousal Neurotransmitters and Personality Dopamine—associated with pleasure Serotonin—associated with depression and other mood disorders Norepinepherine—associated with fight or flight response Cloninger’s Tridimensional Personality model Novelty seeking—low levels of dopamine Harm avoidance—low levels of serotonin Reward dependence—low levels of norephinepherine Morningness–Eveningness Being a “morning-type” or “evening-type” of person is a stable characteristic Due to differences in underlying biological rhythms Many biological processes fluctuate around a 24–25 hour cycle—circadian rhythm; e.g., body temperature, endocrine secretion rates But wide individual differences are in the circadian rhythm, identified through temporal isolation studies Individuals with shorter circadian rhythms hit peak body temperature and alertness earlier in day, get sleepy earlier, than individuals with longer rhythm Individuals with shorter rhythm tend to be morning persons; individuals with longer rhythms tend to be evening persons Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire Cross-cultural replication and documentation of stability of characteristic Brain Asymmetry and Affective Style Left and right sides of the brain are specialized, with asymmetry in control of psychological functions Using EEG, can measure brain waves, such as alpha wave—an inverse indicator of brain activity Left frontal hemisphere is more active than the right when a person is experiencing pleasant emotions; right is more active than left with unpleasant emotions Patterns replicated in adults, children, and infants Research indicates that the tendency to exhibit asymmetry (favoring left over right, or right over left activation) is a stable individual characteristic Dispositionally positive persons show greater left frontal EEG activity; dispositionally negative persons show greater right frontal EEG activity Conclusion: Person’s affective lifestyle may have origins in, or be predicted by a pattern of asymmetry in frontal brain activation SUMMARY AND EVALUATION Study of personality can be approached biologically Two ways to think about how physiological variables are useful in personality theory and research: Use physiological measures as variables that may be correlated with personality traits View physiological events as providing causal substrate for personality trait KEY TERMS Physiological Systems Sensory Deprivation Theoretical Bridge Optimal Level of Arousal Electrodes Neurotransmitters Telemetry Co-morbidity Autonomic Nervous System Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Electrodermal Activity Dopamine (Skin Conductance) Serotonin Cardiac Reactivity Norepinepherine Type A Personality Tridimensional Personality Model Novelty Seeking Harm Avoidance Ascending Reticular Activating Reward Dependence System (ARAS) Arousal Level Morningness–Eveningness Arousability Circadian Rhythms Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory Free Running Behavioral Activation Electroencephalograph (EEG) System (BAS) Alpha Wave Behavioral Inhibition Frontal Brain Asymmetry System (BIS) Cortisol Anxiety Impulsivity Sensation Seeking Chapter Overview This chapter provides students with an introduction to physiological approaches to personality, including discussions of measurement issues, and historical and recent theory and research. The authors begin with an overview of research on body type as a cause of individual differences. Although much of this work has not been replicated, it is important because it is one of the first research programs to integrate physiology (body type) with personality. The authors then discuss the most common physiological measures used in personality research today. These include electrodermal activity, cardiovascular activity, brain electrical activity, and chemical analyses of blood and saliva. Following this review of physiological measures, the authors discuss key physiologically based personality dimensions. They begin with a discussion of Eysenck’s theory and research on Extraversion-Introversion, and then present Gray’s competing theory and associated research. Next, the authors review theory and work on sensation seeking, introduced by Zuckerman, who relied in part on Hebb’s theory of optimal level of arousal. The authors then briefly review work on the relationships between three neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, and norepinepherine), and follow with a discussion of theory and research on Cloninger’s Tridimensional Personality Model, which highlights neurotransmitter-personality relationships. The authors then present theory and research on morningness-eveningness, including work suggesting that individual differences in this trait are attributable to variation in circadian rhythms. Finally, the authors review recent work suggesting that brain asymmetry may predict differences in affective style Learning Objectives Discuss Sheldon’s physiological approach to personality. Describe the key physiological measures used by modern personality researchers, including electrodermal activity, cardiovascular activity, brain activity, and chemical analyses of blood and saliva. Discuss Eysenck’s original and revised theories about individual differences in extraversion-introversion. Be able to briefly define the characteristics of someone who is high on extraversion or high on introversion. Review some of the key findings generated by work inspired by Eysenck’s theory. Discuss Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, including a discussion of how Gray’s theory is similar to and different from Eysenck’s theory. Describe the personality dimension of sensation seeking as originally presented by Zuckerman, including a discussion of how Zuckerman used Hebb’s theory of optimal level of arousal to generate his theory about sensation seeking. Discuss some of the key correlates of sensations seeking, according to recent work by Zuckerman and others. Discuss recent research and theory on the relationships between neurotransmitters and personality traits. Include a discussion of Cloninger’s Tridimensional Model of personality. Describe the personality dimension of morningness-eveningness, and discuss identified relationships of this dimension with circadian rhythms. Describe the defining features of temporal isolation studies, including why they are conducted and what they have revealed. 11. Discuss some of the key practical consequences of individual differences in morningness- eveningness. Discuss recent work suggesting that asymmetry in frontal brain activity may predict affective style. Discuss the identified relationships between brain asymmetry, and personality and affective traits. Lecture Topics and Lecture Suggestions Personality and Sexual Risk-Taking (Hoyle, Fejfar, & Miller, 2000). Larsen and Buss refer to research indicating that sensation seeking is positively correlated with risky sexual practices and with sexual promiscuity. Students typically find research on sexuality particularly captivating, so this lecture is likely to draw a full house. Following the lecture, the instructor can encourage discussion among the students on the topic of personality and sexuality. Some instructors might wish to encourage students to think about and discuss how the other personality traits and dimensions might be associated with the three focal sexuality variables addressed in the research by Hoyle et al. (2000) and presented in lecture. Instructors might even wish to open things up to how the personality traits and dimensions presented in this chapter might correlate with other sexual behaviors, or with various sexual beliefs, fantasies, and desires. Hoyle et al. (2000) report findings from a quantitative review of empirical research literature on normal personality and sexual risk taking Review focuses on domains identified in major models of normal personality, including: Psychobiological perspective, including sensation seeking, and Taxonomic perspective (such as Big Five: Surgency, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness) Focal sexual risk-taking behaviors were: Number of partners Unprotected sex High-risk sexual encounters (e.g., sex with a stranger) Comprehensive search produced 53 studies relevant to the review Striking feature of results is paucity of research on domains of normal personality and sexual risk taking for all domains other than sensation seeking, which accounted for 64 percent of the effect sizes Preponderance of studies (81 percent) took the psychobiological perspective and were published since 1990 (75 percent) Among the substantive findings were effects for sensation seeking, impulsivity, and agreeableness on all sexual risk-taking behaviors considered Additionally, there were effects on specific behaviors for: Neuroticism (positively correlated with sexual risk taking), and Conscientiousness (negatively correlated with sexual risk taking) Reference: Hoyle, R. H., Fejfar, M. C., & Miller, J. D. (2000). Personality and sexual risk taking: A quantitative review. Journal of Personality, 68, 1203–1231. State Anger and Prefrontal Lobe Brain Activity (Harmon-Jones & Sigelman, 2001). Larsen and Buss provide an introduction to some of the fascinating work on the relationships between asymmetrical activation of the frontal brain and affective style. A leader in this research field is Eddie Harmon-Jones. This lecture presents the results of his latest research, which provides evidence that insult-related relative left-prefrontal activation is associated with experienced anger and aggression. Students often find work on anger and aggression interesting, and many students will find a presentation of cutting-edge brain-related work in personality psychology particularly interesting. Research has documented that left-prefrontal cortical activity is associated with positive affect, or approach motivation, and that Right prefrontal cortical activity is associated with negative affect, or withdrawal motivation In previous research, emotional valence (positive-negative) has been confounded with motivational direction (approach-withdrawal) Thus, for example, the only emotions examined were both positive AND approach- related Recent research has shown that trait anger, a negative but approach-related emotion, is associated with Increased left prefrontal activity, and Decreased right prefrontal activity This research suggests that prefrontal asymmetrical activity is associated with motivational direction and NOT emotional valence Current experiment tested hypotheses that State-induced anger is positively associated with relative left-prefrontal activity, and This prefrontal activity is also positively associated with aggression Both hypotheses are supported Results highlight the need to separate motivational direction from emotional valence Reference: Harmon-Jones, E., & Sigelman, J. (2001). State anger and pre-frontal lobe brain activity: Evidence that insult-related relative left-prefrontal activation is associated with experienced anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 797–803. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations Distribute Activity Handout 7–1 (“Eysenck Personality Questionnaire—Extraversion Items”) to students. Give the students about five minutes to complete the questionnaire. Ask students to compute their score, as instructed at the bottom of the handout. Use this exercise as a springboard to discuss extraversion, in particular, and Eysenck’s theory, in general. Also raise with students the issue of whether these items accurately capture what they understand to be “extraversion.” How did their scores relate to how they view themselves on the dimension of extraversion? Did they score high on extraversion, but never thought of themselves as extraverted, for example? Are some of the items better than others as indicators of extraversion? Which ones, and why? Distribute Activity Handout 7–2 (“Building Theoretical Bridges”). Note that the top figure is a figure presented by Larsen and Buss. Ask students to complete the bottom figure using their own example. Ask students to complete this figure with an example NOT presented in the book. Give students about five minutes to complete the second figure. Ask students to volunteer their responses. Use this exercise as a springboard to discuss the need for theoretical bridges that link personality traits to specific situations in terms of evoking a certain psychological response that can be identified and measured using a specific physiological measure. Distribute Activity Handout 7–3 (“Sensation Seeking Scale”). Give the students about five minutes to complete the scale. Ask students to compute their score, as instructed at the bottom of the handout. Use this exercise as a springboard to discuss sensation seeking, in particular, and Zuckerman’s theory, in general. Also raise the issue of whether these items accurately capture what the students understand to be “sensation seeking.” How did their scores relate to how they view themselves on the dimension of sensation seeking? Did they score low on sensation seeking, but previously thought of themselves as risk-takers, for example? Are some of the items better than others as indicators of sensation seeking? Which ones and why? Chapter 8 Evolutionary Perspectives on Personality Chapter Outline
Evolution and Natural Selection All humans today come from an unbroken line of ancestors who accomplished two tasks: They survived to reproductive age, and they reproduced We carry adaptations that led to our ancestors’ success Human nature and human personality are made up of a collection of evolved adaptations Before Darwin, two features of evolution were recognized: Change over time and apparent adaptation to environment Natural Selection Darwin revolutionized biology by proposing a theory of the process by which adaptations are created and changes take place over time—natural selection More offspring produced than can survive and reproduce Changes or variants that better enabled an organism to survive and reproduce lead to more descendants Descendants inherit variants that led to their ancestors’ success Thus, successful variants are selected and unsuccessful variants are weeded out Over time, successful variants come to characterize entire species Adaptations; inherited solutions to survival and reproductive problems posed by hostile forces of nature Sexual Selection Darwin noticed that many mechanisms seemed to threaten survival, such as the peacock’s elaborate plumage and the stag’s large antlers Darwin proposed evolution by sexual selection as solution—these traits evolved because they contributed to an individual’s mating success Two forms of sexual selection Intrasexual competition: Members of the same sex compete with each other for sexual access to members of the other sex Intersexual competition: Members of one sex choose a mate based on their preferences for particular qualities in that mate Genes and Inclusive Fitness Gene—packet of DNA inherited by children from parents; smallest discrete unit inherited without being broken up Discovery of the gene as a unit of inheritance led to key discovery, that natural selection and sexual selection are different forms of the same process Differential gene reproduction—reproductive success relative to others Inclusive fitness theory (Hamilton, 1964) Inclusive fitness: personal reproductive success (number of offspring you produce) plus effects you have on the reproduction of your genetic relatives, weighted by genetic relatedness Products of the Evolutionary Process Adaptations Adaptations are the primary products of selection, defined as “reliably developing structure in the organism which, because it meshes with the recurrent structure of the world, causes the solution to an adaptive problem” Adaptive problem: Anything that impedes survival or reproduction Hallmark of adaptations are special design, including efficiency, precision, and reliability Byproducts of Adaptations Byproducts are incidental effects of adaptations not properly considered to be adaptations Noise or Random Variation Neutral with respect to selection Evolutionary Psychology Premises of Evolutionary Psychology Domain-specificity: Adaptations are designed by evolutionary process to solve specialized adaptive problems Numerousness: Expectation is that there are many psychological adaptations, because different adaptations are required to solve different adaptive problems Functionality: Psychological adaptations are designed to accomplish particular adaptive goals Empirical Testing of Evolutionary Hypotheses Hierarchy of levels of analysis in evolutionary psychology General evolutionary theory Middle-level evolutionary theories Specific hypotheses Specific, testable, falsifiable predictions Two modes of conducting empirical research Deductive reasoning approach: “Top down,” theory-driven method Inductive reasoning approach: “Bottom up,” data-driven method Both equally valid modes of conducting research in any area of science, including evolutionary psychology Human Nature Human nature is a product of evolutionary process Psychological mechanisms that are successful in helping humans survive and reproduce out-replicate those that are less successful Over evolutionary time, successful mechanisms spread through population and come to characterize all humans Examples of evolutionary analysis at the level of human nature The Need to Belong Helping and Altruism Universal Emotions Sex Differences Evolutionary psychologists expect that males and females will be the same or similar in all domains where sexes have faced the same or similar adaptive problems Expect sex differences in those domains where sexes recurrently faced different adaptive problems Examples of differences between men and women that are attributable to recurrently facing different adaptive problems: Sex Differences in Aggression Sex Differences in Jealousy Sex Differences in Desire for Sexual Variety Sex Differences in Mate Preferences Individual Differences Most challenging and difficult level of analysis for evolutionary psychologists Three evolutionary perspectives on individual differences Environmental triggers of individual differences—e.g., father absence directing individuals toward short-term sexual strategy Heritable individual differences contingent on other traits—e.g., individuals who are muscular and large pursue a more aggressive strategy than those who are less muscular and smaller Frequency-dependent strategic individual differences—e.g., short-term and long-term sexual strategies of women are maintained in the population at a frequency where reproductive benefits of strategies are equal The Big Five, Motivation, and Evolutionarily Relevant Adaptive Problems Big Five personality traits as clusters of key features of “adaptive landscape” of other people Humans have evolved “difference-detecting mechanisms” designed to notice and remember individual differences that have most relevance for solving social adaptive problems Limitations of Evolutionary Psychology Adaptations are forged over long expanse of evolutionary time, and we cannot go back to determine with certainty what the precise selective forces on humans have been Forced to make inferences But current mechanisms provide windows for viewing the past Learning more about our evolved mechanisms is a tool for overcoming limitation of sparse knowledge of ancestral environments Evolutionary scientists have just scratched the surface of understanding the nature, details, and design features of evolved psychological mechanisms Modern conditions are undoubtedly different from ancestral conditions in many ways, and so what was adaptive in the past might not be adaptive today It is sometimes easy to come up with different and competing evolutionary hypotheses for the same phenomena—true of all science Onus is on the researcher to fashion specific, testable, and falsifiable hypotheses Thus, competing theories can be pitted against each other and data can be the final arbiter Evolutionary hypotheses are sometimes accused of being untestable and hence unfalsifiable, but this is no more true than for any other science SUMMARY AND EVALUATION Selection is key to evolution, or change in a species over time Variants that lead to greater genetic replication spread through the population Evolutionary psychology has three premises: Adaptations are domain-specific, numerous, and functional Evolutionary psychology proceeds through both deductive research approach and inductive research approach Evolutionary psychology can be applied to all three levels of personality analysis—human nature, sex differences, individual differences Evolutionary psychology has several limitations, but this perspective adds a useful set of theoretical tools to the analysis of personality at levels of human nature, sex differences, and individual differences KEY TERMS Natural Selection Domain-Specific Hostile Forces of Nature Functionality Deductive Reasoning Approach Sexual Selection Inductive Reasoning Approach Intrasexual Competition Social Anxiety Intersexual Selection Evolutionary-Predicted Sex Differences Genes Effective Polygyny Differential Gene Reproduction Sexually Dimorphic Inclusive Fitness Theory Reactively Heritable Adaptive Problem Frequency Dependent Selection Xenophobia Restricted Sexual Strategy Byproducts of Adaptation Unrestricted Mating Strategy Evolutionary Byproducts Psychopathy Evolutionary Noise Balancing Selection Chapter Overview This chapter provides students with an overview of evolutionary approaches to personality. The authors begin by introducing the key concepts of evolution by natural selection and evolution by sexual selection. They then discuss the role of genes in the context of inclusive fitness theory, noting that evolution occurs by differential gene reproduction. Next, the authors identify and discuss the three key products of the evolutionary process: Adaptations, by-products of adaptations, and noise or random variation. Adaptations are inherited solutions to the survival and reproductive problems faced by humans throughout human evolutionary history, and are the primary focus of modern evolutionary scientists, including evolutionary personality psychologists. The authors turn next to the premises of evolutionary psychology, which include presumptions that the adaptations of the mind are likely to be domain-specific, numerous, and functional—that is, that they have special function or solve specific adaptive problems. The authors then discuss the nature by which evolutionary hypotheses are tested empirically, distinguishing between general evolutionary theory, middle-level theories, and the specific hypotheses and derivative predictions that are the typical focus of empirical testing. The authors then discuss and provide examples of three levels of evolutionary psychological analysis—the level of human nature, or species-typical adaptations, sex differences, and individual differences. The authors conclude with a discussion of several limitations of evolutionary psychology, including the fact that modern conditions are sometimes different from ancestral conditions, and so what was adaptive in the past might not be adaptive in the present. Learning Objectives Describe the key features of evolution by natural selection. Define and provide an example of an adaptation. Describe the key features of evolution by sexual selection. Differentiate between intrasexual competition and intersexual competition. Provide examples of each of these two types of sexual selection. Discuss the concept of “differential gene reproduction.” Describe “inclusive fitness theory.” Discuss and provide examples of the three key products of the evolutionary process—adaptations, by-products of adaptations, and noise or random variation. Identify and discuss the three key premises of evolutionary psychology. Discuss the different levels of evolutionary analysis, differentiating between general evolutionary theory, middle-level theories, and specific hypotheses and predictions. Differentiate between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning, and discuss how modern evolutionary scientists use each strategy. Discuss how evolutionary psychologists approach the human nature level of analysis. Include in your discussion brief reviews of theory and research on the need to belong, helping and altruism, and universal emotions. Discuss how evolutionary psychologists approach the sex difference level of analysis. Include in your discussion brief reviews of theory and research on sex differences in aggression, jealousy, the desire for sexual variety, and mate preferences. Discuss how evolutionary psychologists approach the individual differences level of analysis. Include in your discussion a review of the three primary strategies for addressing individual differences: Environmental triggers of individual differences, adaptive self-assessment of heritable individual differences, and frequency-dependent strategic individual differences. Identify and discuss the key limitations of evolutionary perspectives on personality. Lecture Topics and Lecture Suggestions Forgiveness or Breakup: Sex Differences in Responses to a Partner’s Infidelity (Shackelford, Buss, & Bennett, 2002). Students are typically exceptionally interested in research on infidelity. The topic of sex differences in reactions to a partner’s infidelity is particularly successful at maintaining student interest and involving students in active discussion. The work presented in Larsen and Buss focuses on emotional reactions to a partner’s infidelity, and specifically on sex differences in these reactions, with men reporting greater upset in response to a sexual infidelity and women reporting greater upset in response to an emotional infidelity. This work has recently been extended to the aftermath of an infidelity. What happens when a partner’s infidelity has been discovered? Two key options for the betrayed partner are to forgive the unfaithful partner and continue with the relationship, or to end the relationship with the betrayed partner. Shackelford, Buss, and Bennett (2002) investigated this question. This lecture presents the conduct and results of this research. Use this lecture as a springboard to encourage students to generate their own hypotheses about reactions to and consequences of a partner’s infidelity. Are sex differences always expected along the lines reported in the text and in this research, or might there be some circumstances in which we expect men and women to react similarly to each type of infidelity? Infidelities—sexual, emotional, or both—afflict many long-term romantic relationships When a person discovers a partner’s betrayal, a major decision faced is to Forgive the partner and remain together, or to Terminate the relationship Because men and women have confronted different adaptive problems over evolutionary history associated with different forms of infidelity, Shackelford et al. (in press) hypothesized the existence of sex differences in which aspects of infidelity would affect the likelihood of forgiveness or breakup The authors tested this hypothesis using forced-choice dilemmas Participants (N = 256) indicated How difficult it would be to forgive the partner and How likely they would be to break up with the partner, depending on the nature of the infidelity Results support the hypothesis that men, relative to women (a) Find it more difficult to forgive a sexual infidelity than an emotional infidelity, and (b) Are more likely to terminate a current relationship following a partner’s sexual infidelity than an emotional infidelity The authors close with a discussion that provides directions for future work on the determinants of breakup and the psychology of forgiveness Reference: Shackelford, T. K., Buss, D. M., & Bennett, K. (2002). Forgiveness or breakup: Sex differences in responses to a partner’s infidelity. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 299–307. Quality of Early Family Relationships and Individual Differences in the Timing of Pubertal Maturation in Girls (Ellis, McFadyen-Ketchum, Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1999). Evolutionary psychologists have only recently made substantial headway into individual differences. One area that Larsen and Buss discuss and for which evolutionary perspectives have provided a good deal of insight is in the relationships between early family environments and the sexual behavior of young adults who grow up in these environments. One controversial area of theory and research is the possible relationships between the young woman’s sexual behavior and whether her father was present during her early life. Students will find this topic interesting and accessible, and many will have come from backgrounds in which they did not reside full-time with their biological father. This lecture presents some of the most recent evidence for the relationships between father presence/absence and the timing of pubertal maturation in girls. Pubertal maturation, in turn, is a good predictor of the onset of sexual behavior. Use this lecture to engage students in a discussion about the underlying theory and what we, as a society, might do with the results, if anything. Be aware, however, that this is likely to be a controversial discussion, and help students to separate scholarly debate from raw emotional reactions and sentiments. Ellis et al. (1999) conducted an eight-year prospective study of 173 girls and their families The authors tested predictions from Belsky, Steinberg, & Draper’s (1991) evolutionary model of individual differences in pubertal timing This model suggests that more negative-coercive (or less positive-harmonious) family relationships in early childhood provoke earlier reproductive development in adolescence Consistent with the model, the following variables, assessed prior to kindergarten, predicted later pubertal timing by daughters in 7th grade: Father’s presence in the home More time spent by fathers in child care Greater supportiveness in the parental dyad More father-daughter affection, and More mother-daughter affection The positive dimension of family relationships, rather than the negative dimension, accounted for these relations In total, the quality of father’s investment in the family emerged as the most important feature of the proximal family environment relative to daughter’s pubertal timing Reference: Ellis, B. J., McFadyen-Ketchum, S., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1999). Quality of early family relationships and individual differences in the timing of pubertal maturation in girls: A longitudinal test of an evolutionary model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 387–401. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations According to Larsen and Buss, the evolutionary process produces three key products: Adaptations, by-products of adaptations, and noise or random variation. Distribute Activity Handout 8–1 (“Products of the Evolutionary Process”). Give students about five minutes to complete this handout. Ask volunteers to provide their definition of each of the products of the evolutionary process. Clarify these definitions as needed. Use this exercise as a springboard for discussing each of the three products of the evolutionary process, and highlight for students that the focus of modern evolutionary science is on adaptations. Ask students why the focus is on adaptations, rather than on by-products of adaptations or noise. Finally, challenge students to think of examples of adaptations, by-products of these adaptations, and noise or random variation. These are deceptively simple concepts, and students will benefit greatly by active discussion and guidance by the instructor. Larsen and Buss review recent theoretical and empirical work on sex differences in upset to a partner’s infidelity. This work reveals that men are more upset by a partner’s sexual infidelity, whereas women are more upset by a partner’s emotional infidelity. We can ask different but related questions, which are (a) which type of infidelity (sexual or emotional) is more likely to be forgiven and (b) which type of infidelity is more likely to cause the betrayed person to end the relationship? Shackelford, Buss, and Bennett (2002) asked these questions, and addressed them by presenting their participants with the dilemmas shown in Activity Handout 8–2. Distribute Activity Handout 8–2 (“Reactions to a Partner’s Infidelity”). Give students about five minutes to complete the handout. Ask students to volunteer their responses, beginning with the first question and moving through to the final question. Ask students to generate predictions about possible sex differences in responses to these questions. Be sure that the students clearly specify why they predict a particular difference (or the absence of a difference). Finally, conclude the discussion by revealing the results of Shackelford et al. (2002), which are that men are more likely than women to forgive a sexual infidelity compared with an emotional infidelity, whereas women are more likely than men to forgive an emotional infidelity compared with a sexual infidelity. Previous research has indicated that men and women differ in the qualities or traits they prefer to have in a long-term mate. Buss (1989) investigated mate preferences in a study of 37 cultures. Activity Handout 8–3 presents part of the measure completed by more than 10,000 participants in Buss’s (1989) study. Distribute Activity Handout 8–3 (“Factors in Choosing a Mate”). Give students about five minutes to complete the handout. Ask students to volunteer which mate preferences they rated as indispensable. Then ask students to volunteer which mate preferences they rated as irrelevant or unimportant. Finally, ask students to volunteer which mate preferences they rated between indispensable and irrelevant. Review for students the key findings from Buss’s (1989) study regarding sex differences in mate preferences. Across cultures, for example, men more than women value good looks, whereas women more than men value good financial prospects. Ask students to discuss why these sex differences are consistent with a modern evolutionary psychological perspective. Chapter 9 Psychoanalytic Approaches to Personality Chapter Outline Introduction Ross Cheit: A case of recovered memories Brief biography of Sigmund Freud Fundamental Assumptions of Psychoanalytic Theory Human mind is like a “hydraulic” system, operating by internal pressure Personality change occurs with redirection of a person’s psychic energy Basic Instincts: Sex and Aggression Instincts: Strong innate forces that provide all the energy in the psychic system Freud’s original theory of instincts was influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution In initial formulation, two instinct classes: Self-preservation instincts, sexual instincts In later formulations, Freud collapsed self-preservation and sexual instincts into one, called life instinct (libido); added death instinct (thanatos) Although Freud initially argued life and death instincts oppose each other, later he argued they could combine (e.g., in eating) Unconscious Motivation: Sometimes We Don’t Know Why We Do What We Do Unconscious: Part of the mind holding thoughts and memories about which person is unaware; includes unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges, thoughts, and feelings Human mind consists of three parts Conscious: Contains thoughts, feelings, and images about which you are presently aware Preconscious: Contains information you are not presently thinking about, but can be easily retrieved and made conscious Unconscious: Largest part of the human mind Iceberg metaphor Freud argued that unconscious material can take on a life of its own—Freud called this the “motivated unconscious”—material can “leak” into thoughts, feelings, and behaviors One of Freud’s most famous students: Carl Gustav Jung Collective unconscious Archetypes Psychic Determinism: Nothing Happens by Chance Freud argued that nothing happens by accident—instead, there is a reason behind every act, thought, and feeling Everything we do, think, say, feel is an expression of our mind—either conscious, preconscious, or unconscious Reasons could be discovered if contents of the unconscious could be examined Most symptoms of mental illness are caused by unconscious motivations To cure psychological symptoms, the unconscious cause must be discovered Structure of Personality Psychoanalytic personality theory concerns how people cope with their sexual and aggressive instincts within the constraints of civilized society One part of the mind creates these urges, another part has a sense of what society expects, and another part tries to satisfy urges within the bounds of reality and society Mind as a plumbing system, which contains water under pressure Pressure is a metaphor for energy from instincts, which builds up and demands release Regarding this internal pressure, three different schools of plumbing: One plumber (Id) suggests we open up all valves at the slightest pressure Another (Ego) offers ways to redirect pressure so that the strain is relieved without making a mess Another (Superego) wants to keep all the valves closed Id: Reservoir of Psychic Energy Most primitive part of the mind, source of all drives and urges Operates according to the pleasure principle, which is the desire for immediate gratification Functions according to primary process thinking, thinking without logical rules of conscious thought or anchor in reality Wish fulfillment: Something unavailable is conjured up and the image of it is temporarily satisfying Ego: Executive of Personality Constrains id to reality Develops within first two or three years of life Operates according to reality principle: Ego understands that urges of id are often in conflict with social and physical reality Operates according to secondary process thinking, development and devising of strategies for problem solving and obtaining satisfaction Superego: Upholder of Societal Values and Ideals Internalizes ideals, values, and moral of society What some refer to as the “conscience” Main tool of the superego in enforcing right and wrong is the emotion of guilt Like id, superego is not bound by reality Interactions of the Id, Ego, and Superego Dynamics of Personality Types of Anxiety Anxiety is an unpleasant state that signals that things are not right and something must be done Signals that control of ego is being threatened by reality, by impulses from id, or by harsh controls exerted by superego Objective anxiety occurs in response to real, external threat to a person Neurotic anxiety occurs when there is direct conflict between id and ego Moral anxiety is caused by conflict between ego and superego In all three types of anxiety, the function of ego is to cope with threats and to defend against dangers in order to reduce anxiety Ego accomplishes this through the use of defense mechanisms Defense Mechanisms Repression Denial Displacement Rationalization Reaction formation Projection Sublimation Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development Freud argued that all people pass through a series of stages in personality development At each of the first three stages, young children must face and resolve specific conflicts Conflicts revolve around ways of obtaining sexual gratification Children see sexual gratification at each stage by investing libidinal energy in a specific body part If a child fails to resolve a conflict at a particular stage, he or she may get stuck in that stage or become fixated Each successive stage represents a more mature mode of obtaining sexual gratification Oral stage (birth to 18 months) Main sources of pleasure and tension reduction are the mouth, lips, and tongue Key conflict is weaning—withdrawing from the breast or bottle Anal stage (18 months to three years) Child obtains pleasure from first expelling feces and then, during toilet training, from retaining feces Many conflicts arise around the child’s ability to achieve self-control Phallic stage (three to five years) Child discovers he has (or that she doesn’t have) a penis Sexual desire directed toward the parent of opposite sex Produces Oedipal and Electra conflicts—unconscious wish to have opposite-sex parent all to self by eliminating the same-sex parent Latency stage (six year to puberty) Little psychological development occurs Focus of child is on learning skills and abilities necessary to succeed as adult Genital stage (puberty through adult life) Libido is focused on the genitals, but not in manner of self-manipulation associated with the phallic stage This stage is not accompanied by specific conflict People reach this stage only if conflicts are resolved at previous stages Personality and Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis also a method of psychotherapy—a method of deliberately restructuring personality Techniques for Revealing the Unconscious Free association Dreams Projective techniques The Process of Psychoanalysis Psychoanalyst offers interpretations of psychodynamic causes of problems Through many interpretations, the patient gains “insight”—an understanding of the unconscious source of problems But process is difficult and wrought with roadblocks and challenges Patient resistance Patient transference Repetition compulsion Why is Psychoanalysis Important? Continuing influence on modern psychotherapy Continuing influence on research topics, including the unconscious and defense mechanisms Continuing influence on popular Western culture Laid foundation for topics and questions that psychologists are still interested in today Evaluation of Freud’s Contributions Psychoanalysis has had major impact on psychology, psychiatry, and Western thought generally But many criticisms Freud’s theory is primarily of historical value and does not directly inform much current personality research Freud did not believe in the value of experimentation or hypothesis testing in establishing the validity of psychoanalysis Freud relied on case studies of a select group of wealthy women to generate his theory of human nature Some personality psychologists take issue with Freud’s negative view of human nature SUMMARY AND EVALUATION Freud’s theory of human nature emphasizes how the psyche is compartmentalized into conscious and unconscious portions Psychoanalysis aims to make a patient’s unconscious conscious The value of psychoanalysis is debated KEY TERMS Psychic Energy Rationalization Instincts Reaction Formation Libido Projection Thanatos False Consensus Effect Conscious Sublimation Preconscious Psychosexual Stage Theory Unconscious Fixation Blindsight Oral Stage Deliberation-Without-Awareness Anal Stage Id Phallic Stage Pleasure Principle Oedipal Conflict Primary Process Thinking Castration Anxiety Wish Fulfillment Identification Ego Penis Envy Reality Principle Electra Complex Secondary Process Thinking Latency Stage Superego Genital Stage Ego Depletion Psychoanalysis Anxiety Free Association Defense Mechanisms Dream Analysis Objective Anxiety Manifest Content Neurotic Anxiety Latent Content Moral Anxiety Symbols Repression Projective Hypothesis Denial Interpretations Fundamental Attribution Error Insight Displacement Resistance Transference Chapter Overview This chapter provides students with an overview of classical psychoanalytic theory and therapy, as presented by Sigmund Freud. The authors begin with a brief review of the story of Ross Cheit, a famous case of recovered memories, to illustrate the possibility that traumatic experiences can be repressed into the unconscious, only to be driven up many years later. The authors then present a brief biography of Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. Next the authors review the fundamental assumptions of psychoanalytic theory, highlighting the basic instincts of sex and aggression, later termed by Freud the life and death instincts, respectively. According to Freud, the mind is made up of three key parts—the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. According to Freud, the unconscious houses all the dreams, wishes, desires, and experiences that are too upsetting or disturbing for conscious awareness. Material that is brought up from the unconscious into the conscious causes anxiety and psychological and physiology distress. Much of a person’s psychic energy therefore is used to keep this material relegated to the unconscious. A final fundamental assumption of psychoanalytic theory is that of “psychic determinism”—that nothing happens by chance. Instead, all thoughts, feelings, and behaviors reveal something about the internal conflict within the person. Next the authors review Freud’s theory about the structure of personality. Personality is made up of three parts—the id (the reservoir of psychic energy), the ego (the executive of personality), and the superego (the upholder of societal values and ideals). The authors then discuss the three types of anxiety presented by Freud—objective, neurotic, and moral anxiety. Anxiety, according to Freud, is a clue that the person is facing some objective or internal conflict or threat. Because anxiety is upsetting and can interfere with normal functioning, the ego engages various defense mechanisms to reduce this anxiety by disguising for consciousness the conflict that generates this anxiety. These defense mechanisms include repression, denial, rationalization, and sublimation. Next the authors review Freud’s five-stage theory of psychosexual development. The authors then move to a discussion of psychoanalysis as a form of psychological therapy. Psychoanalytic therapy is designed to make unconscious material conscious and thereby allow the patient to gain insight into psychic conflicts. The authors evaluate the contributions of Freud’s theory of personality and psychotherapy, highlighting the impact his work had on the field of psychology in general, and on personality and clinical psychology in particular. The authors close with a discussion of some of the criticisms of classical psychoanalysis. Learning Objectives Discuss Freud’s analogy that the human mind is like a “hydraulic” system operating by internal pressure. Discuss Freud’s conception of instinct and the role instincts play in human nature and human personality. Review the basic instincts of sex and aggression. Discuss how Freud’s conceptualization of the basic instincts changed, from a focus on sexual and aggressive instincts to the instincts of libido and thanatos. Discuss Freud’s ideas about unconscious motivation and the key idea that we don’t always know why we do what we do. Identify and discuss each of the three parts of the human mind, as presented by Freud. Include a review of the functions and operations of each of these three parts of the mind. Distinguish between the unconscious and the motivated unconscious. Review Freud’s contention that nothing happens by chance, or what has been referred to as the basic assumption of “psychic determinism.” Discuss each of the three components of human personality, as presented by Freud: Id, ego, and superego. Include a review of the development and function of each of these parts of personality. Review the role of anxiety in psychoanalytic theory. Discuss the three types of anxiety identified by Freud. Discuss the role of defense mechanisms, according to psychoanalytic theory—what are they designed to do? How do they operate? Be familiar with the following defense mechanisms: Repression, denial, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation, projection, and sublimation. Discuss empirical work on repression. What can be concluded from this research, and how does this research inform Freud’s original presentation of repression? Review Freud’s five-stage theory of psychosexual development. Discuss the key challenges and conflicts that occur at each stage. Review the key components of psychoanalytic therapy. What is the goal of psychoanalytic therapy and why? What techniques are used in psychoanalytic therapy? Review the key components of the process of psychoanalytic therapy, including interpretation, resistance, transference, and repetition compulsion. Discuss the impact of psychoanalysis on psychology, in general, and personality and clinical psychology in particular. Be familiar with the key criticisms of psychoanalysis as a theory of human personality. Lecture Topics and Lecture Suggestions The Psychodynamics of Disgust (Juni, 1984). Students typically enjoy discussions of disgust, particularly as they relate to Freud’s anal stage of psychosexual development. This lecture is designed to provide students with an example of empirical work that has investigated the psychodynamics of disgust. Use this lecture as a springboard for discussing Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, in general, and the anal stage in particular. Also guide students to consider the phenomenon of fixation, in this case at the anal stage. A general discussion of fixation also will be useful to students at this point. Allow students to generate their own ideas about disgust, about fixation, and about the anal stage of psychosexual development. Students will enjoy this discussion, once they recognize that they are free to discuss issues that often generate some initial embarrassment. The disgust reaction derives from the anal stage of psychosexual development The disgust reaction is a mechanism of reaction formation and is subsequently used by the ego as a means of countering libidinal fixational drives In addressing the general nature of the disgust reaction and the specificity of disgust to certain activities, it was hypothesized that Disgust in a specific area would correlate negatively with that type of fixation, and Disgustedness as a trait would correlate with the general anal-compulsive character typology 34 male and 23 female undergraduates completed a self-administered Rorschach Rorschach was scored to yield fixation indices of orality, anality, and sadism Participants also rated the disgustingness of 30 activities (e.g., slurping soup) High inter-correlations found between the disgust reactions, regardless of content, rendered it impossible to test Hypothesis 1, but Hypothesis 2 was supported: Disgustedness as a trait correlated with the general anal-compulsive character typology According to the author, the results confirm the potential of anality in the verification of psychoanalytic theory Reference: Juni, S. (1984). The psychodynamics of disgust. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 144, 203–208. Memories of Parental Rearing Practices and Personality Features (Benjaminsen et al., 1984). This lecture provides an example of research designed to test the general hypothesis that parenting practices can impact personality development. It is an interesting study, and students are likely to find it intriguing and controversial. The authors highlight the relationship between socially disapproved female personality traits and fixation at a particular stage of development. Use this lecture as a springboard for discussing the stages of psychosexual development and the impact of parenting practices on personality. For instructors who wish to engage students in controversial discussion, this lecture also provides a springboard for discussing the possibility that psychoanalysts might sometimes display sexism in their theoretical formulations and empirical investigations. An interesting question the instructor might raise is whether recalled child-rearing practices are likely to be accurate descriptions of actual child-rearing practices. Benjaminsen et al (1984) examined the relationship between one’s own memories of parental rearing practices and adult personality features Employed a sample of 114 female and 86 male 18–72 year olds Participants completed: Own Memories of Child-Rearing Experiences (EMBU) Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Self-rating scale for oral, obsessive, and hysterical personality traits Relations between the two sets of variables (recalled child-rearing practices and personality traits) were examined using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient For the male sample, all correlations were nonsignificant For females, there were several significant correlations Most consistent finding was that the experience of negative parental rearing factors was associated with pathological personality features About one-half of the significant correlations were found between females’ hysterical scores and their scores on the EMBU regarding their relationship with their fathers According to Benjaminsen et al. (1984), the findings support the general assumption that: Females with hysterical traits have complicated relations with their fathers, and that This may indicate fixation in the oedipal stage Reference: Benjaminsen, S., Jorgensen, J., Kragh-Hansen, L., & Pedersen, L. L. (1984). Memories of parental rearing practices and personality features. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 69, 426–434. Classroom Activities and Demonstrations Review for students that, although Freud initially believed that the life instinct and death instinct worked to oppose one another, he later argued that they could combine in various ways. Consider the act of eating. Eating obviously serves the life instinct, entailing consumption of nutrients necessary for survival. At the same time, eating also involves acts of tearing, biting, and chewing, which Freud thought could be seen as aggressive manifestations of the death instinct. What are some other possible examples of the combination of the life instinct and death instinct? Distribute Activity Handout 9–1 (“Combinations of the Life Instinct and Death Instinct”). Give students about five minutes to complete the handout. Then encourage students to share some of their examples. Use this activity and the associated discussion as a springboard for additional discussion about the life instinct, the death instinct, and the combination of these two instincts in different behaviors. Encourage students to discuss whether they think humans indeed have these two instincts, as Freud proposed. Do students think these two instincts can be combined in the way Freud proposed? Is it necessary to invoke these two instincts and the combination of these two instincts to understand the examples generated by students? Why or why not? According to Freud, the mind is made up of three basic parts—the id, the ego, and the superego. If each of these parts of the mind could be represented as people, what would they look like? What would they say? What might be their goals in life, and how would they achieve them? Distribute Activity Handout 9–2 (“Id, Ego, and Superego”). Give students about five minutes to complete the handout. Ask students to volunteer their responses. Use this activity as a springboard to discuss more formally the three parts of the mind, as presented by Freud. According to classical psychoanalysis, the function of the ego is to cope with threats and to defend against the dangers they pose in order to reduce anxiety. The ego accomplishes this through the use of various defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms enable the ego to control anxiety. Although intrapsychic conflicts frequently evoke anxiety, people may successfully defend themselves from conflict and never consciously feel the anxiety. This is accomplished through the use of defense mechanisms. Review with students the nature of each of the following defense mechanisms: Repression, denial, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation, projection, and sublimation. Distribute Activity Handout 9–3 (“Defense Mechanisms”). Give students between 5 and 10 minutes to complete the handout. Ask students to volunteer their responses. Use this activity and the discussion as a springboard to more formally discuss defense mechanisms, in general, and each of the defense mechanisms addressed in this activity, in particular. Instructor Manual for Personality Psychology: Domains of Knowledge About Human Nature Randy Larsen, David Buss 9780078035357