This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 9 7 GLOBAL INEQUALITY Contents: Using Text Boxes to stimulate discussion ● Learning Objectives • Using Text Boxes to stimulate discussion • Video suggestions • Classroom activities • Key points from the text • Additional lecture ideas • Class discussion topics • Topics for students research • Additional Audiovisual suggestions • Additional Readings • Thinking About Movies Learning Objectives: 7.1 Discuss stratification from a global perspective. 7.2 Describe the significance of colonialism and multinational corporations. Discuss the impact of modernization. 7.3 Discuss stratification within nations. Describe the significance of wealth and income distribution prestige, and social mobility. Discuss the social policy section on universal human rights. Using Text Boxes to stimulate discussion: Sociology in the Global Community: Income Inequality: A Global Perspective.)Sociologists Korzeniewicz and Moran divided residents of each country into groups of ten percent ( deciles) based on per capita incomes. They then ranked the deciles from highest to lowest and, finally, did the same for the world as a whole. Applying the Theory: 1. Does your family have a pet? If so, how much money do you think you spend on your pet every year? How does that figure compare to the average annual income in China or India? 2. By itself, do you think Kozeniewicz and Moran’s income-based measure is a sufficient indicator of global inequality? If not, what other kinds of information would you want to consider? Sociology in the Global Community: Stratification in Brazil As in the United States, Brazil’s social inequality is compounded by racial distinctions that originated with slavery. Not until 1988 did Brazil’s government begin to consider a redistribution of wealth or land to remedy these inequalities. Today, the Brazilian economy shows a significant degree of racially related income disparity. People of colour are clustered disproportionately on the lowest levels of the income pyramid. To remedy this problem the government has implanted a quota-based affirmative action program that ensures access to higher education for people of colour. Applying theory: Look at the bottom of each of the graphs on p.?. Which income distribution appears to be more equal? 2. Race-based college admissions have been the subject of hot debate in the United States. Why do you think they have been accepted as law in Brazilian society? Sociology in the Global Community: Cutting Poverty Worldwide. The goal of the United Nations’ Millenium Project is to cut the world’s poverty level in half by 2015. The project has eight objectives: 1) eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; 2) achieve universal primary education; 3) promote gender equality and empower women; 4) reduce child mortality; 5) improve maternal health; 6) combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; 7) ensure environmental sustainability; 8) develop a global partnership for development. Applying Theory: 1. As a conflict thinker, do you think the Millenium Project’s objectives are realistic, given the enormity of the obstacles hat must be overcome? Why do you think the project’s founders gave themselves only 15 years to accomplish their goal? 2. How are the project’s eight objectives related to one another? Could some of the objectives be reached successfully without addressing the others? If you were a government planner with the resources to address just one objective, which would you pick, and why? Social Policy and Global Inequality: Universal Human Rights. Human rights are universal moral rights possessed by all people because they are human. The most important elaboration of human rights appears in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations in 1948. This declaration prohibits slavery, torture, and degrading punishment; grants everyone the right to a nationalist and its culture; affirms freedom of religion and the right to vote; proclaims the right to seek asylum in other countries to escape persecution; and prohibits arbitrary interference with one’s privacy and the arbitrary taking of a person’s property. It also emphasizes that mothers and children are entitled to special care and assistance. By its very name, he Universal Declaration of Human Rights emphasizes that such rights should be universal. Even so, cultural relativism encourages understanding and respect for the distinctive norms, values, and customs of each culture. In some situations, conflicts arise between human rights standards and local social practices that rest on alternative views of human dignity. Applying Theory: 1) Why do definitions of human rights vary? 2) How might conflict and functionalist thinkers differ in their view of human rights violations in time of war? In the aftermath of serious terrorist attacks such as those of September 11, 2001 and 3) How might feminist thinkers assess Canada’s respect for human rights, both at home and abroad? Video suggestions: • No Logo (42 min., 2003, Media Education Foundation). This film would work well with the opening vignette on Nike, as Naomi Klein explores the world of corporate branding, and the effects this has on the global economy. It can be used in sections. Using hundreds of media examples, No Logo shows how the commercial takeover of public space, destruction of consumer choice, and replacement of real jobs with temporary work (the dynamics of corporate globalization) impact everyone, everywhere. It also draws attention to the democratic resistance arising globally to challenge the hegemony of brands. • Life and Debt (86 min., 2005, Tuff Gong Pictures Production) Jamaica became an independent country from Great Britain in 1962. It is the land of sea, sand and sun, but it is also a prime example of the complexities of economic globalization on the world's developing countries. The film effectively portrays the relationship between Jamaican poverty and the practices of international lending agencies while driving home the devastating consequences of globalization. • Women’s Bank of Bangladesh (47 min., 1997, MovieTron/Wildshot Pictures). This film is good for showing an interactionist, micro approach to stratification. More than 100 million people live below poverty level in Bangladesh - many of them women. The film focuses on the work of the Grameen Bank and the phenomenon of “micro-financing” – which are very small loan made mostly to women only. The film shows how a very small amount of money, sometimes as little as $20, can help women in Bangladesh and their families begin to prosper. • City of God (Directors: Fernando Meirelles and Katia Lund, 2003). In an extremely poor neighbourhood west of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, a young boy named Rocket (Alexandre Rodrigues) survives as best he can. Rocket lives in a favela, a shanty town where electricity is limited, shelters are made of recycled materials, and disease runs rampant. These desperate conditions are compounded by gang violence. Rocket's extreme poverty means that he has limited options for upward mobility, but he takes an interest in photography and eventually finds a way out of the favela by portraying the violence that surrounds him. Classroom activities: Have students keep a log (one day, one week, etc.) in which they track media reports from Africa, Asia or Latin America. What kind of news is reported from these countries? Where is it found in the newspapers, TV news etc. (i.e. headline story?). For whatever news story they are able to find, ask them if they can identify this country without using a map (i.e. what continent is it in? Who are the people who live there? What language do the people speak?). Ask them to analyze why they may not know much about these countries. Have a discussion as to why what we in North America know about these hugely-populated areas of the world through media is often negative and/or distorted (i.e. endless reports of natural disasters, famine, war). Ask students why media does not often provide historical background as to why poverty exists in these countries, or what day-to-day life may be like in these parts of the world. Key points from the text: Use Your Sociological Imagination: Have you ever considered some actions that might reduce the inequality between rich and poor nations? The Global Divide: Around the world, inequality is a significant determinant of human behaviour, opening doors of opportunity to some and closing them to others. Indeed, disparities in life chances are so extreme that in some places, the poorest of the poor may not be aware of them. A few centuries ago, such vast divides in global wealth did not exist. Except for a very few rulers and landowners, everyone in the world was poor. In much of Europe, life was as difficult as it was in Asia or South America. This was true until the Industrial Revolution and rising agricultural productivity produced explosive economic growth. The resulting rise in living standards was not evenly distributed across the world. The Legacy of Colonialism: Colonialism is the maintenance of political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a people by a foreign power for an extended period of time. By the 1980s, colonialism had largely disappeared. Most of the world's nations that were colonies before World War I had achieved political independence and established their own governments. However, for many of these countries, he transition to genuine self-rule was not yet complete. Their dependence on more industrialized nations, including their former colonial masters, for managerial and technical expertise, investment capital, and manufactured goods kept former colonies in a subservient position. Such continuing dependence and foreign domination constitute neo-colonialism. Drawing on the conflict perspective, sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein views the global economic system as divided between nations that control wealth and those from whom resources are taken. Wallerstein has advanced a world systems analysis to describe the unequal economic and political relationships in which certain industrialized nations (among them, the United States, Japan, and Germany) and their global corporations dominate the core of the system. Wallerstein suggests that the poor developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America are on the periphery of the world economic system. Core nations and their corporations control and exploit non-core nations' economies. Wallerstein’s world systems analysis is the most widely used version of dependency theory. According to this theory, even as developing countries make economic advances, they remain weak and subservient to core nations and corporations in an increasingly intertwined global economy. Closely related to these problems is globalization, or the worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and exchange of ideas. Because world financial markets transcend governance by conventional nation states, international organizations such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund emerged as major players in the global economy. Modernization: Contemporary social scientists use the term modernization to describe the far-reaching process by which periphery nations move from traditional or less developed institutions to those characteristic of more developed societies. Many sociologists are quick to note that terms such as modernization and even development contain an ethnocentric bias. There is similar criticism of modernization theory, a functionalist approach that proposes that modernization and development will gradually improve the lives of people in developing nations. According to this theory, while countries develop at uneven rates, development in peripheral countries will be assisted by the innovations transferred from the industrialized world. Use Your Sociological Imagination: You are traveling through a developing country. What evidence do you see of neo-colonialism and globalization? Multinational Corporations: The term multinational corporation refers to any commercial organization that is headquartered in one country but do business throughout the world. Functionalists believe that multinational corporations can actually help the developing nations of the world. They bring jobs an industry to areas where subsistence agriculture once served as the only means of survival. Conflict theorists emphasize that multinationals exploit local workers to maximize profits. Conflict theorists conclude that, on the whole, multinational corporations have a negative social impact on workers in both industrialized and developing nations. Workers in Canada and other core countries are beginning to recognize that their own interests are served by helping to organize workers in developing nations. As long as multinationals can exploit cheap labour abroad, they will be in a strong position to reduce wages and benefits in industrialized countries. Worldwide Poverty: In 2000, the United Nations launched the Millenium Project, whose objective is to eliminate extreme poverty worldwide by the year 2015. To accomplish the project’s goal, planners estimate that industrial nations must set aside 0.7 percent of their gross national product – the value of a nation’s goods and services - for aid to developing nations. Privileged people in industrialized nations tend to assume that the world’s poor lack significant assets. Yet again and again, observers from these countries have been startled to discover how far even a small amount of capital can go. Distribution of Wealth and Income: In at least 26 nations around the world, the most affluent 10 percent of the population receives at least 40 percent of all income. To varying degrees, based on the intersection of factors such as race, class, age, disability, sexuality and nationality, women in developing countries may find life especially difficult. Social Mobility: Studies of intergenerational mobility in industrialized nations have found the following patterns: 1) Substantial similarities exist in the ways that parents’ positions in stratification systems are transmitted to their children 2) As in Canada, mobility opportunities in other nations have been influenced by structural factors, such as labour market changes that lead to the rise or decline of an occupational group within the social hierarchy; 3) Immigration continues to be a significant factor in shaping a society’s level of intergenerational mobility. In developing nations, macro-level social and economic changes often over-shadow micro level movement from one occupation to another. In large developing nations, the most socially significant mobility is the movement out of poverty. The effects of the development process on women’s social standing and mobility are not necessarily positive. Use Your Sociological Imagination: Imagine a day when the border between Canada and the United States is completely open? What would the two countries’ economies be like? What would their societies be like? Additional lecture ideas: 1: Political Coalitions and the Poor in Developing Countries Bringing about reforms that are intended to reduce poverty is not necessarily a matter of simply pitting the poor against the nonpoor. Although many economic policies benefit the rich at the expense of the poor, certain approaches, according to the World Bank, can draw support from coalitions that cut across the poor-nonpoor divide. An example of a poor-nonpoor coalition can be found in food pricing policies. In many African and Latin American countries, the agricultural sector has long suffered from policies that favour industry and cities. For example, food prices are frequently kept low, which benefits the urban poor, industrial workers, and business owners; but this policy functions at the expense of the entire rural sector, including the poor. In Argentina, Chile, and Peru, the success of tax reforms and other reforms designed to benefit the poor has generally turned on the stance of white-collar workers, professionals, bureaucrats, and small- and medium-size business interests. Redistributive policies have been more likely to succeed when these sectors share in transfers directed primarily to the poor. The same is no doubt true in many other countries. The Maharashtra Employment Guarantee Scheme in India transfers income from the urban nonpoor to the rural poor, but it nevertheless enjoys wide political support because the urban nonpoor see the reduction of migration to Bombay as a benefit, and landowners may look favourably on the scheme because it helps to stabilize the rural labour force and because it creates infrastructure in the countryside. See World Development Report 1990. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 52. Class discussion topics: 1. Baby Formula and Developing Countries: Perhaps one of the more emotional debates relating to the issue of neocolonialism has been the introduction of formula feeding in the developing countries. Does this represent modernization, or is it draining the income of impoverished Third World families? See Carolyn E. Campbell, “Nestlé and Breast versus Bottle Feeding: Mainstream and Marxist Perspectives,” International Journal of Health Services, 14(4)(1984): 547–567. 2. Anti-Globalism: Solidarity Village is a self-described community of resistance whose purpose is to challenge the mainstream agenda for globalization, through protest. Discuss the anti-globalization protests that have taken place in Seattle and in 2002 in Calgary/Kananaskis, and try to develop an explanation for the change in tactics of the dissenters. 3. Using Humour: David S. Adams has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated in lectures associated with this chapter. See Adams, “Status and Stratification,” in Using Humor in Teaching Sociology: A Handbook. Washington, DC: ASA Teaching Resources Center, 1982. See also Joseph E. Faulkner, "Social Stratification." in Sociology through Humor. New York: West, 1987. Topics for student research: 1. International Monetary Fund: See Peet, Richard 2003. Unholy Trinity:The IMF, World Bank, and WTO. London: Zed Books. 2. G8: See Labonte, Ronald and Ted Shrecker, 2008. Fatal Indifference: The G8, Africa, and Global Health. Cape Town, SA: University of Cape Town Press 3. Frantz Fanon: Frantz Fanon has been influential in several movements for decolonization, particularly during liberation struggles in Africa in the 1960s. His seminal work on this subject is The Wretched of the Earth, New York, NY: Grove Press, 2005. Additional Audiovisual materials: Animal Farm (1954, colour, 72m). “All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others” is the theme of George Orwell’s famous fable. The story deals with the revolt of Farmer Jones’s domesticated animals. After they have seized power, they are taken over by the pigs, which are the shrewdest of the group. Caste at Birth (1991, 52m). Few Westerners realize the grave situation of India’s “untouchables.” There are 150 million of them who live a segregated life. They cannot own land or get an education and are condemned to the most menial jobs, such as sweeping streets, cleaning toilets, or butchering animals. In the villages they are subject to abuse and sometimes even killed for minor slights to the landowners. The Good News about Poverty(Yes, there is good news) (2013, TED talks, 13:57). Bono, the leader singer for U2 argues that an end of poverty is in sight if the world can harness the momentum. The Rise of the New Global Super-Rich (2013, TED talks, 15:24m). Writer Chrystia Freeland charts a new class of people who are powerful because they are extremely wealthy and suggests that technology and globalization is fueling the income gap between this group and others. Additional readings: Beier, A.L. and Paul Robert Ocobock. Cast:Out: Vagrancy and Homelessness in Global and Historical Perspective. Athens OH: Ohio University Press, 2008. Carroll, William. Corporate Power in a Globalizing World. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press, 2013. This book offers a systematic analysis of he Canadian corporate network in the global context, arguing that it constitutes the leading edge of the ruling class. Glasser, Irene. Homelessness in global perspective New York: G.K. Hall; Toronto: Maxwell Macmillan Canada; New York: Maxwell Macmillan International, c1994. Grabb, Edward G. 2006. Theories of Social Inequality. 5th ed. Toronto: Harcourt. This book provides a comprehensive overview and analysis of both classical and contemporary theories of social inequality. Martell, Luke.The Sociology of Globalization. Oxford: Wiley, 2010. This book covers the social, political, and cultural aspects of globalization as well as the economic dimensions. Seear, Michael. An Introduction to International Health. Toronto: CSPI/WS, 2012. In his book, Seear looks at the history of overseas aid and the determinants of health, poverty, and developing-world debt. and malnutrition; he examines solutions as well. Smith, Keri E. Iyall (ed.).Sociolgoy of Globalization: Cultures, Economies and Politics.,Boulder, CO: 2012. . Thobani, Sunera, and Tineke Hellwig, eds. Asian Women: Interconnections. Toronto: CSPI/WS, 2006. A collection of papers placing Asian women at the centre of the discussion, and examining the relationship of Asia to the West and northern countries. Ulrike, Scheurkens (ed.). Globalization and Transformations of Social Inequality. London: Routledge, 2011. Van der Gaag, Nikki. The No-Nonsense Guide to Women’s Rights. Toronto: New Internationalist Publications, 2004. In this book, the author places poverty in a global context, focusing on those who suffer the most: women and children. Thinking About Movies__________________________________ Blood Diamond (Edward Zwick, 2006) As civil wage rages in Sierra Leone, Africa, a fisherman named Solomon Vany ( Djimon Hounsou) is enslaved by a revolutionary group and forced to dig for diamonds. Solomon finds an immense pink diamond that is worth a fortune. He hides this “blood diamond,” hoping he can use it to reunity his war-torn family. When a smuggler named Danny Archer ( Leonardo DiCaprio) learns about Solomon’s diamond, he offers to help him find a buyer. This fictionalized account of the “conflict diamond trade” illustrates Wallerstein’s world systems analysis. Blood Diamond shows the unequal distribution of wealth between wealthy countries and poor countries that produce them. From the film’s perspective, multinational corporations use this unequal division of resources to their own advantage, profiting from the inequity. For Your Consideration 1. What are some of the ways in which this movie illustrates dependency theory? 2. How would you describe the role of diamonds in global stratification, as shown in this film? 8 RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY Contents: ● Learning Objectives • Using Text Boxes to stimulate discussion • Video suggestions • Suggestions for class activities • Key points from the text • Additional lecture ideas • Class discussion topics • Topics for student research • Additional audiovisual suggestions • Additional readings • Thinking About Movies Learning Objectives: 8.1 Define racial, ethnic, and minority groups. Discuss the social construction of race. 8.2 Discuss prejudice and its correlation with racism. Discuss discrimination and institutional discrimination, and their impact on social relations. 8.3 Identify the views of functionalism, conflict, feminist, and interactionist theory regarding racial and ethnic inequality. 8.4 Describe the various patterns of intergroup relations. Describe the patterns of immigration to Canada and elsewhere. 8.5 Describe the various population patterns of racial and ethnic diversity in Canada. Discuss the relative economic positions of various racial and ethnic groups in Canada. Using Text Boxes to stimulate discussion: Sociology in the Global Community: Cultural Survival in Brazil.) Today Brazil’s population has grown to more than 180 million, only about 900 000 of whom are indigenous peoples descended from the original inhabitants. Over 230 different indigenous groups have survived, living a life closely tied to the land and the rivers, just as their ancestors did. But over the last two generations, their numbers have dwindled as booms in mining, logging, oil drilling, and agriculture have encroached on their land and their settlements. Many indigenous groups were once nomads. Now they are hemmed in on the reservations the government confined them to, surrounded by huge farms or ranches whose owners deny their right to live off the land. State officials may insist that laws restrict the development of indigenous lands, but indigenous peoples tell a different story. Applying theory: 1) How would conflict thinkers explain the relationship between indigenous groups and agri-business interests in Brazil? 2) How would functionalists explain the state of indigenous groups and their dwindling resources? Social Policy and Race and Ethnicity: Global Immigration. Worldwide immigration is at an all-time high. Each year, two million to four million people move from one country to another. As of the early 2000s, immigrants totaled about 191 million, representing over 2 percent of the global population. Their constantly increasing numbers and the pressure they put on job opportunities and welfare capabilities in the countries they enter raise troubling questions for some of the world’s economic power. Who should be allowed in? At what point should immigration be curtailed? At what point should it be expanded? Applying Theory: 1) Did you or your parents or grandparents immigrate to Canada? If so, when and where did your family come from, and why? Did they face discrimination? 2) Do you live, work, or study with recent immigrants to Canada? If so, are they well accepted in your community, or do they face prejudice and discrimination? 3) In your opinion, is there a backlash against immigrants in Canada? 4) In your view, does the functionalist perspective on race and ethnicity provide a realistic interpretation of unequal access to opportunity in Canada? Video suggestions: • The Angry Eye (35 min, 2001, Elliot) Jane Elliott revisits her famous 1968 Blue-Eyes/Brown-Eyes Exercise in discrimination on a US college campus. As before, Elliott uses eye color to arbitrarily split the group into two – the blue-eyed teens are subjected to the same treatment that their brown-skinned peers experience every day. Perhaps one of the most striking moments occurs when a blue-eyed student walks out of the session, and then walks back in. Elliott refuses to let her, explaining that she, as a blue-eyed person, is exercising a right that nobody else in the room has – no one else can walk away form their skin color. This film is particularly effective with young adults, because they see “themselves” on the screen. Elliott has many other documentaries, including a recent one in Australia, called “The Stolen Eye.” For more information, see http://www.janeelliott.com/videos.htm • Hearts of Hate: The Battle for Young Minds (1995, 57 min, filmmaker Peter Raymont). This documentary shows the influence that Canada’s racist groups have over teenagers and young adults. Behind-the-scenes footage follows racist groups such as The Heritage Front, Aryan Nations, Church of the Creator, and the Canadian Liberty Net. There is also footage of young people speaking – those who belong to racist groups, those who have been subject to violent racism, and anti-racist activists. The film ends with some suggestions as to how to combat such racist groups. • Mickey Mouse Monopoly: Disney, Childhood and Corporate Power (2001, distributed by Media Education Foundation, www.mediaed.org ). This film can be used for both race and gender, as it examines the Disney Corporation’s global grip on cultural representations of race, class and gender, and the not so innocent values propagated in countless movies. Media Ed foundation has a downloadable study guide on their website. Suggestions for Class Activities: • Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack of White Privilege. An excellent exercise for this chapter is found in the work of Dr. Peggy McIntosh on “White Privilege.” This material is copyrighted, and so you would need to plan ahead, but it is well worth the effort. Dr. McIntosh’s articles invite students to examine the “invisible knapsack” of privileges that white people carry around with them every day. She draws students in through a lengthy checklist, asking them everything from whether or not they can find makeup that matches their skin tone, to whether or not they are ever made to speak for their entire race. Source: McIntosh, Peggy. 1989. “Working Paper 189. White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming To See Correspondences through Work in Women's Studies”; Wellesley College Center for Research on Women, Wellesley MA 02181. • Newspaper/magazine articles on racism/racist incidents: You’ll need to plan at least one class ahead for this one, or bring in several large newspapers to class. Ask your students to bring in newspaper articles that report events where race or ethnicity is discussed – the diversity will depend on your area. Have them form pairs or small groups, and have each group work on one fairly short article. Ask them to identify three or four concepts from the chapter that apply to the events/issues in their article, and explain how and why the concept fits with their article. Additionally, ask them to identify which theoretical perspective they think best fits the presentation of the events/issues in their article. Then, invite the pairs or the groups to share the contents of their article, and the concepts that they think fit the article with the rest of the class. Invite discussion, and additional contributions. HINT: You will get much higher on-task participation if each pair or group has to hand in a written documentation of their participation, such as a list of the concepts from the chapter that apply, and which theoretical perspective best fits the article. Make sure the students put their names on the paper, so that you can give them class participation, or some kind of credit for being involved. Key Points from the text: Use your sociological imagination: From the opening vignette in Chapter 10, which is an article by Elizabeth Church in The Globe and Mail. Does the research presented by Church match your own experiences or situation? What factors do you think are contributing to this pattern of first- and second-generation Canadians attending university? Racial and Ethnic Groups: Sociologists frequently distinguish between racial and ethnic groups. The term racial group is used to describe a group that is set apart and treated differently from others because of real or perceived physical differences. Whites, black, and Asian Canadians are all perceived to be racial groups in this country. Unlike racialized groups, an ethnic group is set apart from others primarily because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns. In Canada, Italian Canadians, Jewish people, and Polish Canadians are all categorized as ethnic groups. Minority Groups: A numerical minority is any group that makes up less than half of some larger population. As sociologists use the term however, a minority group refers to a subordinate group whose members have significantly less control or power over their own lives than members of a dominant or majority group have over theirs. In Canada, the term visible minority is used to refer to those Canadians who are non-white or are identified as being physically different from white Canadians of European descent, who compose the dominant group. Sociologists have identified five basic properties of a minority group: (1) Members of a minority group experience unequal treatment as compared with members of a dominant group. For example, the management of an apartment complex may refuse to rent to blacks, Asians, or Jews. Social inequality may be created or maintained by prejudice, discrimination, segregation, or even extermination; (2) Members of a minority group share physical or cultural characteristics that distinguish them from the dominant group; (3) Membership in a minority (or dominant) group is not voluntary; people are born into the group. Thus, race and ethnicity are considered ascribed statuses; (4) Minority group members usually have a strong sense of group solidarity – when a group is the object of long-term prejudice and discrimination, the feeling of “us versus them” can and often does become extremely intense; and (5) members generally marry others from the same group. Biological Significance of Race: Viewed from a biological perspective, the term race would refer to a genetically isolated group with distinctive gene frequencies. But it is impossible to scientifically define or identify such a group – scientifically, there is no such thing as a “pure race.” If scientists examine a smear of blood under a microscope, they cannot tell whether it came from a Chinese, Aboriginal or black person. Social construction of Race: Racialization refers to the social processes by which people come to define a group as a “race” based in part on physical characteristics but also on historical, cultural, and economic factors. An example of racialization is the “one drop rule” from the southern United States. In the southern United States, if a person had even a single drop of “black blood,” that person was defined and viewed as black, even if he or she appeared to be white. Race had enough social significance in the southern U.S. that legislators established official standards about who was “black” and who was “white.” Stereotypes: A stereotype is a unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does not recognize individual differences within the group. Use your sociological imagination: (238) Count the various ethnicities portrayed in Canadian television programming between the hours of 8 and 11 p.m. Using a TV remote control, how quickly do you think you could find a television show in which all the characters share your own racial or ethnic background? What about a show in which all the characters share a different background form your own – how quickly could you fine one? Prejudice: Prejudice is a negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority. Prejudice tends to perpetuate false definitions of individuals and groups. One important and widespread form of prejudice is racism, the belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior. When racism prevails in a society, members of minority groups generally experience prejudice, discrimination, and exploitation. Discrimination is the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups based on some type of arbitrary bias. Say that a white corporate CEO with a prejudice against Indo-Canadians has to fill an executive position. The most qualified candidate for the job is of Indian descent. If the CEO refuses to hire this candidate and instead selects a less-qualified white person, he or she is engaging in an act of racial discrimination. Glass ceiling: The term glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of the individual’s gender, race or ethnicity. Glass ceilings continue to block women and minority group men from top management positions in government, education, politics, and business. Institutional Discrimination: This term refers to the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operation of a society. This kind of discrimination consistently affects certain racial and ethnic groups more than others. Some examples are: • Rules requiring that only English be spoken at a place of work, even when it is not a business necessity to restrict the use of other languages • Preferences shown by law and medical schools in the admission of children of wealthy and influential alumni, nearly all of whom are not members of minorities • Restrictive employment-leave policies, coupled with prohibitions on part-time work, that make it difficult for the heads of single-parent families (most of whom are women) to obtain and keep jobs Racial or Ethnic Profiling: This refers to the use of the social construct of “race” as a consideration in suspect profiling in law enforcement and national security practices. Wortely (2005) studied the Kingston police force practices and found that young black men and aboriginal men had a greater chance of being stopped by the police than did members of other groups. More specifically, the study showed that a black man was 3.7 times more likely to be stopped by police than was a white man. Using your sociological imagination: Suddenly, you don’t have access to a desktop computer – not at home, at school, or even at work. How will your life change? Employment equity: This term refers to positive efforts to recruit historically disadvantaged groups for jobs, promotions, and educational opportunities. Some people, however, resent these programs, arguing that advancing one group’s cause merely shifts the discrimination to another group. Studying Race and Ethnicity: Viewing race from the macro level, functionalists observe that racism towards ethnic minorities serves positive functions for dominant groups, whereas conflict theorists see the economic structure as a central factor in the exploitation of minorities. The feminist perspective looks at both micro level and macro level issues. The micro-level analysis of interactionist researchers stresses the manner in which everyday contact between people from different racial and ethnic backgrounds contributes to tolerance or leads to hostility. • Functionalist perspective: Functionalist theorists, while agreeing that racism is hardly to be admired, point out that it indeed serves positive functions for those practicing discrimination. Nash (1962) has identified three functions of racist beliefs for the dominant group: 1) Racist views provide a moral justification for maintaining an unequal society that routinely deprives a minority of its rights and privileges. Slavery has been justified by believing that Africans were physically and spiritually subhuman and devoid of souls; 2) Racist beliefs discourage the subordinate minority from attempting to question its lowly status, which would be to question the very foundation of society; 3) Racial myths suggest that any major societal change would only bring greater poverty to the minority and lower the majority’s standard of living. Racism also has several dysfunctions for society (204). • Conflict perspective: Cox (1948), Blauner (1972) and Hunter (2000) use exploitation theory (Marxist class theory) to explain the basis of racial subordination. From this perspective, racism keeps minority group members in low-paying jobs, thereby supplying the capitalist ruling class with a pool of cheap labour. Also – by forcing racial minorities to accept low wages, capitalists can restrict the wages of all members of the proletariat. Workers from the dominant group who demand higher wages can always be replaced by minorities who have no choice but to accept low-paying jobs. • Feminist perspective: There is a wide variation in how feminist theories approach race and ethnicity. Anti-racist and critical race feminism point out that gender is not the sole source of oppression – gender, race and other sources of oppression intersect to produce multiple degrees of inequality. Patricia Hill Collins (1998) uses the term “outsiders-within” to describe the condition of black women situated in academic, legal, business, and other communities. As “outsiders-within” these women are dually marginalized in that community as women and as black; the find themselves unable to access the knowledge and possess the full power granted to others in the community. • Interactionist perspective: The contact hypothesis states that interracial contact between people of equal status in cooperative circumstances will cause them to become less prejudiced and to abandon previous stereotypes. Patterns of Intergroup Relations: Genocide is the deliberate systematic killing of an entire people or nation. Expulsion is the driving of people from their homes for the purpose of ethnic cleansing. Example: Sudan government’s campaign of “ethnic cleansing” in its Darfur region. Many deaths have occurred and approximately 2.4 million people have been displaced since 2003. Amalgamation: Majority and minority group combine to form a new group. Example: A+B+C=D. Assimilation is the process by which a person forsakes his or her own cultural tradition to become part of a different culture. Example: A+B+C=A. Name changing to hide religious or ethnic heritage. Segregation is the physical separation of two groups in terms of residence, workplace, and social events. Example: Apartheid in South Africa. From 1948-1990 South Africa severely restricted the movement of blacks and other non-whites by means of this wide-ranging system of segregation. Perhaps the most blatant form of segregation in Canada is that of the reserve system established by the federal government for Aboriginal peoples. Effectively, reserves segregate Aboriginal people by placing their schools, housing, recreational facilities, and medical services in remote areas, separate from the larger community. Some forms of segregation can be voluntary and thus, may be referred to as self-segregation. Example: residential segregation in Canada’s major cities such as Toronto, Vancouver and Montreal where residents in Chinese-, Jewish-, and Indo-Canadian neighbourhoods remain residentially separated from other ethnic groups. Multiculturalism: In 1971, the government adopted a policy of multiculturalism. Multiculturalism, officially, is a policy that attempts to promote ethnic and racial diversity in all aspects of Canadian life, and to establish diversity as a fundamental characteristic of the Canadian identity. The policy of multiculturalism, however, is not without its critics, who assert that it is simply window dressing that divert attention from the economic and political inequalities that persist among various ethnic groups (e.g. between members of visible minorities and members of other minorities). Ethnic Groups: The 2006 Canadian census revealed the 10 top ethnic origins to be, in descending order, Canadian, English, French, Scottish, Irish, German, Italian, Chinese, North American Indian, and Ukrainian. Global Immigration: Worldwide immigration is at an all-time high. Countries like Canada and the United States that have long been a destination for immigrants have a history of policies to determine who has preference to enter. Conflict theorists note how much of the debate over immigration is phrased in economic terms. Often, clear racial and ethnic biases are built into these policies. Immigration provides many valuable functions for the receiving society, but conflict theorists note how recent immigrants are being firmly entrenched at the bottom of the country’s social and economic hierarchies. Additional Lecture Ideas: 1. The Multiculturalism Process In 1971, the federal government of Pierre Elliot Trudeau took the advice of the unfortunately named Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism, and introduced the national Multiculturalism Policy. With that, Canada became the first country in the world to embrace a formal version of pluralism. This adoption came at the end of a process of social evolution that spanned more than two centuries. Early on the morning of September 13, 1759 the French citadel at Quebec under the command of the Marquis de Montcalm was roused from sleep by the discovery that during the previous night’s driving rain storm, British forces had managed to scale what had been considered an unassailable bluff, to stand ready for battle in a field named after Abraham Martin. This minor engagement, ended when the troops of Major-General James Wolfe overran the startled French in just 15 minutes. It changed the course of North American history, and set the stage for Canada’s long journey down the road to multiculturalism. The territorial reality created by the events of that morning was that French North America was reduced to the Louisiana Territory, and British North America expanded significantly. The political reality was somewhat more complex. With the end of the Seven Years’ War and the 1763 Treaty of Paris France ceded control of its former colony at Quebec, to Britain. But, despite their victory on the Plains of Abraham and at the negotiation table, the English were by no means the dominant group in their new territory. The British governor and his garrison of less than 5 000 troops installed on the island of Montreal were charged with the task of controlling a community which various sources put at between 50 000 to 70 000 settlers with French roots, who were not al all pleased with their new rulers. For ten years, the British tried to overcome this imbalance, without success. Programs offering free land to retiring soldiers who had fought in the Seven Years’ War brought little interest in a land that was perceived in England as being a frozen wasteland. Consequently, in 1774, with the imminent threat of a revolution in their colonies to the south, the British sought to calm the rising voice of dissent among the French Canadians by passed the Quebec Act. The Act gave this group the right to maintain French civil law, and more importantly it legitimized the status of the Roman Catholic Church. The church was given authority over education and social services, as well as gaining the right to impose tithes on the population. In exchange, through an informal agreement, the church promised to control its parishioners. The Act gave the British peace of mind, but it had a much more significant long-term effect for Canada. It represented a formal recognition of the rights of those of French heritage to exist as a distinct culture within the Canadian social and political landscape. It was the first step on the road to multiculturalism. For almost 200 years, this arrangement—of the British dominating the larger Canada, and the French free to run their own society in those parts of Quebec outside the English economic enclave on the Island of Montreal—stayed in place with little protest from either side. The stability of this arrangement established the legitimacy of Canada’s duality. During that same period, the third party to what John Ralston Saul has called our “Triangular Reality”; Canada’s First Nations people were cajoled into facilitating European settlement by illusions of collaboration and feeble, though destructive attempts at assimilation. Because of the continued dependence of the settlers on the expertise and generosity of their indigenous neighbours, a series of Canadian colonial governors and legislatures rejected the American strategy of genocide in dealing with natives. Instead, Canada’s First Nations people were subjected to marginalization and indoctrination aimed at erasing their cultural heritage. The most notorious of these initiatives was the residential school program that began with two institutions at Confederation, and peaked with over 80 in the early 1930s. Estimates suggest that before the system was finally abandoned in the mid-1980s close to 150 000 native children had experienced the harshness of these institutions. Other attempts were made to extinguish the culture of Canada’s First Nations, the most infamous of which involved the outlawing of the potlatch ceremony that was so central to the customs of the peoples of the west coast. Although the law was enacted in 1884 it wasn’t until it was clarified much later, that 45 people were charged following a ceremony in 1921. The offenses cited included making speeches, dancing, and gift-giving. In 1951, the Indian Act was finally revised, and the anti-potlatch law was deleted. Despite these attempts to destroy native culture, the integrity of First Nations values and community have survived. In contemporary Canadian society, those standards have been revitalized, and with their struggle for self-government and recognition of aboriginal title, natives are reclaiming their place as a major cultural partner in Canadian society. Meanwhile, Quebec remained an economic and political backwater, sustained by its relative autonomy and its segregation from mainstream Canadian society. Then, in the early 1960s, Quebecois dissatisfaction with their place in Canadian society sparked a new vision of the country’s internal relations. The Quiet Revolution was a rekindling of the desire for self-determination. Among other things, this movement prompted the government in Ottawa to undertake an examination of the place of French speaking people within the Canadian confederation. The Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism was set in 1965 with the task of making recommendations about the reconstitution of the country’s ethnic landscape. In particular, the Commission was to suggest ways to improve Quebec’s place within Confederation. It wasn’t far into the Commission’s public hearings that it became clear that the choice of title had been unfortunate. Presenter after presenter brought the concerns of Canada’s ethnic minorities to the table, pointing out decisively that any formal recognition of the country’s diversity must acknowledge the place of its minorities. They were successful in making their case. Ultimately, acting upon the recommendations of the Commission, Parliament instituted the Multiculturalism Policy in 1971, and in 1988 passed the Canadian Multiculturalism Act. Sources for this lecture include: Fleras, Augie, and Elliott, Jean Leonard. 1999. Unequal Relations: An Introduction to Race, Ethnic, and Aboriginal dynamics in Canada. 3e. Scarborough. Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon. Ralston Saul, John. 1997. Reflections of a Siamese Twin: Canada at the End of the Twentieth Century. Toronto. Penguin Books Canada. Canada Heritage. Multiculturalism: Policy and Legislative Framework. Retrieved May 24, 2002. http://www.pch.gc.ca/multi/policy/framework_e.shtml. 2: Merton on Discrimination and Prejudice Prejudice does not necessarily coincide with discriminatory behaviour. Sociologist Robert Merton, in exploring the relationship between negative attitudes and negative behaviour, has identified four major types of people: 1. Unprejudiced non-discriminator: “all-weather liberal” 2. Unprejudiced discriminator: “reluctant liberal” 3. Prejudiced non-discriminator: “timid bigot” 4. Prejudiced discriminator: “all-weather bigot” The “folk label” he adds for each category will readily identify the type of individual being described. Liberals, as the term is being employed here for types 1 and 2, are committed to equality among peoples. The “all-weather liberal” not only believes in equality but also practices it. Merton was quick to observe, however, that such “all-weather liberals” may be far removed from any real competition with minorities or even women; furthermore, they may be content with their own behaviour and may do little to change society. The “reluctant liberal” is even less committed to equality; social pressures may cause such a person to discriminate (for example, fear of losing customers may cause a shopkeeper to refuse to hire a visible minority salesperson). Laws that prohibit discrimination may have their greatest impact on “reluctant liberals.” Types 3 and 4 do not believe in equal treatment for racial and ethnic groups. They vary on their willingness to act. The “timid bigot,” type 3, will not discriminate if discrimination costs money or reduces profits, or if he or she is pressured by peers or the government not to discriminate. The “all-weather bigot” is not hesitant to practice the beliefs he or she holds. Merton’s typology stresses that attitudes should not be confused with behaviour. See Merton, “Discrimination and the American Creed.” In Robert M. MacIver (ed.). Discrimination and National Welfare. New York: Harper and Row, 1949, pp. 99–126. 3: Interactionist Approach to Reducing Social Conflict: Robber’s Cave Experiment Social psychologists Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Sherif and their colleagues created three summer camps for boys in order to see how group harmony could be established or reestablished. Although somewhat different experiments were conducted at each camp, the central findings were identical. Boys aged 11 or 12 were chosen from different schools to attend what they thought was a typical summer camp. Upon arrival, the boys were separated into two groups—the Eagles and Rattlers. They were occasionally brought together to compete. As the competition grew fiercer, physical encounters and raids followed. Intergroup conflict, even though experimentally created, clearly led to mutual disrespect between the two groups, just as it does in society. The question of greatest interest to Sherif and Sherif was how to reduce conflict. Appeals to higher values were found to be of limited value, just as “be good to your neighbour” messages do not remake society. Conferences between group leaders did not work; when some boys who were leaders agreed to stop the hostilities, their followers showered them with green apples, feeling that they had given up too much. (Just as real life leaders who compromise also often encounter antagonism.) When the two groups of campers were brought together in highly pleasant situations, such as meals with special desserts and movies, food and garbage fights took place. (Similarly, in society, when both majority and minority groups interact in rewarding circumstances, such as receiving federal aid, group competition continues.) Sherif and Sherif finally succeeded in reducing conflict by introducing a common task, a superordinate goal that needed to be reached. A superordinate goal is an objective of great significance that overshadows other aims. For example, the experimenters told the boys that the water supply had been “mysteriously” cut off; only if everyone helped could the source of the cutoff be located. A series of such events brought the boys together with no sign of the previous hostility. Interviews with the boys verified that a reduction in intergroup conflict had occurred; instead of selecting their best friends almost exclusively from their own group, Eagles chose Rattlers and Rattlers chose Eagles. Other studies using adults, sometimes in multiracial groups, have had similar results. However, great care has to be taken in generalizing from this type of study. First, Sherif and Sherif note that the goal cannot simply be a common goal that either group could attain on its own. The superordinate goal must be a compelling one for the groups involved and unattainable except by joint effort. Second, it is not enough to manipulate words and make people think that intergroup cooperation is necessary; common efforts and a concerted plan of action are also necessary. Third, the research setting does not make clear what would happen if the superordinate goal is not reached. Research needs to be conducted to see if each group would blame the other, leading to a rise in tension, or if mutual sympathy would improve relations. In terms of the larger society, the Robber’s Cave study cautions us against optimism about the effectiveness of appealing to higher values, holding “brotherhood” conferences, or rewarding everyone equally. Furthermore, the likelihood of positive change is nil so long as groups, whether they be part of majority or minority, view life as a “zero-sum game,” a game in which someone’s gain is automatically someone else’s loss. (The Korean community, for instance, may see a federal grant to an Italian neighbourhood, as less money for them.) In our society, competitiveness is difficult to escape. Superordinate goals would have to be identified and made attractive to everyone. To achieve this would, admittedly, require a restructuring of a society whose very foundations often encourage racism. Sherif and Sherif. Social Psychology. New York: Harper and Row, 1969, pp. 228–266. 4: Partial Assimilation—Jews during Christmastime Sociologist Walter M. Gerson has examined the cross-pressures experienced by Jewish families at Christmas, pressures that have been termed the “December dilemma” and “coping with Christmas.” The pressures vary by age (the Jewish child versus adult), residence (living in a Jewish or non-Jewish community), type of business, and type of Jewish faith. Gerson details the strain-reducing mechanisms Jewish people use to deal with the difficulties they experience during Christmas. These include: 1. Value hierarchy. Jews can teach their children that Hanukkah is extremely important for Jews, while Christmas is equally important for Christians. 2. Insulation. To some extent, Jews can isolate themselves from Christians during the holiday season by remaining in predominantly Jewish neighbourhoods or traveling to areas where many Jews are likely to be on vacation. 3. Compartmentalization. Some Jews, while maintaining their traditional religious beliefs, may “pick and choose” among Christmas festivities in order to resolve cross-pressures. For example, they may decide to send out Christmas cards while refusing to buy Christmas trees. 4. Redefinition. Some Jews view most aspects of the Christmas celebration as social, and not religious, symbols. This may also be true for some Christians because of the development of Christmas as a highly commercialized holiday. 5. Patterned evasions. Jewish families may keep their children home from school where there are classroom Christmas parties. Such actions often have the tacit approval of school officials. 6. Hanukkah. The Jewish festival of Hanukkah, which often occurs shortly before Christmas, may take on greater significance in societies in which Jews live among a Christian majority. Hanukkah can serve as an alternative rationale for exchanging gifts, sending cards, and decorating homes. These adjustments vary with each individual and family and are not the same for all Jewish Americans. Nevertheless, the Christmas season is a time when many Jews feel marginal, or like outsiders, in an overwhelmingly Christian nation. See Walter Gerson, “Jews at Christmas Time: Role-Strain and Strain Reducing Mechanisms.” In Gerson (ed.), Social Problems in a Changing World. New York: Crowell, 1969, pp. 65–76. 5: The New Immigrants The trend in immigration to Canada over the past two decades has been an increase in the numbers, with the annual totals being well over 200 000 for most of the decade of the 1990s. Along with the increase in numbers, have come changes in the source countries of immigrants. Historically, most of Canada’s newcomers have emigrated from the British Isles or northern Europe, with exceptions occurring for the convenience of the country. The best example of this took place when the federal government turned over administration of the immigration process to the Canadian National and the Canadian Pacific Railways so that they could manage the flow of workers needed for their construction project, and of settlers for land that the railways had been ceded in exchange for their investment in the transcontinental link. During the past two decades new Canadians have come increasingly from Asia. In recent years, immigrants from Asia have comprised almost half of the total, with people from the People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong, and India accounting for the majority of successful applicants. 6: School Desegregation and the Hmong Community Wausau (population 30,060) is a community located in rural Wisconsin best known, perhaps, for the insurance company bearing its name that advertises on television. To sociologists, it is distinctive for its sizeable Hmong population. Wausau finds itself with the greatest percentage of Hmong of any city in Wisconsin. These Southeast Asians are 10 percent of the city’s population and 22 percent of its kindergarten pupils. But because the Hmong are concentrated in the more affordable downtown area, they constitute as much as 62 percent of the students in some schools. The Hmong immigrated to the United States from Laos and Vietnam among the refugees who came following the April 1975 end of the United States involvement in Vietnam. In the view of school officials, progress in teaching the Hmong English in Wausau was stymied because the newcomers associated mainly with each other and spoke only their native tongue. The Wausau school board decided in the fall of 1993 to distribute the Hmong and other poor students more evenly by restructuring its elementary schools in a scheme that requires two-way busing. The desegregation result has divided the city, with residents voting in a 1993 special recall election to decide whether to fire the five board members who backed the plan. “People feel this decision was just stuffed down their throats,” said Peter Beltz, director of Families Approve Neighbourhood Schools (FANS), which fielded candidates and gathered the signatures for the recall. Wausau school officials said their plan, which is not federally mandated, is aimed less at achieving a more equitable socioeconomic balance and learning environment. The busing, they say, was begun as a convenience for parents, whose children now travel an average of two miles farther than before. Recalls are rare, but in December 1993, opponents of the busing plan that integrates Asian American youngsters into mostly White grade schools won a majority on the Wausau school board by ousting five incumbents in a recall election. “Busing and partner schools as envisioned is [sic] over,” Don Langlois, one of the winners, declared after the votes were counted on a Tuesday night. “We plan to have a neighbourhood school plan for the fall 1994 school year,” Langlois said. But board president Richard Allen, one of those defeated said he expects supporters of the busing plan to take the matter to court with a lawsuit claiming that to remove busing would cause segregation. Christopher Ahmuty, executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Wisconsin, said after the successful recall effort that his group was willing to file a lawsuit to stop the school board from overturning the changes. “Where a governmental body by law engages in an intentional act of resegregation, that would violate all kinds of constitutional standards.” See “Victors in Recall Plan to End School Busing,” Chicago Tribune (December 16, 1993): 3; Rogers Worthington, “School Desegregation Efforts Divide Town,” Chicago Tribune (December 13, 1993): 4. Except for Beltz, all quotations are from the December 16 article. 7: Interracial Dating The scenario is repeated almost without fail, sometime during the school year. A female student of Indian or South Asian decent, whose parents are first generation immigrants to Canada, asks for an appointment, suggesting that the matter to be discussed is confidential. Once in the office, with privacy assured, she begins by telling a story about how she met someone, and they are dating. The problem is that her parents don’t know about her relationship, and they wouldn’t approve if they found out. She is dating a young man who isn’t from her ethnic group. Most often they met at school, either in university classes where, for the first time in her life, her schedule cannot be minutely monitored by her family. She can explain absences from the house by claiming to have classes or needing to do research in the library, or meeting in a study group with classmates. She is concerned about what will happen if her parents find out, but at the same time, not ready to give up the intimacy and freedom that the relationship represents. Still, she knows her parents will feel shamed by her behaviour if anyone discovers that she’s dating someone from outside the community. To make the situation even more stressful, there is nowhere she can turn. She certainly can’t discuss that matter openly with her parents, and even her siblings may side against her if they find out what she’s doing. The traditional sources of support within her community, the elders and spiritual leaders are also not likely to be objective in their evaluations. While she has friends, she’s not certain that they too might not see her actions as disrespectful, and might reveal the relationship to their parents. So, she is left with turning to an authority figure, her professor, hoping for some reasonable advice that will help her make the right decision. She is confused, she’ll say. She doesn’t want to harm anyone—especially her family—but she’s also not ready to give up the young man. She recognizes that this is a crossroads, and she is genuinely lost. For many immigrant youth, particularly those from cultures whose norms and values are substantially different from the western ones contained in Canadian culture, the above story is a familiar one. A 2000 study by the Canadian Council on Social Development looked at the social world inhabited by the country’s young immigrants. The researchers concluded that for many of these youth, for Chinese and South Asians in particular, the gap between the standards their parents have brought with them from their original culture and those of mainstream Canadian society present a wide, and possibly unbridgeable gap. Using an altered name, one respondent tells of how, despite being a successful professional living in Toronto, over a thousand miles from her parent’s home, she still feels their influence. The young woman voices her frustration by lamenting that “My parents left India almost 25 years ago, and their Indian values have remained frozen. But even Indian values in India have evolved since then.” See Lock Kunz, Jean, Hanvey, Louise. 2000. Immigrant Youth in Canada: A Research Report from the Canadian Council on Social Development. Toronto. Class Discussion Topics: 1 Content Analysis: Examine television shows, commercials, or advertisements in terms of their treatment of appearance of minority groups using content analysis techniques. (See Bernard Berelson. Content Analysis. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1952.) Continuing with content analysis, survey popular literature (newsstand magazines) for ethnic prejudice. For details about the classroom use of this project, refer to Straus and Nelson. Sociological Analysis. New York: Harper and Row, 1968. 2 Social Construction of Race: For activities for developing and teaching how race is socially constructed, see Brian K. Obach, "Demonstrating the Social Construction of Race, Teaching Sociology, 27(July 1999): 252–257. 3 Stereotypes: A lecture outline is provided on the topic of stereotyping on pp. 48–50 of Jerry M. Lewis. Tips for Teaching Introductory Sociology. Minneapolis: West, 1995. 4 Race and Popular Culture: The author explains the use of top-40 pop, folk, rhythm and blues, new age, and rap music to provoke discussions about race and ethnicity. Similar strategies may be utilized to teach other substantive areas in an introductory sociology course. See Theresa A. Martinez. Teaching Sociology, 26(July 1998): 207–214. 5 Museums as a Useful Tool for Exploring Ethnic Diversity: See Edith W. King, “Using Museums for More Effective Teaching of Ethnic Relations,” Teaching Sociology, 20(April 1992): 114–120. 6 Social Distance Scale: See Marietta Morrissey, “Exploring Social Distance in Race and Ethnic Relations Courses,” Teaching Sociology, 20(April 1992): 121–124. 7 Discrimination on Television: Have your students do a survey of the television programs they watch on a regular basis, counting the frequency and type of representations of minorities in each show. While most of them will report back on American programs, ask them to analyze the implications for Canadian society, given that most of our television programming originates in the U.S. 8 Multicultural Pedagogy: CaMP Coop—the Critical and Multicultural Pedagogy Cooperative—is an interactive resource for educators, especially sociologists, who wish to integrate democracy, critical thinking, and/or multicultural and global awareness into their classrooms. The site is a compilation of exercises, projects, and WWW links that concern multiculturalism, race and ethnicity, global issues, gender and sexual orientation, and social class. The site is located at http://www.scsv.nevada.edu/~neese/campcoop.html. 9 100 Years of Canadian Immigration: Full of facts and figures, the Canadian Council for Refugees Chronology is a handy reference guide that provides a timeline of important events in our history have students pick out one of the events on the chart and present an argument for why and how they feel it had a lasting impact on the nature of Canadian society. The Chronology can be accessed at: http://www.web.net/~ccr/history.html 10 Using Humour: David S. Adams has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated in lectures associated with this chapter. See Adams, “Status and Stratification.” In Using Humor in Teaching Sociology: A Handbook. Washington, DC: ASA Teaching Resources Center. See also Joseph E. Faulkner, "Race and Ethnic Relations." In Sociology through Humor. New York: West, 1987. Topics for Student Research: 1. Arabs in Israel: What are the everyday relations among young women in Israel as it relates to the larger Israeli-Arab conflict? The in-depth interview study of Jewish girls in Israel is an effective starting point. Refer to Niza Yanay, “National Hatred, Female Subjectivity, and the Boundaries of Cultural Discourse,” Symbolic Interaction, 19(Winter 1996): 21–36. 2. Outline the changes that have taken place to Canadian immigration policy over the past century. Begin with the Canadian Council on Refugees A Hundred years of Immigration. http://www.web.net/~ccr/history.html 3. Cross-Cultural Race and Ethnicity: Begin your study of this topic with the review essay of Peter d’Erico. Contemporary Sociology, 25(March 1996): 159–161. 4. Does class limit social mobility? Boyd, Monica Ascription and achievement: studies in mobility and status attainment in Canada Ottawa: Carleton University Press, 1985. 5. Ethclass: For an explanation of the useful term ethclass, see Milton M. Gordon. Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins. New York: Oxford University Press 1964 6. Institutional Discrimination in Developing Countries: For information on the lack of advancement for natives in high-technology careers that are occupied by foreign-experts, see Ivar Jonsson, "Development, Learning-Processes and Institutionalized Racism," Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(January 1999): 113–135. 7. Race and Baseball: See Mitchell B. Chamlin and Bruce J. Arnecklen, “Macro-Social Determinants of the Racial Composition of Major League Baseball Teams,” Sociological Focus, 26(February 1993): 65–79. 8. What the factors impacting on the social mobility of visible minorities? Begin with Krishnan, P. Socio-cultural mobility issues in Canada. Edmonton, AB.: Population Research Laboratory, Dept. of Sociology, University of Alberta, 1991. 9. Segregation, Cross-Cultural: What are the patterns of segregation, not only in Canada but also in the rest of the world? A good place to begin would be with Eric Fong, “A Comparative Perspective on Race Residential Segregation: American and Canadian Experiences,” Sociological Quarterly, 37 (Spring 1996): 199–226. 10. Slavery in Canada. Ken Alexander and Avis Glaze, Towards Freedom: The African-Canadian Experience (Toronto: Umbrella Press, 1996). 11. White Racism: A good bibliographic essay on “White racism” was prepared by Joe R. Feagin and Aaron C. Porter. Choice: Current Review of Academic Books, 33(February 1996): 903–914. Additional Audiovisual Materials: Alive in Joburg ( 2006, YouTube, 6:23). A short science fiction film which illustrates the process of “ othering” as it relates to immigration. Black Skins, White Masks (1996, 50m). An exploration of the life and teachings of Frantz Fanon, a theorist and writer who was an active participant in the civil rights movement in the United States. Author of Black Skins, White Masks and The Wretched of the Earth, Fanon spoke of the difficulty of being Black but the need to adjust to a world defined by Whites. The Great Debaters (Director:Denzel Washington, 2007) Melvin Tolson (Denzel Washington) coaches the debate team for Wiley College, an all-black school in Texas. The movie is set in the 1930s, so both Melvin and his students are subject to high levels of prejudice and discrimination. Nevertheless, he inspires the debate team to greatness, winning contest after contest. Because of segregation, all the team's debates are held at black colleges that is until their tremendous success brings invitations from white institutions, leading eventually to a debate at Harvard University. Hoop Dreams (1994, 171m). A popular film that received highly favourable reviews, Hoop Dreams highlights the lives of two youths who are skilled basketball players. For an interesting analysis and use of this film that includes references to Elijah Anderson's Streetwise, Mitchell Dunier's Slim's Table, Alex Kotlowitz's There are No Children Here, and Jonathan Kozol's Amazing Grace, see Margaret Walsh, "Hoop Dreams," Teaching Sociology, 25(January): 100–101. Horizons and Homelands: Integrating Cultural Roots (24m, colour, McGraw-Hill). This program chronicles the lives of two families: a Native American family that has recently moved from a reservation to the city and a family from Laos that recently immigrated to the same city. Through their honesty and candor, the families explain not only what is distinctive about their own cultures, but also how they are working to integrate these differences with their new lives in an urban environment far removed from their homelands. In the Shadow of Gold Mountain. (2004, 43m, colour, NFB). Karen Cho, a fifth-=generation Canadian of mixed heritage, discovered that half her family wasn’t welcome in the country they called home. While Canada encouraged and rewarded immigration from Europe, it imposed laws that singled out the Chinese as unwanted and unwelcome. This film uncovers stories from the last living survivors of the Chinese Head Tax and Exclusion Act. Incident at Oglala (1992, colour). Produced and narrated by Robert Redford. Presents the case of activist Leonard Peltier, who allegedly killed two FBI agents. How to Combat Modern Slavery ( 2010, YouTube,18:01m). Kevin Bales explains the business of modern slavery which underpins a multibillion-dollar economy around the world . Korean Americans in Chicago (1992, 60m). This program considers the cultural values that Korean immigrants brought to this country and how these traditional values often conflict with the ideas of the young American-born Koreans. A New People: The American Mosaic (1994, 3 X 15m). Illustrated by archival photographs and historic reenactments, this series explores the diverse roots of American society. It examines pre-Columbian Native American cultures, the influx of Europeans and Africans to the United States, and slavery. It investigates the urban, multicultural society of contemporary America, shaped by immigrants from Eastern Europe, Asia, and Latin America. Oppression Olympics (2012, YouTube, 4:12m) . Two young women in a poetry competition provide an excellent illustration of the concept of “intersectionality” and “ Oppression Olympics.” Race is a Four-Letter Word (2006, 55m, NFB). While examining conflicts concerning race in Canada, director Sobaz Benjamin also reveals much about himself and his own struggles to appreciate the meaning of his heritage. Benjamin showcases the stories of a white man who is culturally and psychologically black; of a black woman who wants to be considered iconically Canadian; of another black woman who retreats to England rather than continue to face Canada’s racial cold war, and of himself, a black man who has learned to love his complexity. Racial Profiling: The Bike Thief ( 2013: YouTube, 4;41m). This video can be used as an example of racial profiling as it shows peoples’ reactions to those of various ethnicities engaged in illegal activity. White Riot (The OJ Aftermath): (1995, 30m). This program, hosted by Tony Brown, examines the aftermath of the trial of O.J. Simpson, focusing on the reaction of White America. Attorney Robert Brown (mayor of Orange, New Jersey) and Abraham Foxman (national director of the Anti-Defamation League) explore how the trial and acquittal have divided Blacks and Whites. Who’s Going to Pay for These Donuts Anyway? (1992, 58m). This video presents clear evidence of the profound effects of the internment on generations of Japanese Americans. It chronicles Tanaka’s five-year personal search for her father, whom she had not seen since age three. As a young man, the FBI arrested him for opposing the internment and diagnosed him as schizophrenic with paranoid tendencies. Tanaka finally finds him in a halfway house for the chronically mentally ill in L.A.’s “skid row.” Without Due Process: Japanese Americans and World War II: (1992, 52m). This program analyzes the historical events leading up to the order to incarcerate Japanese Americans during World War II. The video also covers the formal apology of the U.S. government and discusses how the families of people who were incarcerated were compensated. Additional Readings: . . Day, Richard J.F. 2000. Multiculturalism and the History of Canadian Diversity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. The author contends that formal legislation cannot resolve culture-based issues. Day criticizes the federal government’s policy as fantasy, arguing that equality is a myth in a society as diverse as Canada’s. Edwards, John R. Is past a prologue? Language and Identity at Century’s End. Toronto: Robert F. Harney Professorship and Program in Ethnic Immigration and Pluralism Studies, University of Toronto, 1997. Fleras, Augie and Jean Lock Kunz. 2001. Media and Minorities. Scarborough ON: Nelson Thompson. Fleras and Kunz examine how race, ethnicity and aboriginality are interpreted by mainstream media and the public discourses produced and consumed as a result of these interpretations. Gabbidon, Shaun L. 2010. Race, Ethnicity,Crime, and Justice: An International Dilemma. New York: Sage. Henry, Frances. Racial Profiling in Canada: Challenging the Myth of a Few Bad Apples. Toronto; University of Toronto Press. Laponce, Jean and Safran, William, eds. Ethnicity and Citizenship: The Canadian Case. London; Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 1995. Porter, John. The vertical mosaic: an analysis of social class and power in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Partners in Confederation: Aboriginal peoples, self-government and the Constitution. Ottawa: Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 1993. Satewich, Vic. Racism in Canada. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2011. Satzewich, Vic and Nick Liodakis. 2007. ‘Race’ and Ethnicity in Canada: A Critical Introduction. Don Mills: ON: Oxford University Press. The authors aim to help students analyze and understand patterns of immigration. Aboriginal/non-Aboriginal relations, and race and ethnic relations in Canada, while taking the position of methodological and theoretical pluralism. Schaefer, Richard T. 2011. Racial and Ethnic Groups, 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Comprehensive in its coverage of race and ethnicity, Schaefer’s text also discusses women as a subordinate minority and examines dominant-subordinate relations in Canada, Northern Ireland, Israel and Palestinian territory, Mexico and South Africa. Sidel, Ruth. Battling Bias. New York: Viking, 1994. The sociologist looks at the issues of race as they manifest themselves on college campuses. Thomas, Piri. Down These Mean Streets. New York: Random House, 1997. A 30th anniversary edition of the unforgettable autobiography of a Puerto Rican male growing up on the streets of New York City who overcame intense discrimination and social pressure. Thinking About Movies_______________________________________ Crash ( Paul Haggis, 2005) In this movie the lives of many different characters collide, revealing multiple layers of prejudice toward a wide range of racialized and ethnic groups. One story involves Graham Waters (Don Cheadle), an African-American police officer, who is personally involved with a fellow officer named Ria ( Jennifer Esposito). In a tension-filled conversation, Graham refers to Ria as white, then calls her Mexican. Ria reminds him that her father comes from Puerto Rico and her mother from El Salvador. Rather than hear Ria’s call for understanding, Graham responds by insulting Latino culture. From a sociological perspective, Crash offers a wealth of examples of stereotyping and prejudice involving many different groups. For Your Consideration 1. Identify three characters in Crash and explain why their behaviour is prejudiced or discriminatory. 2. In Crash , pluralism is more of an ideal than a reality. Looking at Canadian society, do you agree? 9 GENDER RELATIONS Contents: • Learning Objectives • Using Text Boxes to stimulate discussion • Classroom activities • Video suggestions • Key points from the text • Additional lecture ideas • Class discussion topics • Topics for student research • Additional audiovisual suggestions • Additional readings • Thinking About Movies Learning Objectives: 9.1 Describe the social construction of gender. 9.2 Discuss the various sociological views used to explain gender relations. 9.3 Define sexism and discuss the effects of sex discrimination. Discuss the status of women in Canada and worldwide. Discuss the patterns of women in the paid workforce in Canada. Discuss the development of feminism in Canada. Discuss the issues surrounding abortion. Using text boxes to stimulate class discussion: Sociology in the Global Community: The Empowerment of Women through Education. Globally, nearly 61 percent of illiterate youth are female; great disparities exist among the young women of the world:. Applying Theory: 1) Why is the education of girls and women such a powerful force in changing the social and economic conditions of a community as a whole? 2) In what way does the empowerment of women through education relate to class and race? 3) How might conflict sociologists explain the global disparities in girls’ and women’s access to education? Social Policy and Gender Relations: Abortion and Sex Selection: The “New Eugenics”. Today in Canada, a woman's decision to have an abortion is made in consultation with her doctor based on factors related to her overall health and well-being. However, as new reproductive and genetic technologies referred to collectively as “reprogenetics” (McTeer 1999) emerge in our society and around the world, the twinning of abortion and reprogenetics presents new ethical and moral considerations. The most controversial of these is what some sociologists are calling “the new eugenics” – a new movement to promote the reproduction of those with particular characteristics, while attempting to limit or control the reproduction of those with other, less desirable traits. Globally, countries’ responses to new reproductive and genetic technologies vary in terms of their guidelines and legislation set in place to regulate their use. In Canada, sex selection violates notions of equality enshrined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and in our human rights laws. Applying Theory: 1) According to conflict thinkers, who is most vulnerable to exploitation through the use of new reproductive and genetic technologies? 2) How might some feminist perspectives weigh the individual’s right to reproduce against the society’s need to regulate the use of these new technologies? 3) How might interactionist sociologists approach the study of reproductive or genetic technology for the purpose of selecting the sex of their offspring? Classroom activities: Gender socialization: The first question we ask when a baby is born is whether it is a “boy or girl?” From that moment on – everybody’s behaviour and expectations towards that child are determined, in part, by the sociological expectations and interactions considered “proper” for the biological sex of the child. This exercise is a lecture starter, and will work equally well with large or small classes. You can ask people to work with the same sex, or opposite sexes, depending on the comfort level of the students. It probably works best if initially, students are with same-sex partners or groups. Begin by asking the students to work together to make a list of behaviours, roles, jobs, clothing, bodily functions, that they were taught were “proper” for girls or for boys. Ask them to make a second list of the things that members of the opposite sex can do, but they cannot. For example – female students often have elaborate ways of dealing with underwear wedgies. Frequently, male students just say that they grab their underwear and fix it, or they might go to the bathroom to do so. Female students are often taught not to sit with their legs spread apart, while boys are taught that this is “the way” that men sit. Variation: Once the lists are made, or instead of making the lists – you can invite students to act like they are a member of the opposite sex. Sometimes students are more comfortable doing this in groups, and sometimes you can convince a number of students to come to the front of the class, and pretend for one or two minutes, that they are a member of the opposite sex. Caution: You need to take care and explain that you are dealing with dominant sex-role socialization, and should be prepared that not to let the discussion move in a way that will disparage people who are trans-gendered, lesbian, gay or bi-sexual. You should also be aware that gendered socialization varies widely from culture to culture – if you have a group of international students in your classroom, this exercise can be extremely rich and informative. Video suggestions: Killing Us Softly 3 (2000, Media Ed Foundation, Jean Kilbourne; Directed, edited & produced by Sut Jhally). This film links to the opening vignette on advertising, which cites Jean Kilbourne. In the film, Kilbourne makes the argument that advertising socializes us into regarding an unattainable female body type as ideal. She shows how men and women are treated unequally in advertising, and also shows how the unequal treatment of different racial groups. Kilbourne argues that the messages received over and over through advertising objectify women, and that objectification is the first step towards legitimating violence. Free study guide is available at http://www.mediaed.org/videos/MediaGenderAndDiversity/KillingUsSoftly3#vidinfo Tough Guise (87 min in separate sections, which can be used independently; 1999, Media Education Foundation. Featuring Jackson Katz, Directed by Sut Jhally). Jackson Katz systematically examines the relationship between images of popular culture and the social construction of masculine identities in the United States. He argues that widespread violence in American society, including the school shootings in Colorado, Arkansas, and elsewhere need to be understood as part of an ongoing crisis in masculinity. The film is in several parts, and each part can be shown independently. The film works well when paired with Killing Us Softly 3, as students are used to seeing women objectified, but are not so used to hearing that men are equally objectified in the media. Media Ed foundation offers free study guides and instructor supports online at http://www.mediaed.org/videos/MediaGenderAndDiversity/ToughGuise#vidinfo The Gender Tango. (47 min., 1996, Magic Lantern Communications, Oakville, Ontario). Hosted by Susan Sarandon. The film examines sex role, gender identity and the cultural conditioning of women. Topics include: beauty contests (United States), an Avon lady in Amazonia, jazz musician Billy Tipton's masquerade as a man in pursuit of a career, social acceptance of a third bisexual gender amongst the Sioux Indians, gender segregation (Papua New Guinea), egalitarian matriarchy (Trobriand Islanders). Meet a young beauty queen who has been on the contest circuit since she was 22 months old. Follow Maria, who sells cosmetics "hut-to-hut" in the Amazon, and ironically earns more than her male contemporaries. Discover Dorothy, who masqueraded for years as a man in order to gain acceptance as a musician in the male dominated jazz world. In two different aboriginal societies, we see how women are treated as evil and dangerous in one, and as valued, powerful members of the tribe in another. Mickey Mouse Monopoly: Disney, Childhood and Corporate Power. (57 min., Chyng Feng Sun, New York, Art Media Productions. Distributed by Media Education Foundation). The film takes a close and critical look at the animated films produced by the Disney Company and the cultural values and assumptions propagated in terms of race, gender and class. It includes contributions from cultural critics, media scholars, child psychologists, educators and children. This film works equally well for the Chapter 9, on Race & Ethnicity. Instructor supports are available free at: http://www.mediaed.org/videos/CommercialismPoliticsAndMedia/MickeyMouseMonopoly#vidinfo Boys Don’t Cry (Director: Kimberly Peirce, 1999). In this movie, based on a true story, Brandon Teena (Hillary Swank) is a transgendered person - someone whose identity cuts across the conventional male/female boundary. Brandon was born with the body of a woman but lives as a man. To disguise his female form, he assumes a man's gender role and moves to the small town of Falls City, Nebraska where no one will know his background. Revelling in his acceptance there, he makes friends and enters a romantic relationship. But when he is thrown in jail on a minor charge, his physical sex is exposed. A tragic confrontation follows, and Brandon feels the wrath of those who do not accept him. This movie illustrates the social construction of gender, revealing that a person's identity as a man or a woman is a social role, not a biological fact. Brandon's dress, speech, and behaviour -not his body -constitute his male identity. When his physical sex is discovered, he suffers greatly for it, revealing the rigidity of gender-role socialization. Chore Wars (48 min., 2002, Vancouver, Moving Images Distribution). A comical look at three Canadian families and the gendered division of labour as it relates to housework. Key points from the text: Social Construction of Gender: The term sex is a biological category. Many societies have established distinctions between “female” and “male” that are not “natural” but are cultural and social. This is what is meant by gender. In studying gender, sociologists are interested in the gender-role socialization that leads females and males to behave differently. The application of traditional gender roles leads to many forms of differentiation between women and men. Gender roles are evident not only in our work and behaviour but also in how we react to others. We are constantly "doing gender" without realizing it. We socially construct our behaviour so that male-female differences are either created or exaggerated. Gender Role Socialization: According to traditional gender-role patterns that have been influential in the socialization of children in Canada, boys must be masculine (active, aggressive, tough, daring, and dominant), whereas girls must be feminine (soft, emotional, sweet, and submissive). An important element in traditional view of proper “masculine” and “feminine” behaviour is fear of homosexuality. Homophobia is a fear of homosexuality. It contributes significantly to rigid gender-role socialization, since many people stereotypically associate male homosexuality with femininity and lesbianism with masculinity. It is adults, of course, who play a critical role in guiding children into those gender roles deemed appropriate in a society. Parents are normally the first and most crucial agents of socialization. But other adults, older siblings, the mass media, and religious and educational institutions also exert an important influence on gender role socialization in Canada. Gender Role Socialization and Social Class: Research shows that patterns of gender socialization are not homogeneous, but rather vary according to the social class to which a person belongs. Working-class parents tend to be more concerned with their children’s outward conformity to society’s norms and roles. Middle-class parents, in contrast, tend to be more concerned with their children’s motivation for certain behaviours and focus on developing such qualities as self-expression and self-control. Children who are raised by middle-class, career-oriented mothers tend to hold more egalitarian attitudes relating to men’s and women’s roles. Cross-Cultural Perspective: The research of anthropologist Margaret Mead points to the importance of cultural conditioning—as opposed to biology—in defining the social roles of males and females. In Sex and Temperament Mead (1963, original edition 1935) describe typical behaviours of each sex in three different cultures in New Guinea. If biology determined all differences between the sexes, then cross-cultural differences, such as those described by Mead, would not exist. Use your sociological imagination: How would your life and the lives of your family and friends be different if you lived in a society that was not gendered? The Functionalist View of Gender Relations: Functionalists maintain that gender differentiation has contributed to overall social stability. Sociologists Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales argue that in order to function most efficiently, the family requires adults who will specialize in particular roles. They contend that women take the expressive, emotionally supportive role, while men are more instrumental. Instrumentality refers to emphasis on tasks, focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between the family and other social institutions. Expressiveness denotes concern for the maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family. Parsons and Bales do not explicitly endorse traditional gender roles, but they imply that a division of tasks between spouses is functional for the family unit. The Conflict View of Gender Relations: Conflict theorists see gender inequality as the systematic subjugation women. If we use an analogy to Marx’s analysis of class conflict, we can say that males are like the bourgeois, or capitalists; they control most of the society’s wealth, prestige, and power. Females are like the proletarians, or workers; they can acquire valuable resources only by following the dictates of their “bosses.” Feminist Perspectives: Feminist perspectives are varied and diverse and do not include a universal or "standard" perspective. Feminist perspectives, however, despite their diversity, share the belief that women have been subordinated, undervalued, under-represented, and excluded in male-dominated societies, which in practical terms is most of the world. For most of the history of sociology, studies were conducted on male subjects or about male-led groups and organizations, and the findings were generalized to all people. Interactionist Perspective: Interactionist researchers often examine gender stratification on the micro-level of everyday behaviour. As an example, studies show that men initiate up to 96 percent of all interruptions in cross-sex (male-female) conversations. Men are more likely than women to change topics of conversation, to ignore topics chosen by members of the opposite sex, to minimize the contributions and ideas of members of the opposite sex, and to validate their own contributions. Women: The Oppressed Majority: When one looks at the political structure of Canada, both federally and provincially, women remain noticeably underrepresented. If we apply the model of a minority or subordinate group to the situation of women in this country, we find that a numerical majority group fits our definition of a subordinate minority. Sexism and Sex Discrimination: Sexism is the ideology that one sex is superior to the other. The term is generally used to refer to male prejudice and discrimination against women. In Chapter 10 institutional discrimination was defined as the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals or groups that results from the normal operations of a society. In the same sense, women suffer both from individual acts of sexism (such as sexist remarks and acts of violence) and from institutional sexism. The Status of Women Worldwide: It is estimated that women grow half the world’s food, but they rarely own land. They constitute one-third of the world’s paid labour force but are generally found in the lowest-paying jobs. Single-parent household headed by women – which appear to be on the increase in many nations – are typically found in the poorest sections of the population. The feminization of poverty has become a global phenomenon. As in Canada, women worldwide are underrepresented politically. Women in the Paid Workforce of Canada: Even though the majority of Canadian women now work for pay outside of the home, most continue to experience gendered patterns of inequality relating to pay, working conditions, and opportunities for advancement. Yet, women entering the job market find their options restricted in important ways. Particularly damaging is occupational segregation, or confinement to sex-typed “women’s jobs.” Women from all groups, but particularly those from visible minorities or hose from older age groups, are at an increased risk of encountering discrimination that prevents them from reaching their full potential. The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment. The workplace patterns described in this section have one crucial results: Women earn much less money than men in the paid labour force of Canada. In 2001, the average earnings of full-time female workers were about 72 percent of those for full-time male workers. Given these data, it is hardly surprising that many women are living in poverty; particularly when they must function as heads of households. Aboriginal women as well as women who are members of visible minorities suffer from double jeopardy or multiple jeopardies. Double jeopardy refers to the discrimination that women experience as a result of the compounded effects of gender and race and ethnicity, while multiple jeopardies refers to the compounded effects of gender, race and ethnicity, class, age or physical disability. Social Consequences of Women’s Employment: The consequence of “role Complexity for women is to feel more time-stressed and to experience greater work-life conflict, which occurs when participation in one part of life (e.g. paid work) makes it difficult to fulfill responsibilities in another part (e.g. family).Studies indicate that there continues to be a clear gender gap in the performance of housework, although the differences are narrowing. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild has used the phrase “second shift” to describe the double burden-work outside the home followed by child care and housework-that many women face and few men share equitably. Women: The Emergence of Feminism in Canada: Social movements involve the organized attempts of masses of people to bring about social change through their collective action. The women’s movement, or feminist movement, is one such movement by which women and men have attempted to change their society – not only for the betterment of women but also for the betterment of society as a whole. In Canada, the first wave of feminism beginning in the mid-nineteenth century had three faces – moral reform (or maternal feminism), liberalism, and socialism (Banks 1981). It concentrated largely on female suffrage and efforts to expand educational and employment opportunities for girls and women. Nellie McClung, perhaps Canada’s foremost “maternal feminist,” believed women were the “guardians of the race” and that it was therefore their responsibility to “lift high the standard of morality” (Adamson, Briskin, and McPhail 1998:31). During the 1920s, McClung and four fellow suffragettes—Irene Parlby, Henrietta Muir Edwards, Louise McKinney, and Emily Murphy – petitioned the Supreme Court of Canada to declare that women could become members of the Senate. The “Famous Five” as they were later known, appealed the negative decision of the Supreme Court of Canada to the British Privy Council. In 1929, the British Privy Council declared that women were “persons” in the eyes of the law, making them eligible for appointment to the Senate. The “Persons case” marked a significant achievement for Canadian women. Additional Lecture Ideas: 1: Gendered Spaces The interactionist perspective on gender stratification often examines the microlevel of everyday behaviour. Daphne Spain’s Gendered Spaces (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1992) is an example of such an approach. After dinner, the women gather in one group, perhaps in the kitchen, while the men sit together elsewhere in the house, perhaps watching a televised sporting event. Is this an accurate picture of day-to-day social life in North America? According to architect Daphne Spain, it certainly is. Indeed, the physical separation of men and women has been common- whether in the Mongolian ger (or hut), the longhouses of the Iroquois tribes of North America, or recreational facilities on contemporary college and university campuses. Spain notes that gendered spaces in workplaces reflect our society’s traditional division of labour into “men’s work” and “women’s work.” But, as with historic patterns of racial segregation, the spatial segregation of women and men does not lead to “separate but equal” status. Instead, it serves to reinforce the dominant position of men in the workplace in terms of financial rewards, status, and power. Drawing on her own research and on studies in a variety of disciplines, Spain concludes that • Women are more likely than men to supervise employees who share the same workspace or work in adjoining areas. Men tend to supervise people who work elsewhere. These differences are evident even when both men and women have the same job descriptions. • Women in the workplace are often grouped in open spaces (in the “secretarial pool”) or are without offices altogether (nurses and schoolteachers). By contrast, men are more likely to work in “private” offices. These spatial arrangements have obvious implications in terms of status and power. • Even when women have private offices, the spatial characteristics of these offices often underscore their subordinate position in the workplace. Higher-status jobs within an organization, usually held by men, are accompanied by greater control of space. This is evident when an office has an entrance with a door that closes and locks, a back exit, no glass partition, soundproofing, a private telephone line, and so forth. In summary, Spain (p. 227) found that “women typically engage in highly visible work-to colleagues, clients, and supervisors-subject to repeated interruptions.” Viewed from an interactionist perspective, these spatial conditions reflect and reinforce women’s subordinate status relative to men. The closed doors of men’s offices in managerial and professional jobs not only protect their privacy and limit other employees’ access to knowledge; they also symbolize men’s dominant position in the workplace. 2: Mommy Track In 1989 a controversy erupted concerning the role of women in corporate America. The debate followed a review about the management styles of men and women. Felice Schwartz, the president and founder of Catalyst, a women’s business research group, makes her case in the respected Harvard Business Review in “Management Women and the New Facts of Life,” 67(January-February 1989): 65-76. Schwartz argues that women managers are different because many eventually have children and leave or cut back on work commitments while their children are young. Without a strategy for handling these women, she says companies pay a high price. Businesses, according to Schwartz, do not receive a full return on their investment in training some women for top jobs if the women quit or are unable to put in long hours after they become mothers. In suggesting ways to reduce these costs, Schwartz proposes an idea quite unacceptable to feminists. She says executives should think of female managers as fitting into two broad categories. “Career primary” women who put work first would be identified early and groomed for top-level positions alongside ambitious men. At the same time, executives would recognize that “career and family” women could also be valuable assets. To allow them to spend more time at home, companies would offer more options like flexible hours and part-time jobs. Although she did not use the term, “mommy track” quickly became the buzzword to describe Schwartz’s “career and family” track. A common objection to Schwartz’s position is that it may only reinforce corporate and social prejudices about women. “My fear is that if only women take this option, they won’t move up the career ladder, and they have a guaranteed position as the primary parent,” says psychologist Lucia A. Gilbert. “We’ll be back where we were in the ‘60s.” See Barbara Kantrovitz, “Advocating a ‘Mommy Track’.” Newsweek, 103(March 13, 1989): 45. For further information see Ellen Hopkins, “Who is Felice Schwartz?” Working Woman (October 1990): 116-118, 120, 148. See also the many letters in response to the Schwartz article found in Harvard Business Review, (May-June 1989): 182-183, 184-186, 190, 192-194, 196-198, 200-201, 204, 206-207, 208-209, 212-213. 3: Levels of Discrimination Against Women Robert Tsuchigane and Norton Dodge identify three components of the difference in earning power of men and women. They are: 1. Market discrimination: Qualified women are underpaid or underemployed. This practice may be eliminated through changes in hiring and promotion. 2. Social and cultural conditioning: Large numbers of women are not qualified for certain high-paying, high-status jobs. This situation may take a long time to change, because it requires training women for careers traditionally viewed as male. At present, women are discouraged from such jobs through differential socialization. 3. Physiological differences in capabilities: Women lose job experience and pay because of pregnancy and childbirth. Many feminists argue that employers should grant women time off to give birth and grant paid maternity leave, as well as encourage men to become more involved in parenting by allowing paternity leave. In some formerly male jobs, such as gas station attendant, society seems quite willing to accept women. It remains to be seen whether there will be an equal willingness to accept women as national political leaders of our country. See the classic work of Pat Armstrong and Hugh Armstrong The Double Ghetto: Canadian Women and Their Segregated Work, Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1978. 4: Gender, Class and Race in an Unionized Work Gillian Creese's work on the role that unions played in constructing and negotiating class, race, and gender relations demonstrates how power relations were embedded in the workplace of B.C. Hydro. In Contracting Masculinity: Gender, Class and Race in a White-Collar Union, 1944-1994, Creese documents how the union organizations of B.C. Hydro spent great time and effort in negotiating separate technical and clerical streams of white-collar work. Men's office work became defined as "technical," while women's work was define as "clerical," constructed as marginal, less skilled than the technical office work done by men. As a result as this division in the construction of technical and clerical office workers, gendered occupational segregation became embedded in the workplace. Creese argues that from the 1940s to the 1980s women remained in the clerical category that subordinated them to male-dominated categories and ensured their low pay. See Gillian Creese, Contracting Masculinity: Gender, Class, and Race in a White-Collar Union, 1994-1994, Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1999. Class Discussion Topics: 1. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about The Beauty Myth: Questions for stimulating a classroom discussion about Naomi Wolf's The Beauty Myth might include these: Do you agree with Wolf's statement that in terms of how women feel about themselves physically, they may actually be worse off than their unliberated grandmothers? Is physical attractiveness more important for the status, hiring, promoting, and firing of women than it is for men? Do "trophy wives" still exist? Do you agree with the statement "the more freedom women have gained, the more obsessed they seem to have become with the ideal of the emaciated supermodel?” 2. Women’s Fashion: For a classroom exercise to sensitize student to the social impact of women’s fashion and of ideas of female beauty, see Technique No. 50 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993, p. 86. 3. Women: The Shadow Story of the Millennium: A series of articles that focus on the changing roles of women during the last 1,000 years. Thirteen articles focus on topics that include gender and social status, changing images of women, gender inequality, gender socialization, women in history, and women and sex. See The New York Times Magazine, May 16, 1999. 4. Gender and the Womb: This intriguing class exercise asks students to imagine they are reborn as someone of the opposite sex. See Technique No. 21 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993, pp. 37-38. 5. Girls in Gangs: Anne Campbell provides a solid analysis of females in an atypical role that is sure to provoke an interesting class discussion. The Girls in the Gang. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1984. 6. Gender Differences in Child Care: Not only are there differences in how much time mothers and fathers spend in caring for their infants, but there are also significant differences in how much time they think about them when they are away from them. See Susan Walzer, “Thinking About the Baby: Gender and Divisions of Infant Care,” Social Problems (May 1996): 219-234. 7. Superhero Comic Books and Gender Analysis: The authors demonstrate how instructors can stimulate class discussion through the use of superhero comic books as a source of illustrations for the analysis of gender and other introductory concepts. See Kelley J. Hall and Betsy Lucal. Teaching Sociology, 27(January 1999): 60-66. 8. Women and Sports: For a provocative conflict approach to women at all levels of sports (individual, school, professional, and Olympic) see Mariah Burton Nelson. The Stronger Women Get, the More Men Love Football: Sexism and the American Culture of Sports: New York: Harcourt Brace, 1994. 9. Gender Differences in Sports Media Coverage: See Susan T. Eastman and Andrew C. Billings, "Gender Parity in the Olympics: Hyping Women Athletes, Favouring Men Athletes." Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 23(May 1999): 140-170. See this issue for various Olympic-related social issues. 10. Using Humour: David S. Adams has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated in lectures associated with this chapter. See Adams, “Interaction and Related Concepts.” In Using Humour in Teaching Sociology: A Handbook. Washington, DC: ASA Teaching Resources Center, 1982. See also Joseph E. Faulkner, "Changing Sexual Norms," and "Gender and Sex Roles" in Sociology through Humour. New York: West, 1987. Topics for Student Research: 1. Feminine Mystique: How have Betty Friedan’s ideas changed? See Friedan, “Back to the Feminine Mystique?” Humanist, 51(January-February 1991): 26-27. 2. Gender versus Sex: The significance of these two concepts is explored by Meredith Gould and Rochelle Kern-Daniels. American Sociologist, 12 (November 1977): 182-189. 3. Women and Work: See J. Fast and M.A. Dapont. "Changes in Women's Work Continuity." Canadian Social Trends 46, (Autumn 1997): 2-7. 4. Women in China: See Karyn Loscocco and Xun Wang, “Gender Segregation in China.” Sociology and Social Research, 76(April 1992): 118-126. 5. Gender Dominance in Jobs Cross-Culturally: See Maria Charles, “Cross-National Variation in Occupational Sex Segregation,” American Sociological Review, 57(August 1992): 485-502. 6. Characteristics of Women Obtaining Abortions: See Katherine Trent and Eve Powell-Griner, “Differences in Race, Marital Status, and Education among Women Obtaining Abortions,” Social Forces, 69(June 1991): 1121-1142. 7. Child Care and Men: See David J. Maume and Karen R. Mullin, “Men’s Participation in Child Care and Women’s Work Attachment,” Social Problems, 40(November 1993): 533-546. 8. Cosmetic Surgery and Gender: See Diana Dull and Candace West, “Accounting for Cosmetic Surgery. The Accomplishment of Gender,” Social Problems, 38(February 1991): 5470. 9. The Glass Escalator: To go beyond the box on nursing and men (Box 10-1), see Christine L. Williams, “The Glass Escalator: Hidden Advantages for Men in the ‘Female’ Professions,” Social Problems, 39(August 1992): 253-267. 10. Social Construction of Gender in Sports: See Kristin L. Anderson, "Snowboarding: The Construction of Gender in an Emerging Sport," Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 23(February 1999): 55-79. 11. Inuit Women: See V. Alia, "Inuit Women and the Politics Of Naming in Nunavut," Canadian Women's Studies 14 (1994): 411-414. 12. Women and Management: See Cathryn Johnson, “Gender, Legitimate Authority, and Leader-Subordinate Conversations,” American Sociological Review, 59(February 1994): 122-135. 13. Women and Sports: See Nancy Theberge, “The Construction of Gender in Sports: Women, Coaching, and the Naturalization of Difference,” Social Problems, 40(August 1993): 301-313. Additional Audiovisual Materials: After the Montreal Massacre (1990, 27m). An examination of the Montreal Massacre and the larger issue of violence against women in Canadian society. Asking Different Questions: Women in Science (1996, 51m). An examination of the ways in which gender impacts science and the way that science is done. Beyond the Veil: Are Iranian Women Rebelling? (22m, colour, McGraw-Hill). In this program, a female reporter dons the hijab-"modest dress"-and goes undercover to find out how Iranian women feel about the government-enforced dress code and about their diminished role in Iranian society. We watch teenage girls flaunt accepted behavioural codes, while morality police roam the streets of Teheran in search of offenders. Proponents of the hijab, including Islamic scholars, a woman doctor, and a female student, discuss the practice within the context of Islamic religious tradition and the social benefits derived from it. Professional women and others discuss the broader issue of Islam's right to subjugate women by shaping who they are and how they think. Billy Elliott (2001, 110m). A British-made commercial film that illustrates the intersection of culture, gender, and class as revealed through the experience of a young boy who would rather be a dancer than a boxer. “Blurred Lines” and Rape Culture (2013, YouTube, 4:32m). Robin Thicke’s hit song “ Blurred Lines” provides a starting point for a discussion of the concept “rape culture.” Children of Desired Sex (1989, 57m.). An examination of sex selection technology and male child preferences in India. The Differences between Men and Women (23m, colour, McGraw-Hill). The debate still rages: are the social and psychological differences between men and women conditioned by biology or by familial and social environment? This program presents the opinion of scientists who reach beyond the obvious physical differences between the sexes to others that are not as visible. We are also introduced to recent research that claims that female and male brains are far from identical. Finally, we attempt to determine whether nature or culture makes the sexes so different. Gender and Communication: She Talks, He Talks (1994, 22m). Examining the communication gap between men and women, this program explores the different ways in which men and women converse and consider factors that may have created those differences. Gender Matters (1993, 24m). This BBC production examines gender subordination, showing its consequences for both individuals and societies. Profiling individual women, it looks at the complex nature of their lives and examines their varied roles. In My Country: An International Perspective on Gender (1993, 2v, 91m total). Divided into segments by topic, this documentary covers such topics as division of household labour, types of discipline for boys and girls, how marriage decisions are made, control of money, society’s view of rape, care for the elderly, and attitudes toward homosexuals. It features interviews with people from Zaire, El Salvador, St. Vincent, England, Taiwan, Sweden, Lebanon, Japan, India, China, the Fiji Islands, and Mexico. Men and Women: Talking Together (1993, 58m). Deborah Tannen (You Just Don’t Understand) and Robert Bly (Iron John) discuss communication between the sexes before a live audience. They field questions from the audience and cover such topics as male/female conversational rituals, the politics of shame, and comforting as a power device. Pens for the Social Construction of Gender ( 2012, YouTube, 4:09m). A clip from the Ellen Degeneres show provides a comedic take on the social construction of gender. Sex-Positive Black Feminism and Missy Elliott’s “Work It” (2007, YouTube, 4:25m). Missy Elliotts’s hit song “ Work It” can be used to spark a discussion on black women’s sexuality and colonialist influences which have stereotyped the black body and black sexuality. Transforming Family ( 2012, Vimeo:10:33m). This video portrays the experience of a variety of transgendered parents and their families. Under The Willow Tree (1997, 52m). Portraits of Chinese women and their immigration to Canada where they faced racism in the larger society and sexism inside their communities. You Can't Beat A Woman! (1997, 94m.). A documentary that covers different forms of abuse against women in Canada, Russia, South Africa, Japan, and Chile. Additional Readings: Anderson, Margaret L. Thinking about Women 9th ed. New York: Pearson. This explores the way in which gender operates in every aspect of society. Armstrong, Pat and Hugh Armstrong. The Double Ghetto: Canadian Women and their Segregated Work,. 3rd ed. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 2010. Voted by Canadian sociologists to be one of the most influential sociological works in the twentieth century . Crow, Barbara, and Lise Gotell, eds. 2009. Open Boundaries: A Canadian Women’s Studies Reader, 3rd ed. Don Mills, ON: Prentice Hall. A very useful introductory reader for women’s studies students and instructors. Disch, Estelle (ed.). Reconstructing Gender: A Multicultural Anthology, 5th ed. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 2008. A sociologist brings together many viewpoints of women's and men's issues across racial, gender preference, and social class boundaries. Taylor, Verta, Nancy Whittier and Leila Rupp, Feminist Frontiers 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. An anthology of classical and contemporary feminist writings reflecting the diversity of women’s experiences. Firestone, Shulamith. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution. New York: Bantam, 1970. A classic work of contemporary feminism, in which the author builds on the insights of both Marx and Freud to analyze the particular oppression of women. Hochschild, Arlie Russell, with Anne Machung. The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home. New York: Viking Penguin, 2003. A critical look at housework in dual-career couples, in which Hochschild observes that women's duties at home constitute a "second shift" after their work in the paid labour force. Kimmel, Michael and Michael Messner. Men’s Lives, 9th ed. New York: Pearson, 2012. This book examines how masculinity is constructed within a social and historical context. Luxton, Meg and June Corman. Getting By in Hard Times: Gendered Labour at Home and on the Job. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001. Luxton and Corman draw the links between economic trends, paid work outside the home, and daily domestic life in their analysis of Stelco's manufacturing plant in Hamilton Ontario. Lorber, Judith. Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics. Los Angeles: Roxbury, 1998. Lorber discusses numerous feminist perspectives that converge and diverge from one another, and she explains how feminism has contributed to correcting gender inequality. Mandell, Nancy, ed. 2009. Feminist Issues: Race, Class, and Sexuality,5th ed. Don Mills, ON: Prentice Hall. In this book, a number of contributors cover a broad and diverse range of topics, including beauty, status and aging, violence, men in feminism, women and religion, and lesbianism. Nathanson, Paul and Katherine K. Young. Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2001. This book examines how men are portrayed in various forms of popular culture such as movies, novels, comic strips and greeting cards. Nelson, Adie. 2009. Gender in Canada, 4rd ed. Don Mills, ON: Prentice Hall. A comprehensive review of gender in Canada, covering such topics as intimate relations, gender and aging, marriage and parenting, work, and symbolic representations of gender. Ritzer, George. Sociological Theory (8th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Ritzer's book contains an excellent chapter on contemporary feminist theory Simmel, Georg. On Women, Sexuality, and Love. Translated and introduced by Guy Oakes. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. These four essays provide a significant exception to the rule that until recently sociologists have neglected looking upon the relationship of men and women as central to social life. Smith, Dorothy E. The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1987. A landmark work in feminist sociology and voted by Canadian sociologists to be one of the most influential sociological works of the twentieth century. Weitz, Rose (ed.). The Politics of Women's Bodies: Sexuality, Appearance, and Behaviour. New York: Oxford University, 3rd ed., 2002.. Weitz collects a group of essays that demonstrate "how ideas about women's bodies are socially constructed, how these social constructions can be used to control women's lives, and how women can resist these forces." Wolf, Susan (ed.). Feminism and Bioethics: Beyond Reproduction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. This work focuses on genetic counseling and the debate about genetic therapy and abortion being used against gender and disability. Thinking About Movies_____________________________________ Billy Elliot (Stephen Daldry, 2000) In this movie, set in a mining town in Northern England, Billy Elliot (Jamie Bell) is a young boy with talent and the inclination to become a professional ballet dancer. His father, Tony (Jamie Draven), a coal miner, at first forbids Billy to take dancing lessons. Tony is socializing Billy to “be a man,” and sees ballet as an inappropriate occupation for his son. Gradually, however, he begins to see dance as a way for his son to escape the poverty of his declining mining town. Sociologically, if Billy Elliot were to assume a traditional gender role and disavow his love for ballet, his life chances would be minimized. Facing discrimination from many of his peers, Billy fights against traditional gender-role expectations and improves his social status. For Your Consideration 1. What are the gender norms portrayed in the film? How does Billy support his masculinity and how does he subvert it? 2. What does Tony, the father, do to “properly’ socialize Billy as a male? Instructor Manual for Sociology: A Brief Introduction, Richard T. Schaefer, Jana Grekul 9781260065800
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