This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 8 Chapter Seven Traditional Training Methods This chapter reviews traditional methods that can be used in training delivery. The traditional training methods addressed in this chapter are organized into three broad categories: presentation methods, hands-on methods, and group building methods. While new technologies have changed training delivery in many respects, traditional methods are still used in virtually all organizations, often in conjunction with new innovations. Different methods are described, along with their advantages and limitations. The chapter concludes by comparing methods on several characteristics, including learning outcomes, transfer enhancement, cost, and overall effectiveness. Fundamentally the goal of this chapter is to educate the reader on how best to employ different training methods to maximize learning, transfer, and other effectiveness criteria. OBJECTIVES 1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentational, hands-on, and group building training methods. 2. Provide recommendations for effective on-the-job training (OJT). 3. Develop a case study. 4. Develop a self-directed learning module. 5. Discuss the key components of behavior modeling training. 6. Explain the conditions necessary for adventure learning to be effective. 7. Discuss what team training should focus on to improve team performance. INTRODUCTION Several studies have demonstrated that most workplace learning occurs informally on the job and through interactions with others. The 70-20-10 model is a commonly used formula in the training profession to describe the optimal sources of learning. It holds that individuals obtain 70 percent of their knowledge from job-related experiences, 20 percent from interactions with others, and 10 percent from formal educational events. Notwithstanding the importance of informal learning, traditional training methods still have their place. Figure 7.1 shows a learning system with four quadrants. The framework crosses two dimensions. The first dimension is competency vs. context based learning. Competency based learning occurs when the company has defined a set of broad competencies for positions or for the whole company. Context based learning is unique to employees specific needs. The second dimension relates to whether learning is guided (created and guided by the company) vs. social (created and guided by user). • Guided competency learning—well defined competencies trained via lecture and online methods • Social competency learning—well defined competencies learned via mentoring, job experiences, and coaching • Guided contextual learning: context dependent knowledge and skills trained via simulation, on-the-job training, behavior modeling, and experiential learning • Social contextual learning: context dependent knowledge and skills learned via social media and informal interactions through others Today, most training focuses on guided competency learning, social competency learning, and guided contextual learning. However, social contextual learning is becoming more common. Training is emphasizing a more active role for the learner because of the increased recognition that the learner is at least as important as the instructor in determining whether learning occurs. There is increased recognition of the importance of informal learning and the greater availability of technology to deliver instruction and enhance social collaboration. PRESENTATION METHODS Presentation methods are methods in which trainees are passive recipients of information, such as facts, processes, and problem-solving methods. Lecture A lecture is the method of training delivery involving a trainer verbally communicating material. Communication is primarily one-way. Instructor-led classroom instruction remains a popular training method despite new technologies. There are different variations of the lecture: • Standard lecture: trainer talks while trainees listen • Team teaching: two or more trainers present different topics or alternative views of information • Guest speakers: speakers visit a session for a predetermined time • Panel: two or more speakers present information and ask questions • Student presentations: groups of trainees present topics to the class Advantages Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and it is an efficient way to cover a large amount of information to a large group. Lecture is also useful when the instructor is the main knowledge holder. A lecture can also demonstrate a subject matter expert’s enthusiasm for a topic. Disadvantages Disadvantages of lectures include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment. It is also difficult to judge learners’ levels of understanding. Thus, lecture is often supplemented with more participative methods. Audiovisual Techniques Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and video. Video is one of the most popular training methods, but is rarely used alone. Video can be highly effective for illustrating communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and step-by-step procedures. Video is also useful for giving real-life examples of material covered via lecture or other methods. Advantages Video can demonstrate content that cannot be easily demonstrated live, provides consistency in training from session to session, and serves as a useful complement to other training methods. Disadvantages Most problems with video result from the creative approach used. Disadvantages include too much content for trainees to absorb, poor dialogue or poor acting, and overuse of music and humor. Videos may also become obsolete, limiting their credibility. Given that video is passive, it should be used in conjunction with more active learning methods. HANDS-ON METHODS Hands-on methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process. On-the-job Training On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors. OJT is considered informal because it does not necessarily occur as part of a training program and because managers, peers, or mentors serve as trainers. OJT can be useful for training newly hired or promoted employees, upgrading experienced employees’ skills when new technology is introduced, and cross-training employees. Advantages OJT requires less time and cost. It can be customized to the specific needs of an employee, and training is immediately applicable because OJT occurs on the job using actual tools and equipment. OJT can be offered at any time, and trainers are readily available because they are peers or managers. Because OJT focuses on actual job content, transfer is maximized. Disadvantages OJT is typically unstructured and may be inconsistent. Bad habits may be passed on. Therefore, OJT should be structured to be most effective. Table 7.2 lists principles to structure and enhance OJT. Some of these principles include: • Effectively prepare for instruction by breaking tasks down into important steps • Prepare the necessary resources and support prior to training • Show trainees how to perform the task and explain key points • Have the trainee practice small parts and then the entire task • Provide praise and constructive feedback • Have the trainee practice until accurate reproduction is achieved • Provide support materials to facilitate transfer • Evaluate the OJT An effective OJT program includes: • A policy statement describing the purpose of OJT, emphasizing the company’s support • A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations. • A thorough review of OJT at similar companies. • Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT. • Availability of lesson plans, checklists, manuals, learning contracts, and progress report forms • Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading, computation, writing) before OJT. Self-Directed Learning Self-directed learning places complete responsibility for learning on the learner, including when the learning will take place and with whom. Training content is pre-determined, but trainees can learn the content at their own pace and in their own way. A trainer should be available to answer questions and facilitate the learning process as needed. Advantages The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at their own pace. Self-directed learning requires fewer trainers, facilities, and travel resources. It provides for consistent training content that captures the knowledge of experts and constant access to training materials. It makes multiple-site training more realistic. Disadvantages The most significant potential disadvantage of self-directed training is that it may place too much responsibility on learners themselves. Individuals must be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own. This level of responsibility may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development costs in terms of time and money. Several steps are necessary to develop effective self-directed learning: • Conduct a job analysis to identify the tasks that need to be covered. • Write trainee-centered learning objectives related to the tasks that indicate what information is important, what actions the trainee should take, and what the trainee should master. • Develop the content for a learning packet based on the learning objectives. • Break content into smaller pieces or chunks; each chunk beginning with the objectives that will be covered, involving an opportunity to practice, and a means for trainees to evaluate learning. • Develop an evaluation package, including means of evaluating oneself and the learning package. Questions should be developed that address whether trainees have met the objectives and whether the material was user friendly, up-to-date, and appropriate for the objectives. Self-directed learning is likely to become more common as companies seek to train staff flexibly, take advantage of technology, and wish for employees to be more proactive in their learning. Apprenticeship An apprenticeship is work-study type training involving both on-the-job and classroom training. Apprenticeships are typically sponsored either by a company or by a trade union. The typical length of an apprenticeship is four years, but they can range from two to six years. Apprenticeships are most common for positions in the skilled trades, such as for an electrician, carpenter, and plumber. To qualify as a registered apprenticeship under state or federal guidelines, the apprenticeship must involve at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and a certain number of hours, which depend on the state. Once training is complete, apprentices are called journey workers, and they earn certification from the U.S. Department of Labor or a state apprenticeship agency. Advantages There are benefits for the learner and the company. Learners earn pay while they learn, and their wages increase as their skills improve. Learners often receive a competitive job offer from the company upon completion of the apprenticeship. From the company’s perspective, apprenticeships meet specific business training needs and help attract talented employees. The trainees tend to be highly skilled and exhibit high levels of motivation and loyalty. Disadvantages The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the development costs and the time commitment that management and learners have to make. There is a somewhat narrow skill focus in current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade), which may be somewhat limiting. From a diversity perspective, these programs have historically restricted access to women and minorities. Simulations A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job. A common example is a flight simulation for pilots. A key aspect of simulation is the degree to which they are similar to the equipment and situations a trainee will require on the job. Good simulations incorporate a high degree of identical elements. Advantages Simulations allow for highly realistic hands-on practice, and they allow trainees to make mistakes and learn from them without fear of negative repercussions. Disadvantages Simulations can be expensive to develop. Further, it may be difficult to fully incorporate identical elements. Case Studies A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicate the appropriate actions, and suggest what might have been done differently. This approach assumes that individuals learn through a process of discovery. Cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers, physicians and many other professionals. Advantages Cases are useful for developing intellectual skills, as noted above, and they are good for engaging learners. Disadvantages Learners must be highly motivated and have a degree of expertise. Thus, cases may be not appropriate for all learners. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation. Trainees’ recommendations are merely hypothetical; it is unknown how they would actually transfer skills. Business Games Business games require trainees to actively gather information, analyze, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. Games are primarily used for management skill development. Games stimulate learning because participants are actively involved and because games mimic the competitive nature of business. Games are also used for developing job-specific skills, such as patient triage and aircraft repair. Typical games share several characteristics: • The game involves a contest either among trainees, among teams of trainees, or against an established criterion such as time or quantity. • The game is designed to demonstrate an understanding and application of a knowledge, skill, or behavior. • Several alternative courses of action are available to trainees, and trainees can estimate the consequences of each alternative, but only with some uncertainty. • Trainees do not know for certain what the consequences of their actions will be because the consequences are partially based on the decisions of other participants. • Rules limit participant behavior. To ensure learning and transfer of training, games used in training should be simple enough that trainees can play them in a short period of time. The best games generate excitement among the participants and interest in the game. Meaningfulness of the game is enhanced if it is realistic and if content is relevant to the job. Advantages Games are similar to simulations they can be used for training that would otherwise involve risk of accident or would be too costly. Games actively involve learners. Disadvantages Games can be difficult to develop, and they may not always to be realistic. Trainees must be highly motivated. Role Plays Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees take on a role such as a manager, client, or disgruntled employee, and explore what is involved in the role. Role plays are usually included in training programs focused on the development of interpersonal skills. Advantages Role plays allow trainees to practice skills and be engaged. Disadvantages Trainees may not always take role playing seriously. Role playing scenarios may not always be realistic. Role plays need to be structured to be most effective. • Provide background on the context and purpose of the role play. • Provide a script with sufficient detail for the trainees to follow. • Arrange the room so other trainees can see the role players. • Provide observation sheets and checklists that highlight the key issues of the role play. • Provide sufficient time to debrief and provide feedback. Behavior Modeling Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model, highlighting the key behaviors and aspects of the model, allowing trainees to practice, and then providing feedback. Behavior modeling is based on social learning theory. Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal skills. Developing behavior modeling training involves determining what tasks need to be addressed and what key behaviors are necessary to complete the task. A key behavior is one of a set of behaviors that is needed to perform a task. Key behaviors for interpersonal skills are not exact behaviors, but rather general behaviors that are useful across situations. Effective modeling displays include: • clear presentation of the key behaviors • a model that is credible to trainees • an overview of the key behaviors • repetition of each key behavior • a review of the key behaviors • models using the key behaviors both correctly and incorrectly The most effective practice sessions allow trainees to practice key behaviors multiple times risk-free with other trainees who understand the company and the job. The trainer and peers should provide feedback. Practice sessions may also be videotaped to allow trainees to observe themselves. Application planning is the process for preparing trainees to transfer the key behaviors back to the job. It involves the trainee preparing a written document specifying situations in which they should use the key behaviors. Advantages Behavior modeling involves hands-on practice and is highly effective in promoting transfer. Disadvantages Behavioral modeling is potentially time-consuming to implement. GROUP BUILDING METHODS Group building methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. These methods involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates. Group building methods often involve experiential learning. Experiential learning training programs have four stages: • graining conceptual knowledge and theory • taking part in a behavioral simulation • analyzing the activity • connecting theory and the activity with on-the-job or real-life situations Adventure Learning Adventure learning is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, problem solving, and conflict management skills. The activities range from highly strenuous and challenging ones, such as dog sledding or mountain climbing, to less physically challenging ones, such as rope courses, trust falls, and simulated high-level activities. To be successful, adventure learning exercises must be related to a specific learning objective. After exercises, the facilitator should lead a discussion about what was learned, how events in the exercise relate to the job situation, and how to apply what was learned on the job. Advantages Adventure learning provides an opportunity for trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a more informal situation. The exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and individual behavior. The exercises can be self-enlightening, invigorating, and self-esteem enhancing. Disadvantages Because adventure learning may be physically demanding and risky, the company may open itself up to negligence claims due to personal injury or emotional distress. These activities are often costly, and not all trainees may be motivated to participate. Adventure learning may not result in high levels of transfer. Team Training Team training refers to training that is designed to improve team effectiveness. There are three key aspects of team performance—behavior, knowledge, and attitudes—that are the focus of team training. • behavior—teams must perform actions that allow them to communicate, coordinate, adapt, and complete complex tasks • knowledge—teams must have “mental models” or memory structures that allow them to function effectively • attitudes—effective teams require that members have favorable attitudes toward each other There are five primary strategies for team training: • cross-training—developing understanding among team members of each other’s tasks and skills so that each member could perform the work of others • coordination training—involves training the team how to share information and make decisions • team leader training—training for the team manager or facilitator, which may involve how to resolve conflict and how to help the team coordinate activities and resources • scenario-based training—training that places team members in a realistic context while learning • guided team self-correction—training that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing Advantages When properly designed, team training generally results in more effective teams. Disadvantages Effective team training is potentially costly and time-consuming. Action Learning Action learning gives teams an actual problem, has them work on solving it, commit to an action plan, and holds them accountable. Companies use action learning to solve important problems, develop leaders, build high performance work teams, and transform organizational culture. Several types of problems are typically addressed, including how to change the business, better use technology, enhance customer service, and develop global leaders. Action learning typically involves teams of six to thirty employees. Six Sigma and Kaizen training programs involve principles of action learning. Six Sigma is a data-driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects in any process, from manufacturing to transactional and from product to service. Kaizen, the Japanese word for improvement, is one of the underlying principles of lean manufacturing and total quality management. Kaizen refers to practices participated in by employees from all levels of the company that focus on continuous improvement. Learners attend training over a period of many weeks, complete application assignments, and apply what they’ve learned on the job. Trainees focus on specific work-related projects. Once trained, employees can train other employees and give advice and recommendations to management. Advantages Action learning is highly interactive and potentially very engaging. It is also highly effective in developing the target skills and promoting transfer. Disadvantages Action learning requires trainees with a high level of skill and ability. This is not necessarily a bad thing, but requires carefully attention being paid to those who are involved. CHOOSING A TRAINING METHOD Selecting the most appropriate training methods is not necessarily straightforward. A variety of considerations should be taken into account. Such considerations include: • The learning outcome, which the most important consideration • The learning environment • Transfer of training considerations • Cost • Overall effectiveness The following trends can be noted from the matrix for choosing training methods: • There is considerable overlap between learning outcomes across the various training methods. • Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation methods, which are more passive. • The presentation methods are less expensive than hands-on methods. If possible, trainers should use several different methods within a single training program to capitalize on the different strengths of each method for facilitating learning and transfer. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the differences between social contextual learning and guided competency development? Are both types of learning (and associated training methods) necessary? Explain. Social contextual learning is informal, peer-to-peer, and occurs spontaneously on an as-needed basis. It usually involves employees sharing knowledge on issues, problems, and topics that are unique and context-dependent. Such learning may also occur via social media. Guided competency development focuses on broad competencies that are applicable for positions or the entire company. Such development is “guided” in that it is structured by the company, typically using methods such as lectures and online learning. Both are needed and do occur in organizations. They focus on different skill sets and employ different methods. Whether one is more important depends on the context. 2. What are the implications of the 70-20-10 model for choosing a training method? Increased recognition of the 70-20-10 model has resulted in training emphasizing a more active role for the learner. The 70-20-10 model is a commonly used formula within the training profession to describe the optimal sources of learning. It holds that individuals obtain 70 percent of their knowledge from job-related experiences, 20 percent from interactions with others, and 10 percent from formal educational events. 3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the lecture, the case study, and behavior modeling? Lecture Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and it is an efficient way to give a large amount of information to a large group. Lecture is also useful when the instructor is the main knowledge holder. A lecture can also demonstrate a subject matter expert’s enthusiasm for a topic. Disadvantages of lectures include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment. It also is difficult to judge learners’ levels of understanding. Thus, lecture is often supplemented with more participative methods. Cases Cases are useful for developing intellectual skills, as noted above, and they are good for engaging learners. Learners must be highly motivated and have a degree of expertise. Thus, cases may be not appropriate for all learners. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation. Trainees’ recommendations are merely hypothetical; it is unknown how they would actually transfer skills. Behavior Modeling Behavior modeling involves hands on practice and is highly effective in promoting transfer. However, behavior modeling is potentially time-consuming to implement. 4. If you had to choose between adventure learning and action learning for developing an effective team, which would you choose? Defend your choice. Adventure learning focuses on the development of teamwork and leadership skills through structured activities. It includes wilderness training, outdoor training, drum circles, and even cooking classes. Adventure learning appears to be best suited for developing skills related to group effectiveness such as self-awareness, problem solving, conflict management, and risk taking. Action learning gives teams or work groups an actual problem, has them work on solving it, commit to an action plan, and holds them accountable for carrying out the plan. This type of learning teaches the trainees how to work as a team by researching a problem and finding a solution. Adventure learning appears more appropriate when focusing on affective learning objectives; while action learning appears more appropriate when focusing on skill-based ones. 5. Discuss the process of behavior modeling training. Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model, highlighting the key behaviors and aspects of the model, allowing trainees to practice, and then providing feedback. Behavior modeling is based on social learning theory. Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills. Effective modeling displays include: • clear presentation of the key behaviors • a model that is credible to trainees • an overview of the key behaviors • repetition of each key behavior • a review of the key behaviors • models using the key behaviors both correctly and incorrectly 6. How can the characteristics of the trainee affect self-directed learning? Trainees must be willing and comfortable learning on their own. Trainees must be motivated to learn. These characteristics are important because the learning process is controlled by the trainee. Trainees master predetermined training content at their own pace without an instructor. 7. What are the components of effective team performance? How might training strengthen these components? Team training refers to training that is designed to improve team effectiveness. There are three key aspects of team performance—behavior, knowledge, and attitudes—that are the focus of team training. • behavior—teams must perform actions that allow them to communicate, coordinate, adapt, and complete complex tasks • knowledge—teams must have “mental models” or memory structures that allow them to function effectively • attitudes—effective teams require that members have favorable attitudes toward each other There are five primary strategies for team training: • cross-training—developing understanding among team members of each other’s tasks and skills so that each member could perform the work of others • coordination training—involves training the team how to share information and make decisions • team leader training—training for the team manager or facilitator, which may involve how to resolve conflict and how to help the team coordinate activities and resources • scenario-based training—training that places team members in a realistic context while learning • guided team self-correction—training that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing 8. Table 7.11 compares training methods on a number of characteristics. Explain why simulation and behavior modeling receive high ratings for transfer of training. These methods receive “high transfer ratings” because they involve hands-on practice and typically are high in “identical elements.” 9. What are some reasons why on-the-job training can prove ineffective? What can be done to ensure its effectiveness? OJT may be ineffective because it may be too informal and haphazard, and there may not be consistent standards from employee to employee. Managers and peers may not understand that demonstration, practice, and feedback are important conditions for effective on-the-job training. Furthermore, bad habits may be passed on. Table 7.2 lists principles to structure and enhance OJT. Some of these principles include: • Effectively prepare for instruction by breaking tasks down into important steps • Prepare the necessary resources and support prior to training • Show trainees how to perform the task and explain key points • Have the trainee practice small parts and then the entire task • Provide praise and constructive feedback • Have the trainee practice until accurate reproduction is achieved • Provide support materials to facilitate transfer • Evaluate the OJT An effective OJT program includes: • A policy statement describing the purpose of OJT, emphasizing the company’s support • A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations. • A thorough review of OJT at similar companies. • Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT. • Availability of lesson plans, checklists, manuals, learning contracts, and progress report forms • Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading, computation, writing) before OJT. 10. Why are apprenticeship programs attractive to employees? Why are they attractive to companies? There are benefits for the learner and the company. Learners earn pay while they learn, and their wages increase as their skills improve. Learners often receive a competitive job offer from the company upon completion of the apprenticeship. From the company’s perspective, apprenticeships meet specific business training needs and help attract talented employees. The trainees tend to be highly skilled and exhibit high levels of motivation and loyalty. 11. Discuss the steps of an action learning program. Which aspect of action learning do you think is most beneficial for learning? Which is most beneficial for transfer of training? Explain why. Defend your choices. Steps in action learning: • Identify the sponsors of action learning, including CEOs and top managers • Identify the problem or issue • Select the group to address the issue • Identify coaches • Group discussions that address defining what the problem is and how to solve it • Data gathering and analysis to solve the problem • Group presentation on how to solve the problem • Self-reflection and debriefing Chapter Eight Technology-Based Training Methods Information technology has significantly changed how individuals are trained in organizations. There are a number of technological innovations available to trainers today, and it is important to know how to best utilize these new methods. The chapter begins by broadly addressing how new technologies are influencing training delivery, support, and administration. It then proceeds to present a variety of different methods, addressing how each is used, its strengths, and limitations. The chapter also discusses blended learning, whereby trainees learning via a combination of traditional and technology-based methods. The final section addresses how best to determine which methods are most appropriate in different contexts. OBJECTIVES 1. Explain how new technologies are influencing training. 2. Evaluate a Web-based training site. 3. Explain how learning and transfer of training are enhanced by using new training technologies. 4. Explain the strengths and limitations of e-learning, mobile technology training methods (such as iPads), and simulations. 5. Explain the different types of social media and the conditions conducive to their use for training. 6. Describe to a manager the various types of distance learning. 7. Recommend what should be included in an electronic performance support system. 8. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of traditional training methods versus those of technology-based training methods. 9. Identify and explain the benefits of learning management systems. INTRODUCTION Technology is having a major impact on the design and delivery of training. Although new technological advances provide exciting capabilities and possibilities, it is critical that companies use training technologies that support both business and learner needs. Snapshot statistics of the use of technology in training: • 15% of training hours are delivered in a virtual classroom; 29% are delivered online • 39% of learning hours involve technology-based training methods • 79% of companies are using learning management systems • 36% of large companies deliver training online, compared to 28% of small companies TECHNOLOGY’S INFLUENCE ON TRAINING AND LEARNING New technology has improved training and learning in many ways: • Employees have greater control over when and where they receive training. • Employees have greater access to knowledge and expert systems. • The use of avatars, virtual reality, and simulations enable the learning environment to look, feel, and sound more like the work environment. • Employees can choose the type of media that they want to use in training. • The administration of training can be conducted electronically. • Employee training accomplishments can be more easily monitored. • Training can be delivered to trainees, rather than trainees coming to a centralized training location. Three of the most important ways that technology has influenced training and learning is that it has provided for greater collaboration, learner control, and a more dynamic learning environment. New technologies for training come in many shapes and forms: • E-Learning, Online Learning, Computer-Based Training • Webcasts / Webinars • Podcasts • Mobile Learning • Blending Learning • Wikis • Distance Learning • Social Media • Shared Workspaces (e.g., Google docs) • RSS Feeds • Blogs • Chat Rooms and Discussion Boards • Microblogs / Micro sharing • Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) • Adaptive Training Technology Facilitates Collaboration Digital collaboration refers to the use of technology to enhance employees’ abilities to work together regardless of geographic proximity. Digital collaboration can be either synchronous or asynchronous. • Synchronous communication refers to trainers, experts, and learners interacting with each other live and in real time akin to face-to-face classroom instruction. • Asynchronous communication refers to non-real time interactions. Learners can access information resources when they desire them. Technology Creates a Dynamic Learning Environment Traditionally, the learning environment included only the trainer and learners. The trainer was responsible for delivering content, answering questions, and testing learning. Trainees played a relatively passive role in learning. Communication of course content was one-way, from the instructor to the learner. Technology has made learning environments more interactive and dynamic. In particular, technology has allowed for: • greater interaction between learners and training content • greater interaction between learners and trainers • trainers serving more as resources and coaches • more learning occurring through exchanges with other learners • experts and resources becoming a part of the learning environment • more training via social media • more training via games and exercises COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING, ONLINE LEARNING, WEB-BASED TRAINING, E-LEARNING Online learning, computer-based training (CBT), e-learning, web-based training refer to instruction and delivery of training by computer through the internet or the web. Potential Features of Online Learning The possible features that can be embedded in online learning include: content, collaboration and sharing, links to resources, learner control, delivery, and administration. • Content—content may include text, video, graphics, and sound • Collaboration and sharing—collaboration and sharing can occur to help reinforce content • Links to resources—access to other training methods, other web-based training, and electronic performance support • Learner control—leaners can control what they learn, the speed at which they progress, how much they practice, whether to interact with others, and when they learn • Delivery—modes of delivery may include internet, intranet, distance learning, and CD-ROM • Administration—online administration of enrollment, monitoring, and trainee progress Not all of these features are included in most online training programs. As technology continues to improve, more of these features will likely be present in more online training. Advantages of Online Learning There are numerous potential advantages of online learning: • It can support a company’s business strategy. • It is accessible at any time and any place. • The audience can include employees, managers, vendors, customers, and clients. • Training can be delivered to geographically dispersed employees. • Training can be delivered faster and to more employees in a shorter period of time. • Updating is easy. • Practice, feedback, and assessment can be built into the program. • Learning is enhanced through multimedia. • Paperwork related to administration is eliminated. Effectiveness of Online Learning A number of general conclusions can be made about online learning. • Online instruction is effective for different types of learning. • Online instruction is more effective than face-to-face learning for declarative knowledge. • Online and classroom instruction are equally effective for procedural knowledge. • Learners are equally satisfied with online and classroom instruction. • Online instruction is better than classroom instruction when learners are given control over learning, are able to practice, and receive feedback. • Online instruction is better than classroom instruction for long courses. • Online and classroom instruction are equally effective when similar methods are used. • Trainees who benefit most are those who take more time and practice more. • Online learning is not effective for all learners, particularly those with low computer self-efficacy. Despite the potential benefits of online learning, development time and cost can be high. The benefits may be realized over the long-run if a program is well designed and utilized by employees over a relatively long period. DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE ONLINE LEARNING The ADDIE model should be used in designing online learning. However, the emphasis at each stage may be different. In particular, greater emphasis should be paid to needs assessment, creating a positive online learning experience, learner control, and providing time and space for learning. Needs Assessment Beyond determining the focal skills to be trained, the needs assessment process should determine if the organization has the technological infrastructure to deliver training, provide learning resources, and offer technical support. This process should also determine if trainees possess the skills for online learning. A technical analysis, performed in partnership with the IT department, should focus on identifying minimum computing requirements (bandwidth, memory, hard drive space, software, processing speed). Create a Positive Online Learning Experience The characteristics of a positive learning experience (e.g., practice, feedback, and interaction), discussed in Chapter Five, should be included to create a meaningful learning experience. However, translating these elements to an online experience may be challenging. Rapid prototyping could be used for designing an online program. Rapid prototyping refers to an iterative process in which initial design ideas are proposed and provided in rough form in an online working prototype. This prototype is then reviewed and refined by design team members. Trainers should avoid repurposing. Repurposing refers to directly translating an instructor-led face-to-face program to an online format. Repurposing will likely result in ineffective training. The best online learning experiences combine the advantages of the internet with the principles of a good learning environment. Principles for creating a positive learning experience include: • Including visuals and words with instruction • Aligning text with visuals • Explaining complex visuals with audio or text, rather than by both • Omitting extraneous visuals, words, and sounds • Socially engaging learners through conversational language agents • Explaining key concepts prior to full instruction • Providing prompts that encourage self-regulation • Providing content in short sequences over which learners have control • Connecting modules in a way that engages learners • Providing activities and exercises that parallel the work environment • Distributing exercises within and among modules • Providing explanations to responses on quizzes and exercises Learner Control One of the great benefits of online learning is greater learner control. Learner control refers to giving trainees the option to learn though self-pacing, exercises, exploring links to other material, and conversations with other trainees and experts. Research provides several recommendations for maximizing the benefits of learner control: • Programs should not allow trainees to control the amount of feedback they receive. Trainees may rely too much on feedback, which may reduce long-term retention. • Programs should offer practice on each topic repeatedly throughout the program to ensure retention. • Programs should provide practice using different high fidelity examples to help transfer. • Trainees should be allowed to control the sequence in which they receive instruction but not be able to skip practice. • Programs should prompt self-regulation, prompting trainees to recall key points, reflect, and set goals. Provide Time and Space for Online Learning Companies need to ensure that employees are given time and space for online learning. Managers need to give employees time in their schedules for training, and employees need to schedule “training time” away from distractions. Employees should not be required to fit online learning into already busy schedules. Otherwise, they will likely rush through the material merely to complete it. Using formative evaluation data from prototypes can be helpful in identifying the length and time of modules. Armed with this information, training can be appropriately scheduled. Technology for Collaboration and Linking Given that interaction and sharing among individuals helps facilitate learning, online training modules should provide means for such activity. Effective online learning connects trainees and facilitates interaction though chat rooms, discussion boards, and social media. Hyperlinks allow a trainee to access other websites that include printed materials and communications links to experts, trainers, and other learners. MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE COURSES (MOOCs) Massive open online courses (MOOCs) are courses designed to enroll large number of learners, which are free and accessible to anyone with internet access. Companies are starting to work with MOOC providers to design custom courses to meet their specific needs. MOOCs offer several advantages: • They are low cost, accessible, and cover a wide range of topics. • Learning happens through engaging short lectures combined with interaction with the course material, other students, and the instructor. • They emphasize applying knowledge and skills using role plays, cases, and projects. • Learning is semi-synchronous, where learners receive the same assignments, video lectures, readings, quizzes, and discussions, but can complete the coursework on their own time. • Many MOOCs offer college credit or certificates of completion. Despite claims that MOOCs will revolutionize training, they have significant disadvantages. • Learning interaction with the course tends to drop off after the first two weeks of the course. • Completion rates are low, and most students who do complete courses do not take the credential exam. • MOOCs may be inappropriate for courses where synchronous or real-time collaboration is needed. SOCIAL MEDIA: WIKIS, BLOGS, MICROBLOGS, AND SOCIAL NETWORKS Many companies are using social media tools to help employees learn informally, share knowledge on an as-needed basis, and as complements to formal training. Social media can be useful for: • providing links to resources such as webinars, videos, and articles • determining training needs by using tagging capabilities • reinforcing and sustaining learning • coaching and mentoring • linking learners before, during, and after formal training • engaging younger generation employees • providing content before a face-to-face learning event A blog refers to a webpage where an author posts entries and readers comment. Blogs can be useful for trainees to analyze and synthesize information, reflect on course content, and share ideas. Instructors must provide guidelines regarding how entries will be evaluated and how blogs will be evaluated. Blogs may be useful for courses involving group work, where individuals can share comments and insights. A wiki refers to a website that allows many users to create, edit, and update content and share knowledge. A microblog refers to software tools such as Twitter that enable communication in short bursts of text, links, and multimedia either through stand-alone applications or through online communities. Shared media refers to audio or video such as YouTube that can be accessed and shared with others. BLENDED LEARNING Blended learning combines online learning, face-to-face instruction, and other instructional methods. Blended learning courses provide learners with the positive features of both face-to-face instruction and technology-based delivery, while minimizing the negative features of each. In comparison to pure classroom learning, blended learning: • provides increased learner control • allows for self-directedness • requires learners to take more responsibility for their learning • is better for teaching declarative knowledge or information about ideas or topics In comparison to pure technology-based learning, blended learning: • provides more face-to-face social interaction • ensures that instruction is presented in a dedicated learning environment • provides live feedback, which is preferable to feedback received online Interestingly, trainees prefer classroom instruction to blended learning, perhaps because blended courses may be more demanding. One popular application of blended learning is the flipped classroom. The flipped classroom reverses the traditional learning arrangement by delivering instructional content online outside of the classroom and moves activities, including those that may have traditionally been considered homework, into the classroom. The flipped classroom recognizes that face-to-face instruction using lecture can be effective when it is delivered to individual learners rather than to group of learners in the classroom. SIMULATIONS AND GAMES Simulations and games can be excellent ways to immerse trainees in an artificial yet realistic learning environment. There are four general types of games and simulations: • Branching story—trainees are presented with a story and asked to make decisions; trainees progress though the simulation based on their decisions • Interactive spreadsheet—trainees are given a set of business tools and asked to make decisions that will impact the business • Game-based—trainees play a video game on a computer • Virtual—trainees interact with a computer representative of the job Gamification means that game-based strategies are applied to online programs. Serious games refer to those where there is a clear business objective. Games can be used for several business-related purposes including safety training, product training, team building, and new employee orientation. While games may be fun, a number of questions should be considered when determining whether to use games: • What is the business objective? • What behavior or tasks will be learned? • How many levels and players should be included? • Will everyone playing the game have access to the same technology? • Is the game fun and does it promote engagement in learning? • Does the game provide feedback and leaderboards, meters, or badges to motivate friendly competition? Some simulations take place in virtual worlds, where trainees experience a three-dimensional learning experience. Simulations allow the trainees to experience presence, perceptions of actually being in a particular environment. Trainees use avatars, computer depictions of humans, to interact with each other in the learning experience. There are many advantages of simulations, which include: • There is no need for a centralized training location. • There is meaningful and engaging content. • They provide a consistent message of what needs to be learned. • They can safely put employees in situations that would otherwise be dangerous • They can yield positive learning outcomes in shorter periods of time However: • There are high development costs. • There is an absence of human contact. • They may be difficult for first-time users. • Learners may not take simulations seriously. MOBILE TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING Mobile technology allows learning to occur anywhere at any time. Mobile technology consists of: • wireless transmission systems such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth • mobile devices such as PDAs, smartphones, tablet computers, global positioning system (GPS) devices, and radio frequency identification chips (RFIDs) • software applications related to processing audio files, word processing, spreadsheets, internet, e-mail, and instant messaging Mobile learning refers to training delivered via mobile technology. Mobile learning can involve both formal learning (e-learning courses, podcasts, or videos on the mobile device) and informal learning (communicating via social media). There are several advantages of mobile learning: • It is an easy way to communicate up-to-date information to employees. • It can be useful for enhancing transfer by providing follow-up. • It brings training to employees who are mobile. • Learners can complete training on their own time and pace. Many companies are using tablets such as the iPad for training because of their ease of use, user-friendly displays, internet connectivity, and powerful apps. Some companies are beginning to use apps as their primary mode of training. To ensure that learning occurs, the apps are embedded with videos, stories, and interaction. ADAPTIVE TRAINING Adaptive training refers to training that customizes the content presented to trainees based on their learning style, ability, personality, and/or performance. These adaptations include the variety, difficulty, and sequencing of content and practice problems. Instruction changes based on trainees’ scores on tests or quizzes completed either before training or at various times as they experience training. The major challenge in developing adaptive training is ensuring that the different content customizations match the learner needs and help them attain the learning objectives. One example of adaptive training is an intelligent tutoring system, which is an instructional program that uses artificial intelligence. DISTANCE LEARNING Distance learning is used by geographically dispersed companies. Distance learning features two-way communications between people, and it currently involves two types of technologies. • The first technology is teleconferencing, which refers to synchronous exchange of audio, video, and text between two or more individuals or groups at two or more locations. Trainees attend training programs in training facilities where they can communicate with trainers (who are at another location) and other trainees using the telephone or personal computer. • The other type of technology involves individualized, personal-computer-based training with trainees participating wherever they have access to a computer. Instruction may utilize multimedia methods such as web-based training. Distance learning may include a virtual classroom (using a computer and the internet to distribute instructor-led training). Guidelines for developing a virtual classroom include: • testing technology before the first class to sure it runs smoothly • designing short modules and assignments that apply the learning to the job • making learning interactive and interesting • include media such as video and audio • limiting classroom size to no more than twenty-five learners • offering learners multiple ways of interacting with each other and the instructor (e.g., blogs, message boards) Interactive Distance Learning (IDL) is the latest generation of distance learning, which uses satellite technology to broadcast programs to different locations and allows trainees to respond to questions posed during the training program using a keypad. TECHNOLOGIES FOR TRAINING SUPPORT Technologies for training support help capture training content so it is available to employees who may have not have attended training, and they serve as job aides on an as-needed basis. Technologies for training support are most needed when: • performance of the task is infrequent • the task is time-consuming, difficult, and information intensive • the consequences of error are severe • effective performance relies on information and procedures that frequently change • employee turnover is high • there is little time and few resources available for training • employees are responsible for learning and performing tasks Expert Systems Expert systems organize and apply the knowledge of experts to specific problems. Expert systems are used when problems or decisions exceed an employee’s current skill set. They can also be used to help employees make sense of different conditions and problems and keep track of tasks that need to be completed. Expert systems have three elements: • a knowledge base that includes facts, figures, and rules about the specific subject • a decision-making capability that, like an expert’s reasoning ability, draws conclusions from those facts and figures to solve problems • a user interface that gathers and gives information to the individual using the system Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSSs) An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is an electronic infrastructure that captures, stores, and distributes individual and corporate knowledge throughout an organization. These systems enable individuals to achieve required levels of performance in the fastest possible time and with minimal support from other people. An EPSS includes all the software needed to support the work of individuals, not just one or two specific software applications. An EPSS can be used to help transfer of training and provide just-in-time support as a substitute for training. LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (LMSS): SYSTEMS FOR TRAINING DELIVERY, SUPPORT, AND ADMINISTRATION A learning management system (LMS) is a technology platform that can be used to automate the administration, development, and delivery of all of a company’s training programs. Companies adopt LMSs to centralize management of learning activities, track regulatory compliance, measure training usage, assess employee performance, and determine training needs. LMSs should be integrated with other talent management systems. The interfaces between the systems will provide basic employee information such as business unit, geographic location, and job title. Information about which courses employees have completed should also be stored in the LMS. There are a number of reasons LMSs are becoming more popular. • They help reduce travel and other costs related to training. • They reduce time for program completion. • They increase employee accessibility to training. • They provide administrative capabilities to track program completion and course enrollments. CHOOSING NEW TECHNOLOGY TRAINING METHODS Technology-based training methods require considerable investment in development. Although development costs are high, administration costs are low. Cost savings can be realized due to training being accessible to employees anywhere, the reduced number of trainers needed, and less travel to training locations. Below are some key points regarding when different methods are appropriate. • Simulations, games, and adaptive training are suited for training complex processes related to operating machines, tools, and equipment. • Online training and MOOCs are best suited for teaching facts, figures, cognitive strategies, and interpersonal skills. • Both online training and simulations can be useful for training interpersonal skills if content and delivery are realistic. • Mobile learning is best suited for training facts. • Mobile learning and social media are best used as supplements to live training and means to promote training. Technology-based training methods should be used under the following conditions: • There is an adequate budget and resources to develop and use new technology. • Trainees are geographically dispersed and travel costs would be high. • Trainees are comfortable using new technology. • Use of new technology fits into the organizational culture or business strategy. • Employees would have a difficult time attending traditional training. Companies must recognize the strengths and weakness of traditional and technology-based training methods. Technology-based methods can provide consistent delivery to employees who are geographically dispersed and need to work at their own pace. Face-to-face instruction is appropriate when the focus of training is on the application of content, discussion, and interaction among trainees. It is important to highlight that only a few research studies have examined the effectiveness of technology-based training methods. As such, additional research is necessary to provide firmer guidance for practice. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Explain how technology has changed the learning environment. Technology has changed the learning environment in numerous and significant ways. Most significantly, a large portion of learning has shifted from face-to-fact interactions to individual interaction with computer technology. This technology has made it possible for employees to gain control over when and where they receive training, and it has allowed access to knowledge and expert systems on an as-needed basis. New technology has also broadened the types of media available in training programs. 2. What types of learning outcomes are best suited for mobile learning? Explain. Mobile learning is best suited for teaching facts and verbal information, given the limited personal interaction. Mobile may also be helpful in facilitating transfer, as mobile technology can easily provide access to reference materials. 3. What are the differences between expert systems and electronic performance tools? Expert systems refer to technology that organizes and applies the knowledge of experts to specific problems. Expert systems are used as a support tool that employees refer to when they have problems or decisions that they feel exceed their current skill sets. An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is an electronic infrastructure that captures, stores, and distributes individual and corporate knowledge throughout an organization to enable individuals to achieve required levels of performance in the fastest possible time and with minimal support from other people. Although both systems can be used as a teaching tool and to provide expert advice, EPSSs integrate knowledge assets into the interface of software tools, rather than separating them into add-on components. An EPSS can also be used to automate some tasks and lighten workloads. 4. Why are MOOCS a promising way to deliver learning? What are their limitations? MOOCs offer several advantages: • They are low cost, accessible, and cover a wide range of topics. • Learning happens through engaging short lectures combined with interaction with the course material, other students, and the instructor. • They emphasize applying knowledge and skills using role plays, cases, and projects. • Learning is semi-synchronous, where learners receive the same assignments, video lectures, readings, quizzes, and discussions, but can complete the coursework on their own time. • Many MOOCs offer college credit or certificates of completion. Despite claims that MOOCs will revolutionize training, they have significant disadvantages. • Learning interaction with the course tends to drop off after the first two weeks of the course. • Completion rates are low, and most students who do complete courses do not take the credential exam. • MOOCs may be inappropriate for courses where synchronous or real-time collaboration is needed. 5. Discuss how new technologies make it easier to learn. How do they facilitate transfer of training? • Trainees can work at the own pace, when they want, and where they want. • Many new technologies are often interactive, allowing for potentially high levels of trainee engagement. • New technologies often include content developed by experts, which could be better than content developed by less qualified individuals. In this respect, trainees are learning better material. • Trainees can review material as needed, which can help reinforce content to promote transfer. • Trainees can access resources and material easily after training via new technologies, which will support transfer. • On the flip side, live interpersonal interaction is missing from technology, which may inhibit learning in some contexts. Further, learning via technology requires a high degree of trainee motivation. If such motivation is absent, trainees will not immerse themselves fully in the learning experience. 6. Is all internet training the same? Explain. All online training is not equal. Online training, as with any type of training, is extremely varied. The quality of any online program is dependent on the quality of the content and the quality of delivery. Some key best practices include: • Conducting an effective technology assessment and an assessment of the skills that users need • Incorporating audio, video, text, and graphics to hold learners’ attention • Ensuring trainees can actively learn, explore links to other material, and engage in conversations with other trainees and experts • Incorporating practice opportunities to help trainees transfer new knowledge and skills 7. What are some potential problems with using games and gamification for training? Despite the advantages of games and gamification, there are some challenges. • Games may be expensive to develop. • Trainees may not always take games seriously. • There may not be a clear link from the game to real-world application. As such, games must have a clear learning objective and be relevant to the work context. 8. What is social media? Explain how it can be used for training. Social media are online and mobile technology used to create interactive communications (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, and YouTube). In particular, social media can be useful for: • providing links to resources such as webinars, videos, and articles • determining training needs by using tagging capabilities • reinforcing and sustaining learning • coaching and mentoring • linking learners before, during, and after formal training • engaging younger generation employees • providing content before a face-to-face learning event 9. Explain learner control, sharing, and linking. How do they contribute to the effectiveness of e-learning? Learner control refers to the ability for trainees to learn actively by controlling the pace of learning, exploring links to other material, and communicating with other trainees and experts. Learner control allows for a more personalized and effective learning experience. Sharing, or interaction between trainees, allows the exchange of ideas and experiences to help trainees learn from each other. Linking to other websites gives trainees access to resources such as printed materials, experts, trainers, and other learners. 10. What is repurposing? How does it affect the use of new technologies in training? Repurposing refers to directly translating an instructor-led face-to-face training program to an online format. Online learning that involves merely repurposing an ineffective training program will still result in ineffective training. 11. Distance learning can be used to deliver a lecture to geographically dispersed trainees. How might distance learning be designed and used to avoid some of the learning and transfer of training problems of the traditional lecture method? Strategies for the effective design of distance learning include: • testing technology before the first class to sure it runs smoothly • designing short modules and assignments that apply the learning to the job • making learning interactive and interesting • include media such as video and audio • limiting classroom size to no more than twenty-five learners • offering learners multiple ways of interacting with each other and the instructor (e.g., blogs, message boards) 12. Why would a company use a combination of face-to-face instruction and web-based training? Despite the many advantages of online learning, many companies are moving to a blended learning approach. They are doing so because of the limitations of technology, employee preferences for face-to-face interaction, and employees’ inability to find unscheduled time to devote to learning online learning. Blended learning provides increased learner control, allows for self-directedness, and requires learners to take more responsibility for their learning. Blended learning allows for the best of both worlds. 13. What conditions are best for the use of social media tools as part of a learning solution? To determine if social media would be an effective learning tool, the questions to ask include: • Are social networks already being used in the company? • Does social networking fit into the company’s learning strategy? • Are employees geographically dispersed? • Does the learning strategy support on-the-job learning? • Is there is a need to foster collaboration? • Are a significant number of employees from the millennial generation or Generation X? • Are employees comfortable using social networks? • Does the business require substantial teamwork? • Does knowledge need to be shared quickly? • Does the company value innovation? • Does the culture support decentralized decision making? The more “yes” answers to these questions, the more likely that social media will be an effective learning solution. 14. What is the most significant way adaptive training differs from other training methods? Adaptive training refers to training that customizes the content presented to trainees based on their learning style, ability, personality, and/or performance. These adaptations include the variety, difficulty, and sequencing of content and practice problems. Instruction changes based on trainees’ scores on tests or quizzes completed either before training or at various times as they experience training. Solution Manual for Employee Training and Development Raymond Andrew Noe 9780078112850, 9781259539367, 9780071267786
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