CH-7-8 The Mass Media – Sociology : Chapter Notes

This Document Contains Chapters 7 to 8 CHAPTER 7 THE MASS MEDIA CHAPTER OUTLINE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE MEDIA Functionalist View Conflict View Feminist View Interactionist View THE AUDIENCE Who is in the Audience? The Segmented Audience Audience Behavior THE MEDIA’S GLOBAL REACH SOCIAL POLICY AND THE MASS MEDIA: The Right to Privacy Boxes Research Today: Diversity in Reality Television Sociology in the Global Community: The Global Disconnect Trend Spotting Box: Internet Dropouts Sociology in the Global Community: Al Jazeera Is on the Air LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 7 1. Discuss views of the mass media from each of the sociological perspectives 2. Define “gatekeeping” and “dominant ideology,” as they relate to mass media; discuss the consequences of both for society. 3. Discuss the significance of the social audience as it relates to mass media. 4. Describe the global nature of the media and its effect on society. • Chapter-opening excerpt from Mix It Up: Popular Culture, Mass Media, and Society by David Grazian • Discussion of the use of the Internet and social media to fuel anti-government protests during 2011, with cartoon • Discussion of the Department of Homeland Security’s monitoring of social media sites • Discussion of media coverage of obesity as a public health problem • Research Today Box, “Diversity in Reality Television” • Discussion of differences in media portrayals of men and women in golf • Discussion of differential impact of online gaming • Trend Spotting Box, “Internet Dropouts” • Discussion of audience segmentation in political parties’ placement of television advertisements • Discussion of new social norm in Brazil’s Amazon region • Social Policy section on Right to Privacy CHAPTER SUMMARY The term mass media refers to print and electronic means of communication that carry messages to widespread audiences. The function of the mass media is not limited to entertainment. The mass media also socialize us, enforce social norms, confer status, promote consumption, and keep us informed about our social environment. The media bring members of society together by reporting on ceremonies and other important events, such as the attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. The functionalist view of the mass media emphasizes the role of the media in reaffirming proper behavior by depicting what happens to people who act in ways that violate social expectations. The media play a critical role in shaping perceptions about the risks of substance abuse. The media are capable of conferring status on people, organizations, and public issues. In addition to its functions, the media can perform a dysfunction. The narcotizing dysfunction refers to the phenomenon whereby the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and generally fails to act on the information. The conflict view is that the media reflect many of the divisions within society and the world, including those based on gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. Gatekeeping refers to the idea that media material must travel through a series of checkpoints (or gates) before it reaches the public. The conflict view suggests that the gatekeeping process reflects a desire to maximize profits, and that the content that makes it through the gates does not reflect the diversity of the audience. Netizens are individuals who are actively involved in online communities. In the past, media monitoring referred to the monitoring of media content by interest groups. With new technologies, it now includes monitoring of individuals’ media usage and choices without their knowledge, raising concerns about the invasion of people’s privacy. The term dominant ideology describes the set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. The media transmit images that virtually define what we regard as the real world. Mass media decision makers are overwhelmingly white, male, and wealthy. Media content may create false images or stereotypes of particular groups, which become accepted as accurate portrayals of reality. Globalization projects the dominating reach of the U.S. media into the rest of the world. The U.S. media have come to rely on the overseas market. Feminists continue the argument advanced by conflict theorists that the mass media stereotype and misrepresent social reality. The media provide a powerful influence on how we look at men and women. Feminists suggest that women are underrepresented and traditionally viewed as needing rescue by males. Recent studies on the use of the Internet by women and men suggest that the use of websites differs by gender in fundamental ways. Interactionists are especially interested in shared understandings of everyday behavior. They examine the impact of the media on the microlevel to see how the media shape day-to-day social behavior. The use of the Internet to exchange information and messages about terrorism and hatred is of concern to interactionists. Sexual expression, privacy issues, and censorship are all Internet-related issues that have an impact on social behavior. The media can target certain groups by identifying and segmenting the audience. An opinion leader is someone who through day-to-day personal contacts and communication influences the opinions and decisions of others. The global reach of the media has indeed begun to create a global village in terms of communication. Consumer goods are vigorously marketed worldwide, and national boundaries are crossed effortlessly with a mere keystroke. However, ownership of the media is getting more and more centralized. There are a handful of multinational corporations that dominate the publishing, broadcasting, and film industries. Some observers think that government should regulate media concentration. Some sociologists question whether the public interest is being served by the growing concentration of media. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR Focus Questions Resources 1. How do functionalists view the mass media? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: mass media, narcotizing dysfunction Boxes: Photo Essay: How does Television Portray the Family; Taking Sociology to Work box: Nicole Martirano Van Cleve, Former Brand Planner, Leo Burnett, USA Visual Support: Table 7-1 Contours of Communication; Photo of NYC condom advertisement; Table 7-2 Status Conferred by Magazines; Photo of movie poster for Twilight; Figure 7-1 Mapping Life Worldwide: Branding the Globe IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4 Classroom Discussion Topics: 7-1, 7-2 Video Resources: Mass Communication, Part 2; Scene Smoking; Why We Buy REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Media 2. How do conflict theorists view the mass media? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: gatekeeping, netizens, dominant ideology, stereotypes, digital divide Box: Research Today, “Diversity in Reality Television” Box: Sociology in the Global Community, “The Global Disconnect” Visual Support: Social media cartoon; Photo of earthquake in Haiti; Photo of animated series Freej; Figure 7-2, “Network Coverage of Women’s Versus Men’s Sports” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 7-3 Classroom Discussion Topics: 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, 7-7 Topics and Sources for Student Research: News Framing in Television; Representation of Hispanics in Television Shows; Reinforcement of Stereotypes through Film Video Resources: Mass Media in Society; Media Impact; Television Media; Secrets of the Superbrands REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Media 3. How do interactionists view the mass media? IN THE TEXT Visual Support: Figure 7-3 Marketing Online Through Social Networks; Figure 7-4 Who’s On the Internet; Table 7-3 Sociological Perspectives on the Mass Media Boxes: Trend Spotting Box, “Internet Dropouts” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 7-3; 7-4; 7-6 Topics and Sources for Student Research: What Television Tells Us About Our Lives Video Resources: Hollywood’s Role in Shaping Values REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Media 4. What is the significance of the mass media audience? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: opinion leader Visual Support: Photo of US magazine cover; Photo of hip-hop artist, Unk IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 7-6 Video Resources: Secrets of the Superbrands; Should You Let Them Watch: Assessing Media Violence; Television Media: Headlines or Hype 5. To what extent is mass media globalized? IN THE TEXT Visual Support: Figure 7-5 Media Penetration in Selected Countries; Photo of television satellites in Brazilian community Box: Sociology in the Global Community, “Al Jazeera is on the Air” IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Video Resources: Mass Media in Society LECTURE OUTLINE I. Sociological Perspectives on the Media A. Functionalist View • The media socialize us, enforce social norms, confer status, promote consumption, and keep us informed about our social environment. • A dysfunction of the media is acting as a narcotic desensitizing agent. 1. Agent of Socialization • The media increase social cohesion by presenting a standardized view of culture. Example: Robert Park’s study of newspapers and immigrants. • Showing of media events can bring people together. • The Internet has become the public commons for many. • The Internet has also become a political arena. Example: In 2008, 24 percent of U.S. citizens regularly researched presidential candidates on the Internet. • Some people blame the media for anything that goes wrong. 2. Enforcer of Social Norms • Media reaffirm proper behavior by showing what happens to people who violate societal expectations. Example: Programs such as “Cops” which portrayal actual arrests. • Media shape perceptions about substance abuse, both in a positive and negative fashion. The 200 most popular movie rentals in 1996 and 1997 depicted alcohol use (93 percent), tobacco use (89 percent), and illicit drug use (22 percent). In 1999, 44 percent of network television programming portrayed tobacco use in at least one episode. • In 1997, a federal law required television networks to provide one free minute of antidrug messages for every minute purchased by the government for public service messages. The networks subsequently bargained with the government to drop the free minutes in exchange for antidrug messages embedded in their programs. Controversy ensued. 3. Conferral of Status • Media confers status on people, organizations, and public issues. See Table 6-2. 4. Promoting Consumption • Advertising has become more and more prominently embedded in the media. • Functions of media advertising: supports the economy, provides information about products, underwrites media costs. • Sociologists are concerned that it contributes to a consumer culture that creates “needs” and raises unrealistic expectations of what is required to be happy, and that advertising has an inappropriate influence on the media content. 5. Dysfunctional Media: The Narcotizing Effect • Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert Merton created the term narcotizing dysfunction, which refers to the media providing such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb. Example: Coverage of natural disasters and/or political crises creating viewer fatigue and desensitization to the suffering. B. Conflict View • Emphasizes that the media reflect the many divisions of society and the world, including those based on gender, race, ethnicity, and social class. 1. Gatekeeping • Media constitute a form of big business in which profits are more important than the quality of the programming. • A small number of people control what eventually reaches the audience (gatekeeping). • In many countries, the government plays a gatekeeping role. • Gatekeeping is not as dominant within the Internet. • In gatekeeping, the content that makes it through the gate does not necessarily reflect the diversity of the audience. By 2008, the governments of 21 countries had extended gatekeeping activities to the Internet. 2. Media Monitoring • In the past, media monitoring referred to the monitoring of media content by interest groups. With new technologies, it now includes monitoring of individuals’ media usage and choices without their knowledge. • Critics concerned by the invasion of people’s privacy. Examples: Google’s records of users’ web-browsing activities and government interest therein; federal government authorizing wiretaps of U.S. citizens’ telephone conversations. 3. The Digital Divide • Advances in communications technology are unequally distributed, with low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and citizens of developing nations far trailing the privileged significantly. • Internet access is essential for economic progress and for accessing information of all types and is particularly problematic for developing countries. 4. Dominant Ideology: Constructing Reality • Conflict theorists argue that mass media serves to maintain the privileges of certain groups. • Dominant ideology is a set of cultural beliefs and practices that helps maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. • Media transmit images that define what we regard as reality. • Decision makers are overwhelmingly white, male, and wealthy. • Media tend to ignore the lives of some groups and help to create stereotypes through portrayal of false images. Example: gays or minorities. • TV distorts the political process. Candidates with the most money are able to buy exposure and saturate airwaves with messages attacking their opponents and promoting their own agendas. 5. Dominant Ideology: Whose Culture? • Globalization projects the reach of the U.S. media into the rest of the world. Todd Gitlin notes American popular culture is something that “people love, and love to hate.” • U.S. media rely on overseas markets. Many motion pictures earn more abroad than in U.S. Example: Titanic made over a billion dollars overseas. • U.S. producers not always sensitive to foreign audiences. Example: Memoirs of a Geisha. • Many popular U.S. TV shows originated in other countries. Examples: Survivor; Who Wants to be a Millionaire? • Unlike motion pictures, TV is moving away from U.S. domination and is more likely to be locally produced. • In 2005, UNESCO passed a measure to combat cultural homogenization and protect threatened cultures, especially in developing nations. U.S. was one of two dissenters. C. Feminist View • Media influence how we look at men and women, communicating unrealistic, stereotypical, and limiting images. • Feminists see three major problems: (1) Women are underrepresented, which suggests women are insignificant; (2) women are often depicted as needing rescue by males, thus reinforcing the stereotype; and (3) depictions of male- female relationships emphasize traditional roles, and normalize violence against women. • Jean Kilbourne argues that women are objectified and dehumanized in advertising and media entertainment. • Pornography is a continuing, troubling issue. • Fundamental differences in the way the Internet is used by men and women. D. Interactionist View • Media examined on the microlevel to see how media shape day-to-day behaviors. • Media serving as a primary group. Friendship networks emerge from shared viewing habits. Example: Super Bowl parties. • Embracing of symbols through photo-ops. • The Internet has facilitated new forms of communication and social interaction. • Troubling issue: Internet used as a platform for extremists and pornographers. • Internet has given people greater control over what they see and hear. Legal scholar Cass Sunstein refers to this as egocasting. Downside of this may be a less tolerant society as people reduce their exposure to other people and ideas. • Disparities in usage of the Internet: See Figure 6-2 for breakdown by gender, age, race, income, and education. II. The Audience A. Who is in the Audience? • The audience can be a primary group or a secondary group and can be examined from the microlevel or macrolevel. B. The Segmented Audience • Increasingly, the media are marketing themselves to particular audiences. To some degree this is driven by advertisers who want to maximize appeal to specific market segments. Thus, content is geared toward special interests. Example: Golf cable channel. • Marketing research can be extremely precise. Specialized targeting of audiences has led some to question the “mass” in mass media. • Segmentation of audiences may reduce the collective nature of an audience. C. Audience Behavior • An opinion leader is someone who, through day-to-day personal contacts and communication, influences the opinions and decisions of others. • Lazarsfeld et al. pioneered study of opinion leaders in research on voting behavior in the 1940s. Found opinion leaders encouraged relatives, friends, and coworkers to think positively about a particular candidate or situation. • Audiences are not a passive group, but active consumers. • Interpretations of the audience vary. Example: Race, age, income, education, etc., may influence response of audience members. III. The Media’s Global Reach • The mass media have created a global village, as predicted by Canadian linguist Marshall McLuhan some 40 years ago, although not all countries are equally connected. • Consumer goods are marketed worldwide. Development of brand loyalty. Examples: Nike, Coca-Cola. • The capacity to send audio and video via the Internet will increasingly reach into every part of the world. IV. Social Policy and the Mass Media: The Right to Privacy A. The Issue • The amount of personal information stored in electronic formats has increased tremendously in recent years. There is a growing concern about the security of digital information. B. The Setting •Advances in computer technology have made it relatively simple for businesses, government agencies, and lay persons to retrieve sensitive information stored electronically. C. Sociological Insights • Sociologically, the collision of emerging technologies and privacy concerns is an example of a cultural lag. Technology has outpaced standards and laws regarding access to electronic data. • Functionalists argue that the Internet benefits most members of society by facilitating quick and easy communication. • Conflict theorists, however, argue that powerful groups and organizations may misuse their authority to expose and manipulate the lower classes. D. Policy Initiatives • In 2001, Congress passed the Patriot Act, which relaxed legal checks on surveillance by law enforcement officers, thereby granting greater power to law enforcement officials to gather data electronically. This act was implemented as a response to the terrorist attacks of September 11th. • In 2010, Congress began to draft new legislation to inform cell phone users and computer owners that their devices are being “fingerprinted,” and to allow them to opt out of being monitored. . KEY TERMS Cultural convergence The flow of content across multiple media, and the accompanying migration of media audiences. Digital divide The relative lack of access to the latest technologies among low-income groups, racial and ethnic minorities, rural residents, and the citizens of developing countries. Dominant ideology A set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests. Gatekeeping The process by which a relatively small number of people in the media industry control what material eventually reaches the audience. Mass media Print and electronic means of communication that carry messages to widespread audiences. Narcotizing dysfunction The phenomenon in which the media provide such massive amounts of information that the audience becomes numb and fails to act on the information, regardless of how compelling the issue. Opinion leader Someone who influences the opinions and discussions of others. Stereotype An unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does not recognize individual differences within the group. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 7-1: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Sociology was born out of a desire to understand change. Ferdinand Tönnies (1855-1936) introduced the dichotomous Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (1988, original edition 1887) as conceptualizations delineating the impact of the Industrial Revolution on social structure. Industrialism was seen as the catalyst altering the social structure from small-scale, intimate, and slow-paced (Gemeinschaft) to large-scale, impersonal, and technology-driven (Gesellschaft). However, the power of good ideas is in their adaptability, and while Tönnies examined large-scale issues, his concepts can help explore changes in more microlevel, specific areas of social life. For example, morphing cultural conditions, historical and political events, and new technologies have had an impact on movie-going and movie theaters over the last century. In essence, if one is willing to expand the themes of Tönnies, modern movie theaters serve as a crystalline example of the features of Gesellschaft—impersonalism, rationalism, and standardization. This changing nature is explored in Douglas Gomery’s “If You’ve Seen One, You’ve Seen the Mall” (1990). Movie houses created before the 1920s were of elegant and impressive design; often employing exotic architectural motifs to decorate theaters of three or more thousand seats. Indeed, such single-screened theaters were “palaces”; places where ordinary citizens could go for extraordinary experiences. Going to the “picture show” at early palaces such as New York’s Strand Theater was often seen as a special occasion, akin to attending the opera or a Broadway play today. Dressing up in formal attire to attend an evening screening was not uncommon. Upon entering palaces of the 1910s and 1920s, the patron might be exposed to art in ornate lobbies or see simulated night skies on massive ceilings. Ushers would walk patrons to their seats, where a small orchestra or large pipe organ would entertain before the show. It was not unheard of for palaces to provide infant care services and lounges for patrons to interact. Modern movie theaters, on the other hand, offer state-of-the-art digital picture and sound. Stadium seating ensures a good view for nearly everyone attending. Patrons can choose among numerous films playing at the same multiplex and purchase tickets online. Big-budget blockbusters can be watched on big or not-so-big screens. Indeed, many modern theaters are standardized and much smaller than previous movie palaces. They are often connected to shopping malls, creating a nexus of consumerism (watch the film, buy the soundtrack and novelization, collect the toy at the fast food restaurant). The ornate lobbies of the past are gone, replaced by what Gomery calls “profit centers” of video games and concessions. Ringing cell phones and talking during films have become more prevalent as audiences mimic the casual experience of seeing films at home on DVD. “Ushers” now rip the tickets, usually leaving patrons to make their own way to their seats. Both the experience of seeing films, and the architecture of theaters have changed. Like Tönnies’s view on the change towards Gesellschaft, movie theaters themselves can be interpreted as places where strangers interact for increasingly impersonal and standardized experiences (see Chapter 5, Social Interaction and Social Structure). Gomery suggests that modern theaters and the modern movie-going experience are not better than those of the past were. Quantity does not always equate with quality. Slick images and loud sound may just mean a bombardment of what Georg Simmel (1858–1918) called “nervous stimulation” (1950, original writing 1903). Or, as Gomery’s article posits, it may just mean that audiences in Theater 13 can hear the soundtrack from the film playing in Theater 12. A complementary analysis of this issue is offered in George Ritzer’s The McDonaldization of Society (2004), which offers an examination of the “predictability” or standardization of modern society. NOTE: Students can gain additional insight through a field trip or interview. Find a restored movie palace in your school’s area (web search engines like www.yahoo.com are helpful). Then locate a modern theater, ideally one that is attached to a shopping center. Take students on a field trip to each. Students can then engage their sociological imaginations by applying the basic concepts of Tönnies and the specific history of Gomery through a comparison of theaters. If there are no palaces near the school, or if a field trip is not feasible, students can be given an assignment where they interview a person 30 or 40 years older than they are. The interview would examine what it was like to see films in that older person’s youth. Students can also take a virtual trip through movie palaces at the website “Some Enchanted Evenings: American Picture Palaces” created by Mary Halnon at the University of Virginia (xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/PALACE/home.html). Sources used for this essay and additional reading ideas include: Douglas Gomery, “If You’ve Seen One, You’ve Seen the Mall.” In Mark Crispin Miller (ed.). Seeing Through Movies. New York: Pantheon, 1990, pp. 49-80; Mary Halnon, “Some Enchanted Evenings: American Picture Palaces,” xroads.virginia.edu/~CAP/PALACE/home.html; George Ritzer. The McDonaldization of Society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2004; Georg Simmel, “The Metropolis and Mental Life.” The Sociology of Georg Simmel. New York: Free Press, 1950 (originally written 1903), pp. 409-424; Ferdinand Tönnies, Community and Society. Rutgers, NJ: Transaction, 1988 (originally written 1887). 7-2: Something Doesn’t Quite Ad Up In 1957, Vance Packard examined “depth approach.” These were analytical tools used by advertisers and others to tap into deep-rooted, core psychological needs of the public in an attempt to sell products, concepts, or candidates. In the chapter entitled “Marketing Eight Hidden Needs,” Packard explores some of the strategies used in advertisements to increase sales and affect consumer behavior. An interactive lecture could involve introducing students to these needs. Students could then look for advertisements in newspapers, magazines, the Internet, radio, television, and before movies at the theater, which try to tap into these needs. Or, the instructor could bring into the classroom advertisements as modern illustrations of Packard’s ideas. Advertisements could be for products, services, political candidates, events, or to promote an idea. Below is a list of the eight “hidden needs” discussed in Packard’s work, an interpretation, and suggestions for examples. Source used for this essay: Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders. New York: David McKay Company, 1957 (original edition). “Selling Emotional Security” Products like freezers and air conditioners can make consumers feel secure and safe in their homes, Packard’s book reveals. Here, examples can be found in products that overtly or covertly try to make consumers feel safe. Cars, medications promising to stop embarrassing conditions, home appliances, reliable Internet connections, home security systems, car alarms, cell phones, and products that offer guarantees can all be examples and expansions of this hidden need. “Selling Reassurance of Worth” Depth approach studies posit that some products, ideas, and candidates will sell more effectively if they can make the consumer feel better about themselves. Owning a certain pair of shoes or type of dress can make a person feel important. These products can be elevating status symbols. These commercials often promise that other people will be envious of the consumer for having purchased the product. The same can be said for the following example. “Selling Ego-Gratification” Products to include here can be ones that encourage the consumer to spend money because they deserve it. Consumers will feel good for “splurging” or spending a little extra of their “mad money” on certain beauty products, restaurants, or technologies. “Selling Creative Outlets” Packard discusses how the depth approach revealed that consumers do not like to feel left out of the process of making or baking. Examples here can include advertisements for paint, do-it-yourself repairs, tools, and food. Consumers are encouraged to buy the product because it will release their creative talents. “Selling Love Objects” Often commercials for products will claim that consumers will “love” them. Include here products that become an object of affection for the consumer (a car, vacation, movie, or even a celebrity, as Packard points out). Many new “boy bands” and “girl bands” are sold to young consumers in this fashion. “Selling Sense of Power” Automobile, Internet, tool, and home appliance ads often expound upon the power behind the product. Such items promise to have more strength, speed, torque, and energy than others do; and all of these things can be controlled by the consumer’s powerful self. “Selling a Sense of Roots” Products that awaken feelings of nostalgia and tradition can include examples where commercials utilize the “home made” or “like mom/dad/grandma/grandpa used to make” or “old fashioned” slogans. Ads using monocolor, black and white, or sepia often try to recreate the past. “Selling Immortality” Packard discusses the marketing of products like insurance here; products that can give consumers some sense of immortality. Another interpretation could be to look at how many products tap into the societal and psychological pressure and desire to remain youthful. Here, commercials for beauty products, health clubs, energizing pills, or movies that claim to make consumers “feel like a kid again” can all be expansions of Packard’s idea. 7-3: Media Reflections Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era by Susan Jeffords (1994) offers a comparison of motion picture box-office hits of the 1980s and the Ronald Reagan presidency of the same era. One of the main goals of the text is to examine the imagery and themes in both the films and the presidency in order to understand the mood of the audiences and voters in order to help discover what audiences and citizens found “pleasurable.” For instance, many blockbusters of that era involved the celebration of the “hard body,” a traditional and stereotypical masculine presentation involving aggression, strength, and muscles. So, too, did some of the policies and themes of the Reagan Revolution celebrate the hard body on a macro scale, through, for instance, the call for an increase in military spending and research. The media, therefore, can be argued to be not just an influencing agent on society, but also a reflecting agent as well (see Chapter 7, “The Mass Media” regarding “Dysfunctional Media: The Narcotizing Effect,” page 156). Creators of popular culture will try to tap into the zeitgeist of an era. Through the examination of popular culture and mass media items one can glean insight into prevailing spirits, norms, and cultural attitudes of a given time. An interactive lecture can be created utilizing Jeffords’s main theme and method, looking at popular items of culture to see what themes are present. By virtue of their popularity, they must hold some meaning for the audience. Examining the posters used for advertisement of motion pictures in newspapers and at theaters, for instance, can be a new adaptation of Jeffords’s work. In a study by the National Research Group, Inc. (1999), 62 percent of those surveyed said they utilized movie posters as a source of information about a film. Collect major newspapers from different times and/or places (these can be chosen by decade, by presidential eras, by differing nations, or before and after a specific historical event). These papers usually have a movie listing section with reproductions of movie posters. Internet sites or movie books may also be helpful for viewing posters. What types of images do the posters present in terms of gender, sex, violence, race, age, or other thematics? Do these images change with the times? (Are there more patriotic United States images, for instance, in posters created right after and during historic military events or wars than there were before the event took place? Do the images of men and women change over time, and how so? Does there appear to be more violence in posters from one era to another? Do there appear to be changes in the number of G-, PG-, and R-rated films released?) How are posters different from nation to nation—or are they? Globalization of entertainment might well be reflected in these posters if they are similar from nation to nation. While not a representative sample, having students discuss such posters and the images contained within can offer some insight into what movie poster and movie creators were trying to respond to and reflect. Sources used include: Susan Jeffords, Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994; National Research Group, Inc., Newspapers: Just the Ticket—A 1999 Study of the Movie Market: Summary Report. www.naaa.org/PDF/dsplay/Final-Moviegoer.pdf. 7-4: Never-Ending Battles: Tracing Popular Mass Media Figures As the mass, electronic media nears its century mark, it becomes possible to engage in longitudinal analysis and interpretations. If the mass media is indeed a mirror to society and history as some argue, then it is useful to examine changes in popular cultural items because they would reflect trends in the real social world. One way to accomplish this is to take long-lived fictional characters and explore how they have been reinterpreted for each new generation. Characters like Edgar Rice Burroughs’ Tarzan or Ian Fleming’s James Bond—played by different actors, in different mediums, and recreated over several decades—could be used to explore many social issues. In “Getting to Know Us—An Introduction to the Study of Popular Culture: What Is This Stuff that Dreams Are Made Of?,” Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lause (1992) suggest that popular culture can be seen as a funhouse mirror in that it both “reflects” and “alters” our vision of society (7). The critical study of popular culture can become a barometer for understanding the zeitgeist of any given era. For instance, when Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster first introduced the world to their creation Superman in 1938, they could not have foreseen the long-lasting cultural impact the character would eventually have. Through nearly 65 years of success in comics, books, radio, movies, television programs, and the Internet, Superman has gained a degree of popularity and longevity that make him a perfect choice for social reflection. (See Wolcott [2002] for more history and discussion on this argument.). For instance, changes in the characterizations of Superman, his alter ego Clark Kent, and Lois Lane can serve as lessons about changing gender roles in the real world. When actor George Reeves played the superhero in 104 episodes of the syndicated television program that ran from 1952 through 1957, the characterization presented little difference between the temperament and attitudes of Clark and Superman (Skerry and Lambert 1987). The message at the time could have been that all men were actually supermen. However, the Clark Kent of the 1970s seen in motion pictures was different; this Clark can be interpreted as being more sensitive, more willing to share feelings and emotions. This Clark was a reflection of changing gender roles, expectations, and attitudes of the times. Lois Lane has been an important character in the history of comic books. In the 1950s and 1960s comic books, Lois spent a good deal of her time trying to marry Superman. Her career was a secondary issue, perhaps even a contrivance so that she could continue to be rescued and interact with the hero. Having marriage and family take precedence over work can be viewed as a reflection of The Feminine Mystique, which Betty Friedan wrote about in 1963. A woman, particularly a suburban woman of the 1940s and 1950s, was socialized to define her worth based upon the traditional roles of housewife and mother. By the 1990s, though, Lois (as played by Teri Hatcher on television) was presented as a professional and award-winning journalist. She was an equal partner with Superman—both discovering his secret and helping him to save citizens in distress. She was capable of balancing career and personal life. Even the name of the television program in the 1990s, Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, was a clever twist on the historical “Lewis and Clark,” but also expressed the sentiment that Lois was equally as important as Clark as a character. Long-lasting popular culture icons can be useful in giving students accessible, interesting, and even fun entry points into more serious and socially relevant discussions. There is much room for debate, discussion, and differing interpretations of the previous points, which can make for good class discussion. Sources used for this essay include: CHARACTERS, FILMS, AND TELEVISION SHOWS: Ian Fleming (creator of James Bond); Edgar Rice Burroughs (creator of Tarzan); Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster (creators of Superman, Clark Kent, and Lois Lane); The Adventures of Superman (MPTV, aired 1952–1957; syndicated); Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (Warner Brothers Television and December 3rd Productions, aired 1993–1997, ABC-TV); Superman: The Movie. Dir. Richard Donner. Alexander Salkind et al, 1978. PRINT SOURCES: Betty Friedan. The Feminine Mystique. New York: Dell, 1963; Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lause, “Getting to Know Us—An Introduction to the Study of Popular Culture: What Is This Stuff that Dreams Are Made Of?” In Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lause (eds.). Popular Culture: An Introductory Text. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992; Philip Skerry with Chris Lambert, “From Panel to Panavision.” In Dennis Dooley and Gary Engle (eds.). Superman at Fifty! The Persistence of a Legend! Cleveland: Octavia Press, 1987, pp. 62-75; James Wolcott, “It’s a Bird, It’s A Plane . . . It’s the Zeitgeist,” Vanity Fair (March 2002): 130–139. 7-5: Sociology Meets Science Fiction Sociology and science fiction are connected. Sociology as a formal academic discipline emerged in the eras right before and after the Industrial Revolution. New technologies and industries created profound changes in work, family, and daily life. Early thinkers like Auguste Comte (1798–1857), Karl Marx (1818–1883), and Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) all tried to understand such changes (see Chapter 1 for more information). These theorists wondered, “What is social life like now and what would social life be like in the future?” Science fiction as a formal genre emerges out of similar roots. It too, like sociology, became more formalized, widespread, and popular around the time of the Industrial Revolution. Early science fiction authors such as Jules Verne (1828–1905) and H.G. Wells (1866–1946)—who compete with others for the title of “Father of Modern Science Fiction” among fans—were exploring much the same ground as early sociologists through their writings and stories. In particular, the nature and role of science became a paramount concern. Indeed, sociology and science fiction are the same in intent, if not form. Sociology employs the scientific method to understand groups, institutions, and social change. This discipline helps us to look to our collective future. What will work be like in the future? Will racial or sex inequality be lessened or eliminated? How does technology affect our daily lives? Science fiction employs metaphor and analogy as ways to understand the same kinds of social issues. Instead of discussing racism in its current form, a science fiction author might set a tale on another planet or in another time, having aliens stand in for real human races or ethnicities. Topics that are taboo or uncomfortable become palatable when presented as fiction. In this regard, science fiction can be a tool for educators desiring to give sociology a more concrete face for students. By discussing and debating the themes and messages in works of science fiction, a valuable learning experience can be shared. What follows is a list of science fiction (and near science fiction) works that would be beneficial for use in understanding sociological conceptualizations and topics. Students can watch these films at home and come to school ready to discuss the way in which these works reflect or illuminate a given topic. Please be aware that some films may be rated R, and, depending on the ages of the students, may not be appropriate. TO HELP ILLUMINATE “THE SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION” (see Chapter 1, “Understanding Sociology”): Sliding Doors. Dir. Peter Howitt. Mirimax Films, 1998. Spiderman. Dir. Sam Raimi. Sony Pictures, 2002. TO HELP ILLUMINATE STRATIFICATION ISSUES (RACIAL, SOCIAL CLASS, AGE, GENDER) (see Chapter 9, “Stratification in the United States and Worldwide”; Chapter 10, “Racial and Ethnic Inequality”; Chapter 11, “Stratification by Gender and Age”): Brave New World (miniseries). Dir. Leslie Libman and Larry Williams. USA Network Studios, 1998. The Day the Earth Stood Still. Dir. Robert Wise. 20th Century Fox, 1951. Enemy Mine. Dir: Wolfgang Petersen. 20th Century Fox, 1985. The Matrix. Dir. Andy and Larry Wachowski. Silver Pictures, 1999. Star Trek: First Contact. Dir. Jonathan Frakes. Paramount Pictures, 1996. White Man’s Burden. Dir. Desmond Nakano. HBO, 1995. V (miniseries). Dir. Kenneth Johnson. Warner Bros. Television, 1983. TO HELP ILLUMINATE ÉMILE DURKHEIM’S CLASSIC STUDY OF SUICIDE AND SOCIAL COHESION (see Chapter 1, “Understanding Sociology”): Armageddon. Dir. Michael Bay. Jerry Bruckheimer Films, 1998. Independence Day. Dir: Roland Emmerich. 20th Century Fox, 1996. Star Wars. Dir. George Lucas. 20th Century Fox, 1977. TO HELP ILLUMINATE THE STUDY OF DEVIANCE (see Chapter 8, “Deviance and Social Control”): A Clockwork Orange. Dir: Stanley Kubrick. Warner Brothers, 1971. Logan’s Run. Dir. Michael Anderson. MGM, 1976. THX-1138. Dir: George Lucas. Warner Brothers and Zoetrope Studios, 1970. TO HELP ILLUMINATE THE IMPORTANCE OF ELEMENTS OF CULTURE (see Chapter 3, “Culture”): Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Columbia Pictures Corporation, 1977. E.T.: The Extraterrestrial. Dir. Steven Spielberg. Universal Pictures, 1982. 7-6: The Sociology of Television Fandom Watching television can be much more than just a way to pass the time. Some people become so absorbed in a particular show that watching and talking about it become a central part of their life. Fans of the television show Star Trek are a well-known example of people for whom a fictional show can become an all-encompassing interest. In his or her spare time, a fan of this show may dress up as and adopt the identity of a Star Trek character, or go to Star Trek conventions several times a year. Many also count other Star Trek fans among their closest friends. Television fandom lends itself to any number of interesting sociological questions, and, in fact, a sociological literature on television fandom exists. Regarding the Star Trek phenomenon, a sociologist might wonder whether Star Trek fans share a common socio-economic profile. In addition, how do Star Trek fans find out about one another, communicate, and organize group events? What sort of argot and rules of etiquette are used among Star Trek fans? Do Star Trek fans have an influence on the marketing of commercial products related to the show? How does being a Star Trek fan influence other areas of a person’s life, such as work and love? Perhaps most interesting is the question of how a science fiction television show can loom so large in people’s lives. What can explain why some people develop such a driving interest in Star Trek? As most sociologists would guess, an individual’s reasons for taking up the Star Trek life can be rather complicated. Beyond the simple fact that they take pleasure in watching it, for many people the show resonates in ways that help them to overcome personal difficulties. Dan Madsen, who is now president of Star Trek: The Official Fan Club, describes how attending Star Trek conventions as a teenager allowed him, for the first time in his life, to feel accepted as a normal person. Outside the world of Star Trek fans, his unusually short height— four feet—always made him a strange object of curiosity. By contrast, he discovered a philosophy of universal acceptance on the Star Trek show that was likewise adopted by Star Trek conventioneers (Shatner 1999). Another fan became attached to the show as a child, while growing up in a troubled home. Play-acting as a Klingon allowed him to express anger about his home life in a safe and acceptable way (Davis 1994). In other cases, Star Trek fans may not be so consciously aware of the sociological reasons for their deep interest in Star Trek. In her fascinating ethnography of female Star Trek fans, Camille Bacon-Smith (1992) writes of a little-known subcategory of Star Trek fans: those who write and consume unauthorized fictional stories involving Star Trek characters. These stories fall into two categories: K/S and hurt-comfort fiction. K/S stories depict homosexual relationships between male Star Trek characters. In hurt-comfort stories, a Star Trek character in physical pain—often as the result of a violent act—is comforted by another character. Both types of stories are so controversial—both within and outside of Star Trek communities—that writers often use pseudonyms to protect their identities. Surprisingly, K/S and hurt-comfort stories are produced and consumed almost entirely by women. Why such an interest among women in stories that depict violence and male sexual relationships? Bacon-Smith discovered that this genre of writing appeals to women precisely because the characters in them, who are usually male and/or homosexual, are so utterly different from themselves. Thus, difficult issues in human relationships can be explored without any risk that the writer or reader will identify so closely with the characters that it becomes emotionally painful for them. She also found that hurt-comfort stories are often written by people who are undergoing traumas in their real lives, and who use the writing process as a way of dealing with these difficulties in a safe, distanced way. Indeed, in the process of writing a hurt-comfort story the author will often consult extensively with friends about the story line, and that this becomes a kind of indirect therapy for the author’s real problems (Bacon-Smith 1992). Citations used for this essay include: Camille Bacon-Smith. Enterprising Women. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992; Erik Davis, “TlhIngan Hol Dajatlh’a’ (Do You Speak Klingon?),” Utne Reader 62 (March-April 1994): 122-129; William Shatner. Get a Life! New York: Pocket Books, 1999. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 7-1. Media Examples of Misinformation about Substance Abuse: The video Reefer Madness presents an excellent example of how the media disseminated misinformation about marijuana. Have the class view the video, and then discuss the misinformation it contains about the drug. 7-2. The Cohesive Function of the Mass Media—Is It Changing? Years ago, gathering around the radio to listen to a program was a family activity. Even in the early days of television, families often gathered on a particular night to watch a show. These kinds of activities encouraged family cohesion, so in a sense the mass media contributed to the stability of the family. How has this function of the mass media changed over the past 20 years? How many students—when they are home—sit down with their families on a particular night to watch a particular TV show? 7-3. Who Should Decide What News to Print? Mass media decision makers are overwhelmingly white, male, and wealthy. It comes as no surprise, therefore, that the media tends to ignore the lives and ambitions of subordinate groups. Who, then, should decide what news to print? Ask students how they think decisions about what news to print should be made. Ask them if the government should have more control. 7-4. Censored News Stories: Peter Kaufman has designed an interesting class project that exposes students to news stories censored from the media, and allows them to explore the reasons for that censorship. Although it is designed as a long-term project with an out-of-class component, it can easily be revised as a one-time in-class discussion. Peter Kaufman, “All the News Not Fit to Print” Teaching Sociology 29 (January 2001): 80-87. 7-5. News Framing: In this exercise, students frame a news story in several different ways, thereby helping them to question the absolute neutrality of news reporting. See William A. Gamson (ed.). Learning Group Exercises for Political Sociology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1989, pp. 33-47. 7-6. Hispanic Americans on TV? Ask students to name their favorite Hispanic TV stars. Next, ask students what kind of image they visualize when they think of Hispanics as they are portrayed on television. While African Americans have had some popular sitcoms, such as The Cosby Show, to date there have not been nearly as many Hispanic equivalents. Encourage students to discuss why African Americans have been more successful than Hispanics in making some breakthroughs in television. 7-7. Stimulating Classroom Discussion about the Video Killing Us Softly: Show the video Killing Us Softly, and then ask the following questions: Do students agree that the media portrays women as objects? What sociological perspective does this video take: the functionalist, the interactionist, or the conflict perspective? What are the some of the dysfunctions of this type of portrayal of women? TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to research various television shows that reaffirm proper behavior by depicting how society deals with behaviors that are deemed inappropriate, delinquent, or criminal. Discuss the role of mass media as an enforcer of social norms. 2. Ask students to discuss the effects of narcotizing dysfunction on social behavior in the aftermath of the recent war with Iraq. 3. Ask students to search for evidence of mass media intentionally inflating or downplaying a political issue such as the war with Iraq, and discuss gatekeeping from the conflict perspective. 4. Ask students to enumerate occurrences on television shows where women are portrayed in positions of power rather than in passive roles or as sexual objects. Discuss the feminist perspective as it relates to the role of media. 5. Ask students to research the availability of websites that offer information that could be considered counterproductive to mainstream culture, and discuss any associations between media images and violence. CHAPTER 8 DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL CONTROL CHAPTER OUTLINE WHAT IS DEVIANCE Deviance and Social Stigma Deviance and Technology SOCIAL CONTROL Conformity and Obedience Informal and Formal Social Control LAW AND SOCIETY SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANCE Functionalist Perspective Interactionist Perspective Labeling Theory Conflict Theory Feminist Perspective CRIME Types of Crime Crime Statistics SOCIAL POLICY AND SOCIAL CONTROL: The Death Penalty in the United States and Worldwide Boxes Sociology on Campus: Binge Drinking Trend Spotting Box: Incarceration Nation Research Today: Does Crime Pay? Sociology on Campus: Campus Crime Taking Sociology to Work: Stephanie Vezzani, Special Agent, U.S. Secret Service LEARNING OBJECTIVES WHAT’S NEW IN CHAPTER 8 1. Discuss what is meant by “deviance.” 2. Discuss informal and formal social control. 3. Discuss the sociological view of law-making. 4. Discuss the functionalist perspective of deviance. 5. Discuss the interactionist perspective of deviance. 6. Discuss conflict and feminist perspectives of crime and deviance. 7. Identify and describe the various types of crime. 8. Identify and describe the sources of crime data in the United States. 9. Discuss the nature and extent of crime in the United States. • Chapter-opening excerpt from Cop in the Hood: My Year Policing Baltimore’s Eastern District, by Peter Moskos • Trend Spotting Box, “Incarceration Nation” • Subsection on Hate Crime, with figure, “Categorization of Reported Hate Crimes” • Social Policy section on the Death Penalty, with Mapping Life Worldwide map, “Death Penalty Status by Country” CHAPTER SUMMARY Deviance is behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group of society. Deviance involves the violation of group norms, which may or may not be formalized into law. It is a comprehensive concept that includes not only criminal violations but also many actions not subject to formal prosecution or sanction. The term stigma was coined by Erving Goffman to describe the labels society uses to devalue the members of certain social groups. People are often stigmatized for deviant behaviors they may no longer engage in. The term social control refers to techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior. Social control occurs in families, peer groups, and bureaucratic organizations. Members of society are expected to act properly. Sanctions, which may be either penalties or rewards, help to induce behavior consistent with social norms. Conformity is defined as going along with one’s peers even though they have no special right to direct our behavior. Obedience is defined as compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchal structure. People casually, through such means as smiles, laughter, and ridicule, carry out informal social control. Authorized agents, such as police officers, physicians, school administrators, employers, and military officers, carry out formal social control. Social norms which are very important to society are formalized into law. Law may be defined as governmental social control. Sociologists view the creation of laws as a social process. According to the functionalist view, deviance is a normal part of human existence. Functionalists suggest that deviance helps to define the limits of proper behavior. Robert Merton adapted Émile Durkheim’s notion of anomie to explain why people accept or reject the goals of a society. Merton’s theory posits five basic forms of adaptations: (1) conformity, (2) innovation, (3) ritualism, (4) retreatism, and (5) rebellion. Merton’s anomie theory of deviance, though popular, has had relatively few applications. The interactionist perspective is reflected in theories based on cultural transmission, social disorganization, and labeling. Cultural transmission, which Edwin Sutherland drew upon, suggests that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others. He used the term differential association to describe the process through which exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts leads to violation of rules. Social disorganization theory suggests that deviance increases when communal relationships in neighborhoods and social networks are weakened or absent. Labeling theory emphasizes how a person comes to be labeled as deviant or to accept the label. Labeling theory is also referred to as the societal-reaction approach. The popularity of labeling theory is evident in the emergence of the social constructionist perspective, which purports that deviance is the product of the culture in which we live. Social constructionists focus on the decision-making process that creates the deviant identity. The conflict view of deviance suggests that people with power protect their own interests and define deviance to suit their own needs. Relating to differential justice, Richard Quinney argues that lawmaking is often an attempt by the powerful to coerce others into their own brand of morality. Akin to the roots of conflict theory, the feminist perspective suggests that deviance, including crime, tends to flow from economic relationships. Feminists suggest that cultural views and attitudes toward women influence how women are perceived and labeled. Crime represents a deviation from formal social norms administered by the state. Types of crime include professional crime, organized crime, white-collar and technology-based crime, corporate crime, transnational crime, and victimless crime. There has been a significant decline in violent crime in the United States. The accuracy of measuring crime and tabulating crime statistics varies widely. The National Crime Victimization Survey was initiated in 1972 to question ordinary people about crime victimization. RESOURCE INTEGRATOR 1. What is the sociological understanding of deviance? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: deviance, stigma Visual Support: Photo of Alex Rodriguez; Photo of Heidi Montag IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 8-1, 8-3, 8-4 Classroom Discussion Topics: 8-5, 8-6, 8-7, 8-8 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Obedience-Another Look Video Resources: Deviance and Social Control; Obedience to Authority 2. What are the various means of social control? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: social control, sanctions, conformity, obedience, informal social control, formal social control Box: Sociology on Campus, “Binge Drinking” Visual Support: Photo of man in Finnish prison contrasted with U.S. prisoner; Photo of Milgram experiment; Photo of public humiliation as punishment IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 8-1, 8-2, 8-5 Classroom Discussion Topics: 8-2, 8-3, 8-4, 8-9, Topics and Sources for Student Research: Obedience—Another Look; Labeling of People with AIDS; Labeling; Community Crime Watch; Blacks in Prisons Video Resources: Deviance and Social Control; Obedience to Authority REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Conformity; Sanctions 3. What is the sociological understanding of law? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: law, control theory Box: Trend Spotting, “Incarceration Nation” Visual Support: Photo of custodian in Singapore; Figure 8-1 The Status of Medical Marijuana 4. How do functionalists, conflict theorists, feminists, and interactionists explain deviance? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: anomie, anomie theory of deviance, cultural transmission, differential association, social disorganization theory, labeling theory, societal-reaction approach, social constructionist perspective, differential justice Box: Research Today, “Does Crime Pay?” Visual Support: Table 8-1 Modes of Individual Adaptation; Photo of drag racing; Photo from Boys Don’t Cry; 1930s anti-drug propaganda poster; Table 8-2 Sociological Perspectives on Deviance IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 8-4, 8-5, 8-14 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Labeling; Race and Criminology; Crime in a Changing Society REEL SOCIETY CD Topic Index: Anomie Theory of Deviance 5. What are the different types of crime? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: crime, index crime, victimless crime, professional criminal, organized crime, white-collar crime, hate crime, transnational crime Box: Sociology on Campus, “Campus Crime” Visual Support: Photo of cracked safe; Cartoon about white-collar crime; Figure 8-2 Categorization of Reported Hate Crimes; Table 8-3 Types of Transnational Crime IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Additional Lecture Ideas: 8-3, 8-6, 8-7 Classroom Discussion Topics: 8-10, 8-11, 8-12, 8-13 Topics and Sources for Student Research: Rape Education Videos; White-Collar Crime; Crime in a Changing Society Video Resources: State-Sponsored Terrorism; Terrorism; The Tarnished Shield LECTURE LAUNCHER NBC NEWS VIDEO CLIPS Volume 1: How Japan Controls Guns 6. What are the major trends in crime statistics? IN THE TEXT Key Terms: victimization survey Box: Taking Sociology to Work “Stephanie Vezzani: Special Agent, US Secret Service” Visual Support: Table 8-4 National Crime Rates and Percentage Change; Figure 8-3 Victimization Rates 1973-2009 IN THE INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL Classroom Discussion Topics: 8-13 Topics and Sources for Student Research: U.S. Department of Justice LECTURE OUTLINE I. Deviance • Deviance refers to behavior (or beliefs) that violate the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society. • Deviance involves the violation of group norms, which may or may not be formalized into law. It is a comprehensive term which includes both legal (formal) and normative (informal) violations. • Once assigned a deviant label, individuals may have difficulty presenting a positive image to others. Erving Goffman coined the term “stigma” to describe the labels that society uses to devalue members of certain social groups. • Increasing technology (as well as increased access to such technologies) has led to new categories of deviance and considerable disagreement over various acts related to the use of computer technology. II. Social Control • Refers to the techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society. • Family and peers socialize individuals to social norms. Example: dress codes. • Government legislates and enforces social norms. • Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. • Functionalists contend that people must respect social norms for society to function. By contrast, conflict theorists maintain that the functioning of society benefits the powerful. A. Conformity and Obedience • Stanley Milgram defined conformity as going along with peers who have no special right to direct our behavior. Milgram defined obedience as compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchal structure. Example: military recruit. • In some circumstances, conformity and, especially, obedience can cause immense damage. Example: Milgram’s electric shock experiment: “Behavior that is unthinkable in an individual…acting on his own may be executed without hesitation when carried out under orders.” B. Informal and Formal Social Control • Informal social control is carried out casually by ordinary people through such means as laughter, smiles, and ridicule. Example: spanking or slapping children as punishment. • Formal social control is carried out by authorized agents, such as police officers, judges, school administrators, and employers. Example: imprisonment. C. Law and Society • Law is defined as governmental social control. • Some laws are directed at all members of society. Example: laws prohibiting murder. Some laws affect particular categories of people. Example: hunting and fishing regulations. Others govern social institutions. Example: corporate laws. • Creation of law is a social process in response to perceived needs for formal social control. Example: alcohol prohibition laws. • Hirschi’s control theory suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society’s norms. III. Sociological Perspectives on Crime and Deviance A. Explaining Deviance • Early explanations centered on supernatural or genetic factors. • Sociologists reject any emphasis on genetic roots of crime and deviance. 1. Functionalist Perspective • Deviance is a common part of human existence. • Deviance (as well as deviant persons) is found universally throughout the world’s cultures. a. Durkheim’s Legacy • Durkheim viewed social control mechanisms as necessary to define acceptable behavior and contribute to social stability. Introduced the term anomie to describe a feeling one experiences when losing direction in society. Example: during periods of profound social change. • Kai Erikson’s study of Puritans illustrated boundary-maintenance functions of deviance. b. Merton’s Theory of Deviance • Adapted Durkheim’s notion of anomie to explain why people accept or reject the goals of society, and/or the socially approved means for fulfilling their aspirations. • People adapt in certain ways by either conforming to or deviating from cultural expectations. • Merton’s anomie theory of deviance posits five basic forms of adaptation. See Table 7-1. • Merton’s theory has had relatively few applications. 2. Interactionist Perspective • Emphasis on everyday behavior that is the focus of the interactionist perspective offers two explanations of crime: cultural transmission theory and routine activities theory. a. Cultural Transmission • Humans learn how to behave in social situations. • Edwin Sutherland’s differential association describes the process through which exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts leads to violation of rules. • Whether a person engages in an activity deemed proper or improper depends on frequency, duration, and importance of two types of social interaction (those endorsing deviant behavior and those promoting acceptance of social norms). People are more apt to engage in norm-defying behavior if they belong to a group or subculture that stresses deviant values (e.g., a street gang). • Critics charge Sutherland’s theory fails to explain first-time, impulsive deviance. b. Social Disorganization Theory • Contends that deviance and crime increase due to a breakdown in or absence of communal relationships and other social institutions such as the family, school, church, and local government. Example: higher rates of social problems in areas with declining population and deteriorating buildings. • The theory does not account for viable, healthy organizations that persist in many troubled neighborhoods and appears to “blame the victim.” c. Labeling Theory • Seeks to explain why certain people are viewed as deviant, while others engaging in the same behavior are not. Example: Chambliss study of the Saints and Roughnecks. • Also called the societal-reaction approach. It is the response to an act, not the behavior itself, that determines deviance. Example: assigning a “trouble-maker” to a program for the learning disabled. • Labeling theory focuses on regulatory agents (police, probation officers, psychiatrists, judges, teachers, etc.), who play a significant role in creating the deviant identity by designating certain people as deviant. Example: racial profiling. • Labeling does not fully explain why some people accept a label and others do not. • Labeling theory influenced the emergence of the social constructionist perspective, which suggests deviance is the product of the culture we live in. Examples: deadbeat dads or child abductors, changing definitions of sexual deviance. 3. Conflict Theory • People with power protect their own interests and define deviance to suit their own needs. • Richard Quinney suggests the criminal justice system serves the interests of the powerful. Lawmaking is an attempt by the powerful to coerce others into their own morality. Example: victimless crimes. • Differential justice: Conflict theory suggests criminal suspects are treated differently on the basis of race, ethnicity, or social class. African Americans and Latinos are at a disadvantage in the justice system, both as juveniles and as adults. See Social Policy Section on application of the death penalty. • Differential justice may lead to increased violence and crime, as those who view themselves as victims of unfair treatment strike out, not against the powerful so much as against fellow victims. 4. Feminist Perspective • Some suggest that existing approaches to deviance and crime developed with only men in mind. Example: earlier legal views on spousal rape, reflecting overwhelming male composition of state legislatures at the time. • Society tends to treat women in a stereotypical fashion. Cultural views and attitudes toward women influence how they are perceived and labeled. Example: Women with numerous/frequent sexual partners are subjected to greater scorn than promiscuous men. • Deviance, including crime, flows from economic relationships. Example: Traditionally, men have greater opportunity to commit crimes such as embezzlement and fraud. • As women assume more active and powerful roles, gender differences in deviance and crime should narrow. IV. Crime • Crime is a violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties. •Index crimes are the eight types of crime that are tabulated each year by the FBI. They include murder, rape, robbery, and assault (all of which are violent crimes committed against people) and property crimes of burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. A. Types of Crime 1. Victimless Crimes • The willing exchange among adults of widely desired, but illegal, goods and services. Examples: prostitution, drug abuse, gambling. • Proponents of decriminalization are troubled by attempts to legislate a moral code for adults. These crimes are impossible to prevent, and an overburdened criminal justice system should concentrate on offenses with real victims. • Critics of decriminalization object to the notion that these crimes are “victimless.” Examples: Over-drinking, compulsive gambling, and illegal drugs cause personal and property damage. Prostitution reinforces idea that women are “toys.” Alcohol and drug abuse can lead to drunk driving, etc. 2. Professional Crime • Professional criminal (career criminal) is a person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation. Example: burglary or safecracking. • They devote their entire working time to planning and executing crimes. They develop skilled techniques and enjoy a certain degree of status among other criminals. • Edward Sutherland (1937) offered pioneering insights into behavior of professional criminals by publishing an annotated account written by a professional thief. 3. Organized Crime • The work of a group that regulates relations between various criminal enterprises involved in illegal activities, including smuggling and sale of illegal drugs, prostitution, and gambling. • Organized crime is a secret activity that evades law enforcement. It takes over legitimate business, gains influence over labor unions, corrupts public officials, intimidates witnesses, and taxes merchants for protection services. • The global nature of organized crime can be found in the acts of transnational organized crime affiliates, whose criminal activities include drug and arms smuggling, money laundering, and trafficking in illegal immigrants and stolen goods. 4. White-Collar and Technology-Based Crime • White-collar crime: illegal acts committed in the course of business activities by affluent, “respectable” people. Examples: income tax evasion, embezzlement, bribery. • Edwin Sutherland coined the term white-collar crime in 1939 in reference to individuals. The term has been broadened to include offenses by businesses and corporations. • Corporate crime is any criminal act by a corporation that is punishable by the government. It takes many forms and includes individuals, organizations, and institutions among its victims. Examples: stock fraud and manipulation, accounting fraud, production of unsafe goods, environmental pollution, anticompetitive behavior, public health violations, and bribery and corruption. • Computer crime: High technology allows criminals to carry out embezzlement or electronic fraud, often leaving few traces. A 2007 study by the FBI White Collar Crime Center found over one million Internet crimes were reported in less than fours years. • Convictions for such illegal acts does not generally harm a person’s reputation, status, or career aspirations as much as conviction for a street crime. 5. Transnational Crime • Crime that occurs across multiple national borders. Rather than concentrating on specific countries, international crime spans the globe. Examples: terrorism, trafficking in human beings (includes sex trade), trafficking in endangered species, drugs, and stolen art/antiquities. See Table 7-3 for types of transnational crime. • Not exclusive of other types of crime. Organized criminal networks are increasingly global. Technology facilitates illegal activities. Example: child pornography. B. Crime Statistics • Crime statistics are not entirely accurate or reliable. Reliance upon other sources of crime information is necessary to gain a more complete picture of crime activity in the United States. 1. Understanding Crime Statistics a. Crime Rates • There has been a significant decline in violent crime nationwide. Some suggest as the reasons for the decline: a booming economy, community-oriented policing, gun control laws, and an increase in the prison population. • The proportion of major crimes committed by women has increased. In a recent 10-year period (1997-2006), the Department of Justice found female arrests for major reported crimes increased by 4 percent, while comparable male arrests declined by 7 percent. b. Measuring Crime Rates: • Measuring of crime rates is conducted several ways. • Crime Index: published annually by the FBI as part of the Uniform Crime Reports: includes statistics on murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Disproportionately devoted to property crimes. • Limitation of official crime statistics: They include only crimes actually reported to law enforcement agencies. • National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). Initiated in 1972, it is an annual report compiled by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. Based on interviews of over 84,000 U.S. households, asking ordinary people whether they were victims of specific crimes during the preceding year. 2. International Crime Rates • Violent crime rates are higher in the United States than in Western Europe. U.S. may place a greater individual emphasis on economic achievement. And, culture of the U.S. has long tolerated many forms of violence. • England, Italy, Australia, and New Zealand have higher rates of car theft. • Russia has experienced an increase in violent crime since the overthrow of the Communist party rule. V. Social Policy and Social Control: The Death Penalty in the United States and Worldwide A. The Issue • Historically, executions have been used throughout the world to punish and deter criminal (and non-criminal) offenders. • Today, the death penalty is legal in some states but only in a few of the world’s modernized countries. • There is considerable debate over the deterrent effect, cost, and ethics of the death penalty. B. Sociological Insights 1. Functionalist View • Sanctions against deviant acts serve to reinforce social norms regarding acceptable behavior. • Supporters of the death penalty argue that fear of execution will act to deter at least some criminals from committing serious offenses. 2. Conflict View • The persistence of social inequality and racism in society puts certain groups at a significant disadvantage in the criminal justice system. • The poor typically rely on court-appointed lawyers who are over-burdened, under-compensated, and often not well equipped to deal with cases involving violent crime. C. Policy Implications • In several death penalty states, legislators are considering broadening the range of offenses for which convicted criminals may be sentenced to execution. • On the other hand, some groups are involved in an effort to educate the public about the inequities associated with the death penalty as well as the ethical implications and lack of deterrent effect. KEY TERMS Anomie Durkheim’s term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective. Anomie theory of deviance Robert Merton’s theory of deviance as an adaptation of socially prescribed goals or of the means governing their attainment, or both. Conformity Going along with one’s peers—individuals of our own status who have no special right to direct our behavior. Control theory A view of conformity and deviance that suggests that our connection to members of society leads us to systematically conform to society’s norms. Crime A violation of criminal law for which some governmental authority applies formal penalties. Cultural transmission A school of criminology that argues that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions. Deviance Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society. Differential association A theory of deviance proposed by Edwin Sutherland that holds that violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts. Differential justice Differences in the way social control is exercised over different groups. Formal social control Social control carried out by authorized agents, such as police officers, judges, school administrators, and employers. Index crimes The eight types of crime reported annually by the FBI in the Uniform Crime Reports: murder, rape, robbery, assault, burglary, theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Informal social control Social control carried out casually by ordinary people through such means as laughter, smiles, and ridicule. Labeling theory An approach to deviance that attempts to explain why certain people are viewed as deviants while others engaged in the same behavior are not. Law Governmental social control. Obedience Compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure. Organized crime The work of a group that regulates relations among various criminal enterprises, including prostitution, gambling, and the smuggling and sale of illegal drugs. Professional criminal A person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation, developing skilled techniques and enjoying a certain degree of status among other criminals. Routine activities theory The notion that criminal victimization increases when motivated offenders and vulnerable targets converge. Sanction A penalty or reward for conduct concerning a social norm. Social constructionist perspective An approach to deviance that emphasizes the role of culture in the creation of the deviant identity. Social control The techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society. Social disorganization theory The theory that crime and deviance are caused by the absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social institutions. Societal-reaction approach Another name for labeling theory. Stigma A label used to devalue members of certain social groups. Transnational crime Crime that occurs across multiple national borders. Victimization survey A questionnaire or interview given to a sample of the population to determine whether people have been victims of crime. Victimless crime A term used by sociologists to describe the willing exchange among adults of widely desired, but illegal, goods and services. White-collar crime Illegal acts committed by affluent, “respectable” individuals in the course of business activities. ADDITIONAL LECTURE IDEAS 8-1: Ethical Implications of Milgram’s Research In Chapter 2 of the text we discussed some of the difficult ethical issues that confront social science researchers. While conducting his experiments on obedience to authority, Stanley Milgram was well aware that his study might leave subjects (especially those who had “shocked” others) with disturbing aftereffects. Thus, as part of the normal procedure for the project, each subject was informed that the “victim” had not actually received dangerous shocks, was carefully debriefed, and was given time to discuss the experiment with someone on Milgram’s staff. Obedient subjects were assured that their behavior was normal and had friendly meetings with unharmed “learners.” See Milgram. Obedience to Authority. New York: Harper & Row, 1975, p. 24. All subjects also received a follow-up questionnaire, which again allowed them to communicate their feelings about the experiment. Almost 84 percent stated that they were glad to have been in the study, while roughly 15 percent were neutral, and only 1.3 percent indicated negative feelings. In addition, 74 percent noted that they had learned something of personal importance from the experience. One subject wrote, “The experiment has strengthened my belief that man should avoid harm to his fellow man even at the risk of violating authority.” Another commented, “If this experiment serves to jar people out of complacency, it will have served its end” (195–196). These measures, while impressive, are not conclusive; the experiment still could have been harmful to participants who had to face their willingness to inflict pain on others. Therefore, Milgram had a psychiatrist examine 40 subjects of the experiment. None showed any indications of “traumatic reactions” (197). Yet even this test cannot guarantee that the same was true of the nearly 1,000 remaining participants in the obedience experiments. See Kenneth Ring et al., “Mode of Debriefing,” Representative Research in Social Psychology 1 (1970): 67–88. A troubling question underlies Milgram’s important research, and also applies, to a lesser extent, to the studies conducted by Solomon Asch. What are the long-range consequences of social science research that misleads, deceives, and may actually harm participants? If the public comes to believe that researchers are not sensitive to ethical issues—and will risk hurting subjects in the pursuit of knowledge—it may become increasingly difficult to recruit subjects for worthwhile and ethically scrupulous experiments. See Bem Allen. Social Behavior: Fact and Falsehood. Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1978, pp. 58–63. See also Diane Baumrind, “Some Thoughts on Ethics of Research,” American Sociologist 19 (June 1964): 421–423. 8-2: Social Control on the Streets Walking or standing on the sidewalk is legal. Or is it? In an effort to prevent behavior that some communities regard as undesirable, walking or standing in public places is now being subjected to sanctions. In the case of laws on vagrancy, these restrictions are not all new. The first full-fledged law against vagrancy was passed in England in 1349. Much of this early legislation was motivated by concern that people idly standing around might be carriers of disease. Many early statutes required such idle people to take jobs that might be available. Later statutes shifted from a concern with disease and idleness to a concern with criminal activities or people regarded as a “nuisance.” How does society define or come to label people as a “nuisance”? Obviously, not all people are equally likely to be subjected to such labeling. The homeless and young people come to mind as two groups that have been subjected to social control over their ability to stand or walk at certain times or in certain places. In the 1990s, curfew restrictions became increasingly popular, as some communities began banning unescorted young people from their streets and even prohibiting them from driving after prescribed hours. In many cases the curfew laws had been on the books for 50 years, but were only now enforced in an effort to reduce teenage crime. Certain shopping malls began banning unescorted young people out of concern that large groups of such youths were frightening away adults seeking to make purchases. Criminologist James Alan Fox is skeptical of most of the new curfew laws, because he has noted that most teenagers, whether law-abiding or delinquent, are asleep by the time the weekend curfew hour, usually midnight, begins. Yet some communities, such as New Orleans, have school-night curfews that begin as early as 8 PM. Limiting movement at night may not produce the desired outcome. Analysis of most juvenile crime shows it occurs around 3 PM, when school lets out and young people are still grouped together but without adult supervision. Obviously, efforts to prevent crime by restricting movement need to consider movement patterns. Sources used for this essay include: Fox Butterfield, “Successes Reported for Curfews, but Doubts Persist,” New York Times (June 3, 1996): A1, A13; William J. Chambliss, “A Sociological Analysis of the Law of Vagrancy,” Social Problems 12 (Summer 1964): 67-77; and David A. Savage, “Curfews Are Popular, but Results Mixed,” Los Angeles Times (June 1, 1996): A1, A19. 8-3: Deviance or Sport A type of athletic contest is the subject of a clash in interpretations as to whether it constitutes sport or violence. In question are two rival organizations, the Ultimate Fighting Championship and Extreme Fighting, which mount competitions between two combatants. These competitions take place in an octagonal ring surrounded by a chain-link fence, and the only rules are no eye-gouging or biting. Chokeholds, headbutts, and rabbit punches to the brain stem are legal. So are knees to the throat and elbows to the kidney. The fight is over when a doctor intervenes or when a fighter “taps out,” slamming a hand repeatedly on the mat. Although live audiences to such events, called “extreme fighting,” are limited, up to 350,000 households watched the “competition” between Dan “The Beast” Severn and “The Russian Bear” Oleg Taktarov at home on pay-per-view TV. Several states and cities have passed legislation banning such events, and as word spreads more are considering that option. The stated purpose of such events is to determine which form of the martial arts—judo, kickboxing, tae kwon do, jujitsu, kung fu, or another discipline—is superior. Supporters defend this type of competition and note that it pays off financially. They argue that football is more violent and that the critics are elitist, merely reflecting their negative opinion of the millions of people in the United States who compete in the martial arts. The issues are not really new. What is defined as deviant in the realm of sport and entertainment? In different cultures boxing, bullfighting, and cockfighting are variously cheered on or seen as criminal and barbaric. Sources: James Brooke, “Modern-Day Gladiators Head for Denver, but the Welcome Mat Is Rolled Up,” New York Times (December 10, 1995): 12; Andrea Stone, “Fans See Fun in Brawls Where Anything Goes,” USA Today (December 16, 1995): A1, A2. 8-4: Primary and Secondary Deviance Edwin Lemert has offered a useful clarification of the labeling approach. He distinguishes between primary and secondary deviance. Primary deviance is the rationalized violation of rules that define acceptable behavior. A person who abuses alcohol temporarily after the death of a loved one or after a business failure is generally not regarded as deviant. Similarly, a college student who uses cocaine once to find out what his or her friends are talking about will probably not be regarded as a “drug abuser.” Excused or undetected deviant acts do not generate the self-image of a “delinquent” or a “criminal” and may involve the use of techniques of neutralization. Lemert argues that if people who are in a position to apply socially respected labels learn of deviant behavior, an act of deviance will take on a much different meaning. Secondary deviance occurs when a person has been labeled as “deviant.” This labeling arises more frequently when a person engages in repeated acts of misconduct. As a result of the labeling process, the person may reorganize his or her life around this new deviant status and thus embark on a life of norm-violating behavior. For example, suppose that an adolescent boy is brought before a court and charged with his first offense, shoplifting. He may regard the experience with fear and awe at the time. But if he is “let off” based on his previous good conduct, the memory of the court appearance will fade. The act thus remains one of primary deviance: the boy is labeled a “good kid” who “made a mistake.” Suppose, however, that he is bitterly condemned by his family and rejected by his friends. If the youth perceives that he is being viewed as a delinquent, he may begin to see himself that way. Once he accepts this self-image, the incident is transformed into one of secondary deviance. Lemert’s work emphasizes the process of developing a deviant identity over time, just as one can gradually accept the identity of “born leader” or “class clown.” See Edwin Lemert. Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951. See also Lemert. Human Deviance: Social Problems and Social Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1967. 8-5: Discretionary Justice Conflict theorists contend that social control is applied differentially to different suspects because of the suspects’ social class backgrounds, nationality, or race. In a 1988 report by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, summarized below in tabular form, discretionary practices were outlined at various levels of the criminal justice system. Source: Department of Justice. Report of the Nation on Crime and Justice (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988. (190) DISCRETION WITHIN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM CRIMINAL JUSTICE OFFICIALS DISCRETIONARY POWERS Police • Enforce specific laws • Investigate specific crimes • Search people, vicinities, buildings • Arrest or detain people Prosecutors • File charges or petitions for judicial decision • Seek indictments • Drop cases • Reduce charges • Recommend sentences Judges or magistrates • Set bail or conditions for release • Accept pleas • Determine delinquency • Dismiss charges • Impose sentences • Revoke probation Probation officers • File pre-sentence reports • Recommend sentences Correctional officials • Assign people to type of correctional facility • Award privileges • Punish for disciplinary infractions Parole authorities • Determine date and conditions of parole • Revoke parole 8-6: Controversies about Campus Crime Crime committed on college campuses—and the rights of students and parents to know about it—has been a controversial issue in recent years. Campus crime rates are not necessarily higher than off-campus crime rates in the same city. However, in the past some colleges and universities have allegedly tried to conceal as much information about campus crime as possible, in order not to scare away students and parents. Parents and students, on the other hand, feel they have the right to know about campus crimes, both so that they can make an informed choice of colleges and universities, and so that students can best protect themselves once there. In the past, it was easy for schools to hide information about campus crimes, since federal laws did not require them to make these records public. Since 1991, however, the Clery Act has mandated that they must keep a publicly available log of all criminal acts committed on campus. This includes everything from alcohol violations, to thefts, to murders. Implementation of the Clery Act has been anything but smooth. College and university administrators complain that the reporting laws are extremely vague, and that they lack clear guidelines for complying with them. Administrators have also complained that the public logs they must keep omit a great deal of information that might shape the public’s interpretation of crime rates on their campus. When comparing crime statistics across different campuses, a reader may have little information about the socio-demographic context of the campus. In an example offered by one administrator, a commuter campus with no on-campus residences is far less likely to have a problem with date rape than a campus with a large dormitory system, simply because date rape often happens in residences. Without information about the size of a university’s dormitory system, a reader may unknowingly make apple-and-orange comparisons regarding sexual assault rates on various campuses. Advocates of more open crime records have also accused some colleges and universities of purposefully failing to comply with the law, by reporting crimes in a way that makes them appear as benign as possible. Regardless of intent, it is clear that colleges and universities are not uniform in the way that they report campus crimes. At some colleges and universities, for example, any crime reported to the police or to university officials is included in the public log. On other campuses, it is only those crimes that are actually investigated that are included in the log (Collison 1993; Honan 1998; Hartle 2001). Another continuing controversy involves crimes that are adjudicated through campus disciplinary committees, rather than through the criminal justice system. Under the Clery Act, educational institutions are not required to provide the public with statistics on the content or outcome of these hearings, even though they can involve crimes as serious as rape or assault. Thus, a university that adjudicates many of its campus crimes internally can still hide a great deal of crime from parents, students, and the public. During the 1990s several journalist groups tried to force public colleges and universities to share information on campus disciplinary proceedings more openly, arguing that these proceedings are no different from the other kinds of meetings and procedures that are typically required to be part of the public record. In 2002, however, a federal court ruling made these efforts moot. It ruled that all personally identifying information from campus disciplinary hearings is protected under the FERPA Act, which bans educational institutions from making public any information about a student’s educational record without his or her written consent. While colleges and universities can still release information about disciplinary proceedings as long as victims and perpetrators are not identified, the ruling makes it unlikely that advocacy groups will be able to force them to do so. Given their concern about reputation, few schools are expected to begin providing this information on a voluntary basis. Moreover, some fear that the ruling will encourage administrators to pressure crime victims into adjudicating their complaints through university channels, so the school can preserve an image of safety with the public (Carter 2000; Gose 2002; Honan 1998; Kirtley 1997). Sources used for this essay include: Daniel S. Carter, “Covering Crime on College Campuses,” Quill 88 (September 2000): 32-35; Michelle N-K. Collison, “Skepticism About Low Crime Rates Reported by Institutions,” Chronicle of Higher Education 39 (February 17, 1993); Ben Gose, “Court Says Colleges Can’t Release Files from Student Judicial Hearings,” Chronicle of Higher Education 48 (July 12, 2002); Terry Hartle, “Toward a Better Law on Campus Crime,” Chronicle of Higher Education 47 (August 12, 2001); William Honan, “Education Department Sues Universities Over Disclosure of Crime Records,” New York Times (February 4, 1998); Jane Kirtley, “Shedding Light on Campus Crime,” American Journalism Review 19 (July-August 1997). 8-7: Being a Hit Man Homicide violates a serious norm that is sanctioned with prison sentences and under some circumstances, with the death of the assailant. People who kill in a hot-blooded burst of passion can draw some comfort from the law, which provides lighter punishments for killings performed without premeditation or intent. But what about someone who kills repeatedly and intentionally, aware that these acts of homicide are unlawful? Ken Levi interviewed, over a four-month period, a self-styled “hit man” (referred to as “Pete from Detroit”) who was serving a prison sentence. Being a hit man might seem to be a life without responsibility to society’s norms. But Pete emphasizes that he is strictly governed by a contract, and failure to fulfill it carries severe penalties. Pete and other hit men insist on big money because they know that less “professional” hired killers (such as drug addicts) who offer to work for low fees often receive a bullet for their pains. It is believed that people who would kill for so little would also require little persuasion to make them talk to the police. Therefore, his and other hit men’s reputation for charging high fees is functional; it helps them to carry out their tasks successfully and, not incidentally, to remain alive. An important way for “freelance” hit men to view their work as appropriate is to “reframe” a hit. Erving Goffman describes “frames” (or “breaks”) as portions of a given situation. Often, norm violators will dissociate themselves from a frame. A prostitute, for instance, may remain absolutely detached, her mind miles away, when having sex with a client. Even surgeons partially dissociate themselves from their patients by having the patient completely covered except for the part to be operated on. This helps them to work in a more impersonal way. Pete, the hit man interviewed by Levi, goes through a process of reframing his hits. He reveals that afterward he can rarely recall a victim’s personal features. Also, he refers to his victims as “targets,” not people. Even at the time of contract, he specifically requests not to be told why the contract has been “let” because even though the motive might justify the hit, it would make the “target” more of a person. Homicide is one of society’s mores. Pete knows that, but he accommodates this potentially discrediting feature of his life by emphasizing the new norms he must obey. Therefore he considers himself “law-abiding,” even if the laws are not those of the larger society. Similarly, he approaches the hit as “just a job” and thus goes as far as he can in denying his norm violation. See Erving Goffman. Frame Analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974. See also Delos H. Kelly (ed.). Deviant Behavior (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985, pp. 528–529, 692–703. CLASSROOM DISCUSSION TOPICS 8-1. Stimulating Classroom Discussions about Wallbangin—Graffiti and Gang in L.A.: Questions about this excerpt from anthropologist Susan Phillips’s book can include: How does the act of graffiti writing free the writers from constraints? How can graffiti indicate status for a gang member, much like a homeowner repainting his or her home? Compare gang graffiti to neighborhood watch signs located in a community. How is the function of both related? Why should gang graffiti be perceived differently than sport fans writing on sidewalks outside stadiums before the big game, or college fraternities and sororities marking territory during pledge week? and non-deviant? As a sociologist, how would you study the stripping industry? 8-2. Group Pressure: A guessing game with popcorn teaches students about group pressure and conformity. See Technique No. 23 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.), Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993. 8-3. The Power of Authority: The instructor—as an authority figure—assigns a “pointless” writing assignment in class. Mass compliance with this request leads to a discussion of obedience. Fletcher Winston, “What If Milgram Controlled Student Grades?” Teaching Sociology 31 (April 2003): 221-226. 8-4. Field Trips: Classroom discussion of criminal justice would be enhanced by a visit to a correctional facility, courtroom, or police station, followed by a question-and-answer session with agency representatives. 8-5. Conversing with Deviants: Make deviance more real for students by inviting “deviant” individuals as guests in the class. See Technique No. 11 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993. 8-6. Deviance Is in the Eye of the Beholder: Assign students to write a brief report of some deviant behavior they have observed. Have them explain why they considered this behavior deviant. Stress to them that the behavior they observe does not have to be illegal, nor does it have to be considered deviant by our society. Prior to assigning this paper, make sure that students understand that what is considered deviant varies from time to time and from society to society. 8-7. Which Acts Are Deviant? An exercise in which students rank the severity of various acts of deviance, nicely illustrates the subjective nature of our perceptions of deviant acts. See Technique No. 13 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993. 8-8. Positive Deviance: Students and instructors tend to focus on negative examples of deviance, such as murder, theft, and sexual dysfunctions. However, Angela Lewellyn Jones has students focus on positive deviance, such as saintly behavior, in a discussion that assists them in understanding the sociological meaning of “deviance.” See Angela L. Jones, “Random Acts of Kindness: A Teaching Tool for Positive Deviance,” Teaching Sociology 26 (July 1998): 179–189. 8-9. Public Opinion on Death Penalty: See David W. Moore, “Americans Firmly Support Death Penalty,” Gallup Poll Monthly (June 1995): 23–25. 8-10. Violent Juveniles: Following a showing of Not Too Young To Die (listed under Audiovisual below), divide the class into small groups. Assign them to discuss what the “just” penalty is for a youth who commits homicide. Also, have them consider the issues of legal and psychological competency. At what age is a youth “responsible” for the crime he or she commits? What is the youngest age at which a juvenile should be tried in an adult court? 8-11. Ranking Crimes: See Technique No. 12 in Edward L. Kain and Robin Neas (eds.). Innovative Techniques for Teaching Sociological Concepts. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1993. 8-12. Teaching about Sexual Assault: See Amanda Konradi, “Teaching about Sexual Assault: Problematic Silences and Solutions,” Teaching Sociology 21 (January 1993): 13–25. 8-13. Campus Crime Statistics: See Richard A. Wright, “Using Campus Crime Statistics in Classroom Discussions of Official Measures of Crime,” Teaching Sociology 25 (January 1997): 49–56. 8-14. Case Histories: In the exercise described in this article, instructors use a single case history to help discuss a number of deviance theories. Donald P. Levy and Beth Merenstein, “Working with Stories: An Active Learning Approach to Theories of Deviance,” Teaching Sociology 33 (January 2005): 66-73. 8-15. Using Humor: Joseph E. Faulkner has produced a monograph that includes funny examples that could be incorporated into lectures associated with Chapter 8. See Chapter 5 in Faulkner, Sociology Through Humor. New York: West, 1987. This book is out of print, but used copies are readily available. TOPICS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH AND CLASSROOM DISCUSSION 1. Ask students to research the use of medical treatments to treat criminality, such as shock therapies, chemical castrations, and lobotomies, and discuss the influence of biological and genetic factors in deviance and crime. 2. Ask students to research the frequency of crime committed in certain subcultural groups within the United States, such as the Amish or Quakers, and discuss how socialization processes such as differential association may affect their incidence of deviance and crime. 3. Ask students to research “Gypsy” subculture groups living in the United States, and discuss how their crimes, which are typically aimed at Westerners, are related to their cultural beliefs. 4. Ask students to compare the number of laws directed toward people with no visible means of support compared to affluent people, and discuss any implications from the conflict perspective. 5. Ask students to find a recent, well-known crime or criminal that has had a reasonable amount of coverage in the press. Have students look for clues in the media coverage for explanations used for the crime. Compare these to the theories presented in the text. Analyze whether the explanations presented in the popular press appear consistent with sociological theory. This assignment can be done in pairs or small groups with subsequent class discussion. 7. Ask students to locate credible research that suggests the death penalty is a general deterrent to murder, and discuss how socialization often perpetuates discriminatory views and myths about crime and deviance. Instructor Manual for Sociology Richard T. Schaefer 9780078026669