Chapter 6: Learning Multiple Choice Questions 1. __________________ is any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience or practice. A. Adaptation B. Muscle memory C. Memory enhancement D. Learning Answer: D 2. Learning is said to be a relatively permanent change in behaviour because A. it is thought that learning changes the nerve fibre patterns in your muscles. B. once you learn something, you will never fail to remember it or carry out the correct action. C. it is thought that when learning occurs some part of the brain physically changes. D. memory processes, unlike learning processes, are not permanent. Answer: C 3. Trevor is trying to study in the library and is distracted by students that are talking at nearby tables. After awhile, he does not notice them and is able to concentrate on his studying. What form of learning has Trevor experienced? A. Sensitization B. Habituation C. Adaptation D. Conditioning Answer: B 4. _______________ occurs when we respond more strongly over time to a repeated stimulus, and _______________ occurs when we respond less strongly over time to a repeated stimulus. A. Sensitization; habituation B. Habituation; adaptation C. Adaptation; sensitization D. Habituation; sensitization Answer: A 5. Discovering that habituation occurred in _______________ helped to uncover the biological mechanisms of habituation and the neural basis of learning. A. amoebas B. fetuses C. dogs D. aplysia Answer: D 6. Three-year-old Sarah learns to associate the smell of popcorn with watching movies. This learning represents A. classical conditioning. B. operational learning. C. operant conditioning. D. observational learning. Answer: A 7. As an infant, Stephanie received many penicillin injections from the doctor. When she later saw a photographer in a white coat that was similar to the doctor’s coat, she started to cry. This is an example of A. instrumental learning. B. observational learning. C. classical conditioning. D. habituation. Answer: C 8. One might expect that classical conditioning was discovered by a psychologist. However, it was discovered by a A. physician who was studying the age at which children start to walk. B. physiologist who was studying memory processes in monkeys. C. physiologist who was studying digestion in dogs. D. dog trainer who was trying to come up with the best way to reward animals for their performances in his shows. Answer: C 9. The researcher responsible for discovering classical conditioning was A. Skinner. B. Thorndike. C. Pavlov. D. Watson. Answer: C 10. Which of the following statements regarding Pavlov is accurate? A. Pavlov was studying salivation in dogs as part of a research program on digestion. B. Pavlov was elated when his student first noticed that the dogs were salivating before tasting the food. C. Pavlov continued his Nobel Prize–winning research on digestion after documenting conditioning. D. Pavlov stressed the importance of speculating about the dog’s feelings toward the food. Answer: A 11. Which of the following statements reflects the main argument made by the British Associationists? A. Learning occurs by serendipity but provides a basis to understand the world and its linkages. B. After repeatedly opening cat food with a can opener, the cat runs into the kitchen every time the can opener is used. C. When we are talking on the phone with a friend, we also picture his or her face at the same time. D. Classical conditioning is only successful when conditioned stimuli have common associations for all people (e.g., a bell as a signal). Answer: C 12. _______________ is a form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response. A. Operant conditioning B. Classical conditioning C. Instrumental conditioning D. Reinforcement conditioning Answer: B 13. John has three cats, and has to give one of them (Garfield) a pill every day. He always opens up the pill bottle (which makes a popping sound) and removes one pill before giving it to Garfield, and follows this by giving him a treat as a reward. He also gives his two other cats (Milo and Otis) a treat at the same time so they do not feel left out. After awhile, John notices that when he opens up the pill bottle, Milo and Otis come running to him right away. In this example, the _______________ is the unconditioned stimulus. A. sound of the pill bottle opening B. pill-taking C. cats running out D. treat Answer: D 14. John has three cats, and has to give one of them (Garfield) a pill every day. He always opens up the pill bottle (which makes a popping sound) and removes one pill before giving it to Garfield, and follows this by giving him a treat as a reward. He also gives his two other cats (Milo and Otis) a treat at the same time so they do not feel left out. After awhile, John notices that when he opens up the pill bottle, Milo and Otis come running to him right away. In this example, the _______________ is the conditioned stimulus. A. sound of the pill bottle opening B. pill-taking C. cats running out D. treat Answer: A 15. John has three cats, and has to give one of them (Garfield) a pill every day. He always opens up the pill bottle (which makes a popping sound) and removes one pill before giving it to Garfield, and follows this by giving him a treat as a reward. He also gives his two other cats (Milo and Otis) a treat at the same time so they do not feel left out. After awhile, John notices that when he opens up the pill bottle, Milo and Otis come running to him right away. In this example, the _______________ is the conditioned response. A. sound of the pill bottle opening B. pill-taking C. cats running out D. treat Answer: C 16. Normally, when food is placed in the mouth of any animal, the salivary glands start releasing saliva to help with chewing and digestion. In terms of Pavlov’s analysis of learning, salivation would be referred to as A. a digestive reflux. B. conditioned response. C. an unconditioned response. D. a voluntary response. Answer: C 17. _______________ was the first person to describe learning as acquired through classical conditioning while studying the digestive process of dogs. A. John Watson B. Albert Bandura C. B. F. Skinner D. Ivan Pavlov Answer: D 18. Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than to the original, natural stimulus is called A. classical conditioning. B. operant conditioning. C. memory linkage. D. adaptation. Answer: A 19. Which of the following events most intrigued Pavlov and led to his discoveries? A. The dogs seemed to enjoy the food. B. The assistant salivated along with the dogs when the dogs started to eat. C. The dogs stopped salivating after seeing the assistant so many times. D. The dogs started to salivate when they saw Pavlov’s assistant and before they got the food. Answer: D 20. Pavlov placed meat powder in the mouths of dogs, and they began to salivate. The food acted as a(n) A. unconditioned response. B. unconditioned stimulus. C. conditioned response. D. conditioned stimulus. Answer: B 21. The abbreviation UCS stands for A. unconditional statement. B. uniform conditioned subject. C. unconditional sensation. D. unconditioned stimulus. Answer: D 22. The abbreviation UCR stands for A. unconditional reinforcement. B. uniform conditioned rule. C. unconditional retention. D. unconditioned response. Answer: D 23. Every time Maricella goes to work in the morning, she notices that her dog sulks in the corner of the room and looks very sad. Over several weeks, she notices that the dog gets unhappy when she picks up her car keys, immediately before leaving the house. Which phenomenon of learning best describes the dog’s behaviour? A. Classical conditioning B. Innate learning C. Punishment by removal D. Instinctive drift Answer: A 24. Alan always turns the aquarium light on before putting fish food into the tank. After a while, he notices that the fish swim to the top to look for the food as soon as he turns on the light. In this example, the is the unconditioned stimulus. A. presence of Alan near the aquarium B. fish swimming to the top C. aquarium light D. fish food Answer: D 25. When Pavlov placed meat powder or other food in the mouths of canine subjects, they began to salivate. The salivation was a(n) A. unconditioned response. B. unconditioned stimulus. C. conditioned response. D. conditioned stimulus. Answer: A 26. Sue noticed that whenever she opened the door to the pantry, her dog would come into the kitchen and act hungry, by drooling and whining. She thought that because the dog food was stored in the pantry, the sound of the door had become a(n) A. unconditioned stimulus. B. conditioned stimulus. C. unconditioned response. D. conditioned response. Answer: B 27. Pavlov placed meat powder in the mouths of the dogs, and they began to salivate. Pavlov’s student noticed that after a few days the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the student’s footsteps. The salivation to the sound of the footsteps was a A. primary reinforcer. B. positive reinforcer. C. conditioned response. D. secondary reinforcer. Answer: C 28. Harmony notices that her cat salivates as soon as her cat hears the sound of Harmony opening a can with an electric can opener. In this example, the _______________ is the conditioned stimulus. A. can of cat food B. sound of the electric can opener C. dish that Harmony puts the food in D. cat scurrying into the kitchen Answer: B 29. Miranda notices that her cat salivates as soon as her cat hears the sound of the electric can opener. In this example, the sound of the can opener is the A. primary stimulus. B. positive reinforcer. C. conditioned stimulus. D. secondary reinforcer. Answer: C 30. The abbreviation CR stands for A. conditional reinforcement. B. contingent reflex. C. conditioned response. D. contingent reflection. Answer: C 31. The abbreviation CS stands for A. conditioned stimulus. B. correlated stimulus. C. conventional structure. D. conditional situation. Answer: A 32. The conditioned stimulus is defined as A. the previously neutral stimulus that automatically produces the conditioned response. B. the previously neutral stimulus that automatically produces the unconditioned response. C. the previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to produce the conditioned response. D. the stimulus that automatically produces the unconditioned response. Answer: C 33. In Pavlov's “salivating dogs” studies, the UCS was A. salivation. B. joy. C. food. D. noise. Answer: C 34. In Pavlov's “salivating dogs” studies, the UCR was A. salivation. B. biting. C. tone. D. food. Answer: A 35. In Pavlov's “salivating dogs” studies, the salivation triggered by the sound of the tone was the A. unconditioned response. B. conditioned response. C. unconditioned stimulus. D. conditioned stimulus. Answer: B 36. According to the theory of classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is A. the stimulus that automatically triggers a response when presented. B. the stimulus that triggers a conditioned response. C. the stimulus that triggers a response after being paired with another stimulus. D. the stimulus that triggers a response after being paired with a conditioned stimulus. Answer: A 37. In Pavlov’s classic experiments, the repeated presentation of the bell along with the food was called the _______________ step of the classical conditioning process. A. spontaneous recovery B. extinction C. testing D. acquisition Answer: D 38. Which of the following is not one of the three phases that occur in classical conditioning paradigms? A. Acquisition B. Habituation C. Extinction D. Spontaneous recovery Answer: B 39. In which of the following would the acquisition of a classically conditioned response be the fastest? A. Hugh repeatedly rings a bell after he gives his dog a bone over multiple trials B. Hugh rings a bell and then gives his dog a treat 30 minutes later over multiple trials. C. Hugh makes his dog “play dead” and then gives him a treat if he has performed the behaviour. D. Hugh makes two pieces of toast every morning for breakfast, and upon popping out of the toaster, he throws one of the pieces of toast to his dog. Answer: D 40. Extinction occurs when the _______________ no longer produces the _______________. A. UCS; CR B. UCS; UCR C. CS; CR D. CS; UCS Answer: C 41. The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus is called A. stimulus generalization. B. stimulus adaptation. C. response generalization. D. transfer of habit strength. Answer: A 42. After Pavlov’s dogs became conditioned to salivate at the sound of the bell, he experimented with ringing the bell and then failing to present the dogs with any food right away. Soon they stopped salivating to the sound of the bell. This represents the process called A. acquisition. B. testing. C. extinction. D. spontaneous recovery. Answer: C 43. When the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS (food, in this case), the CR will “die out” in a process called A. CR fading. B. extinction. C. habituation. D. generalization fading. Answer: B 44. You train your dog, Milo, to salivate at the sound of a bell. Then you ring the bell every five minutes and don’t follow the ringing with food for Milo. He salivates less and less and finally stops salivating at all when the bell rings. But the next morning, when you ring the bell, Milo salivates! What term is used to explain the reappearance of this response? A. Counterconditioning B. Instinctive drift C. Spontaneous recovery D. Stimulus discrimination Answer: C 45. The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred is called A. counterconditioning. B. instinctive drift. C. spontaneous recovery. D. stimulus discrimination. Answer: C 46. An animal is conditioned to salivate to a bell using Pavlovian procedures. After the conditioning is established, the animal is then put through an extinction procedure and the conditioned salivation disappears. Then the animal is removed from the test situation for several days. When returned to the test situation, the conditioned response is seen again. The effect is known as A. counterconditioning. B. instinctive drift. C. spontaneous recovery. D. stimulus discrimination. Answer: C 47. Acquisition can be described as the process in which A. the CS produces the UCR. B. the CR produces the CS. C. the CS produces the CR. D. the UCS produces the CR. Answer: C 48. Ben's mouth waters every time he hears the ice cream truck's familiar song in the distance. One day a slightly different song is heard in the distance and Ben's mouth waters. Ben's behaviour illustrates A. stimulus discrimination. B. stimulus generalization. C. stimulus assimilation. D. stimulus recovery. Answer: B 49. Little Albert learns to fear white rats but he does not fear white rabbits. This behaviour illustrates A. spontaneous recovery. B. stimulus discrimination. C. acquisition. D. stimulus generalization. Answer: B 50. While on a cruise ship, Kevin became sick after eating a seafood dinner. His food poisoning coupled with sea sickness led to a terrible vacation and consequently Kevin shivers at the mere sight of cruise ships. Kevin's behaviour illustrates the process of A. acquisition. B. generalization. C. discrimination. D. scapegoating. Answer: B 51. Aimee has trained her horse Bosker to ‘whinny’ at the sound of a bell and has followed this with the presentation of an apple each time. Bosker seems to automatically ‘whinny’ every time he hears a bell as he expects an apple. After repeated times where Bosker hears a bell and isn’t given an apple, he no longer ‘whinnies’ at the sound of a bell. What process of conditioning is reflected in this example? A. Acquisition B. Spontaneous recovery C. Extinction D. Habituation Answer: C 52. _______________ occurs when stimuli similar to an original CS elicits a response, whereas _______________ occurs when we exhibit s a less pronounced response to stimuli that differ from the original CS. A. Stimulus discrimination; stimulus generalization B. Stimulus generalization; stimulus discrimination C. Stimulus habituation; generalization gradient D. Generalization gradient; stimulus habituation Answer: B 53. Ursula was conditioned to be afraid of white rats. However, she also is now afraid of white hamsters, but does not show a fear response to white guinea pigs. Ursula’s responses best demonstrate that A. stimulus generalization has occurred. B. stimulus discrimination has occurred. C. stimulus generalization occurs along a generalization gradient. D. stimulus discrimination occurs along a discrimination gradient. Answer: C 54. Andrew is a heroin addict, and he usually ‘shoots up’ at his friend Dave’s place. Following an intervention and treatment, Andrew is trying very hard to stop using heroin, but finds that when he goes over to Dave’s place, his craving for the drug is very strong. In this example, the context of taking the drug serves as A. an unconditioned response. B. higher order conditioning. C. a source of stimulus generalization. D. a form of aversive conditioning. Answer: B 55. After Little Albert acquired a conditioned fear of rats, Watson wanted to see how he would react to a white rabbit, cotton wool, and a Santa Claus mask. He was studying whether or not _______________ had occurred. A. behaviour modification B. stimulus discrimination C. extinction D. stimulus generalization Answer: D 56. What could John Watson have done to eliminate Little Albert’s conditioned fear? A. Show Albert a toy dog instead of a live rat. B. Let Albert touch a Santa Claus beard repeatedly. C. Show Albert a rat many times without a loud noise following. D. Have Albert hear a loud noise many times without a rat present. Answer: C 57. What would you predict about Little Albert based on the principle of spontaneous recovery? A. Even after his fear of a rat was extinguished, the fear could come back. B. After his fear of loud noises was extinguished, the fear could come back. C. His fear of rats would disappear if he saw a rat without hearing a loud noise. D. His fear of loud noises would disappear if he heard a loud noise without a rat present. Answer: A 58. Famous athletes are used to sell products using classical conditioning as a marketing strategy. If a famous athlete is used to market shoes, the famous athlete is the A. UCR. B. CR. C. UCS. D. CS. Answer: C 59. Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate at a bell sound that was paired with a meat stimulus. After the CS–UCS linkage was strongly established, Pavlov then presented the dog with several flashes of a light followed by the bell sound. After a few days, when the light flashes were presented by themselves, the dog salivated. This is an example of A. spontaneous recovery. B. higher-order conditioning. C. stimulus generalization. D. extinction. Answer: B 60. When a strongly conditioned CS is used to make another stimulus into a second CS, the effect is known as A. spontaneous recovery. B. higher-order conditioning. C. stimulus generalization. D. extinction. Answer: B 61. After a CS comes to elicit the CR, the CS now can be paired with a new neutral stimulus and this second neutral stimulus will start to elicit a CR. This process is called A. generalization. B. operant conditioning. C. higher-order conditioning. D. neoclassical conditioning. Answer: A 62. When Molson Canadian uses highly attractive men and women in their beer commercials, what type of conditioning are they using? A. Positive reinforcement B. Instrumental conditioning C. Stimulus generalization D. Higher-order conditioning Answer: D 63. Drew works for an advertising company and is trying to sell a new product called “day goggles”. He knows he needs to make the day goggles appear cool and desirable, so decides to have well-known Hollywood actress Angelina Jolie wear his goggles. Despite his intensive ad campaign featuring the famous actress, he found little evidence that having Angelina Jolie in his advertisement affected preferences for his goggles and did not see any changes in sales. It is most likely that this outcome resulted from A. higher-order conditioning. B. latent inhibition. C. aversive conditioning. D. conditioned compensatory responses. Answer: B 64. Which of the following is not a demonstrated application of classical conditioning to daily life? A. Advertising B. Fetishes C. Phobias D. Memory pills Answer: D 65. Young Albert is initially not afraid of white rats but if white rats and loud noises are presented in sequence, Albert may learn to fear rats. In this example white rats would be the A. CR. B. UCR. C. UCS. D. CS. Answer: D 66. In the “Little Albert” study, the fear-producing stimulus used as a UCS was the A. white rat. B. loud noise. C. fear of the rat. D. fear of the noise. Answer: B 67. John Watson offered a live, white rat to Little Albert and then made a loud noise behind his head by striking a steel bar with a hammer. The white rat served as the _______________ in his study. A. discriminative stimulus B. counterconditioning stimulus C. conditioned stimulus D. unconditioned stimulus Answer: C 68. Little Albert’s acquired fear of a white rat was a classic example of a(n) _______________ response. A. classical counterconditioned B. conditioned emotional C. positively reinforced D. negatively reinforced Answer: B 69. What was the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the case of Little Albert? A. A rat B. A loud noise C. A high chair D. A small enclosed space Answer: B 70. What was the conditioned stimulus (CS) in the case of Little Albert? A. A rat B. A loud noise C. A high chair D. A small enclosed space Answer: A 71. Watson’s experiment with Little Albert demonstrated that fears might be A. based on classical conditioning. B. deeply rooted in the innate unconscious of infants. C. based on the principle of observational learning. D. based on Skinner’s analysis of positive reinforcement. Answer: A 72. The learning of phobias is a very good example of which certain type of classical conditioning? A. Instinctive drift B. Innate learning C. Conditioned taste aversion D. Conditioned emotional response Answer: D 73. Shelly has developed a fear of bridges due to the recent, graphic news coverage of people falling from a collapsed bridge. Which of the following is the CS? A. Collapsed bridges B. People falling C. Graphic news coverage D. Bridges Answer: D 74. Whenever five-year-old Claire goes to the dentist she becomes anxious and cries. She was not afraid of the dentist on her first visit, so her fear was a learned behaviour. The UCS in this case was probably A. painful teeth cleaning. B. sweet toothpaste. C. the dentist's beard. D. small prizes given after the exam. Answer: A 75. A child's fear at the sight of a sharp scissors is A. a conditioned stimulus. B. a conditioned response. C. an unconditioned response. D. an unconditioned stimulus. Answer: B 76. Which of the findings have been supported by research concerning classical conditioning and advertising appeals for well-known products? A. Well-known brands are easier to convert into conditioned stimuli versus novel brands. B. Attempts to use classical conditioning to sell products have been largely unsuccessful. C. It is easier to classically condition novel brands versus well-known brands. D. It is easier to classically condition well-known brands versus novel brands. Answer: C 77. Paul has a fear of being tickled by feathers (pteronophobia) and seeks advice from his friend Deanna on how to get over his fear. Based on principles of learning, what should Deanna recommend to Paul? A. With repeated feather tickling, he should habituate and not be scared of them any longer. B. Repeatedly pair feather tickling with pleasurable stimuli (i.e., donuts) to ‘uncondition’ the fear. C. Apply other stimuli other than feathers to tickling so that stimulus generalization occurs. D. Suck it up and deal with it, they are feathers and they not scary. Answer: B 78. One can be conditioned to become sexually aroused at the sight of a triangle if the triangle is presented shortly _______________ an appropriate _______________. A. before; CS B. after; CS C. after; UCS D. before; UCS Answer: D 79. Which of the following is true concerning the treatment of phobias using classical conditioning? A. Persons fearful of flying will first need to address their childhood conflicts that are contributing this phobia in order to eliminate this fear of flying. B. Persons fearful of flying will need to associate flying with something pleasurable to reduce this fear. C. Persons fearful of flying will need to avoid flying as a way to reduce this fear. D. Persons fearful of flying will first need to address the unresolved conflicts in their lives that are contributing to this phobia in order to eliminate the fear of flying. Answer: B 80. A _______________ occurs when cues associated with the ingestion of alcohol or drugs can come to elicit, through classical conditioning, an opposite effect of the alcohol/drug to help balance or counteract the effects of consuming the substance. A. habituation response B. conditioned compensatory response C. aversive conditioning response D. operant response Answer: B 81. Alan loves both donuts and sex, and always eats a donut immediately before having sex. After a time of engaging in frequent donut-sexual activity pairings, Alan finds that he becomes sexually aroused at the mere sight of a donut, even if he is not about to have sex. Alan’s responses can be explained by A. pseudoconditioning. B. conditioned compensatory responses. C. classically conditioned fetishism. D. latent inhibition. Answer: C 82. The typical effect of heroin is a decrease in blood pressure (the UCR), whereas the cues associated with taking heroin, such as a bathroom stall in a seedy nightclub, will, through conditioning, come to elicit an increase in blood pressure (the CR). This means that when the addict enters the bathroom stall, she will experience an immediate increase in blood pressure, which then helps to prevent blood pressure from dropping too low when the heroin is injected. This experience occurs due to _______________. A. pseudoconditioning B. conditioned compensatory responses C. classically conditioned fetishism D. latent inhibition Answer: B 83. Research has demonstrated that disgust reactions are likely a product of _______________ conditioning. A. pseudo B. classical C. instrumental D. operant Answer: B 84. _______________ conditioning refers to learning controlled by the consequences of the organism’s behaviour. A. Respondent B. Pavlovian C. Classical D. Instrumental Answer: D 85. Joan puts a toonie into a vending machine to get a bottle of vitamin water. In this example, the operant is A. Joan. B. the toonie. C. the bottle of water. D. the taste of the water. Answer: B 86. Which of the following is not an example of operant conditioning? A. Training a rat to run a maze by rewarding them with food once they reach the end. B. Ignoring a patient who fakes anxiety attacks to because it normally results in attention from staff. C. Teaching a child to do his chores by giving him a cookie when he has completed them. D. Helping a patient’s phobia of spiders by exposing him to the dangerous stimuli when in a relaxed state. Answer: D 87. In operant conditioning, target behaviours are _______________, whereas in classical conditioning they are _______________. A. elicited; emitted B. emitted; elicited C. reinforced; punished D. punished; reinforced Answer: A 88. Voluntary motor behaviour is associated with _______________ conditioning, relative to responses in the autonomic nervous system in _______________. A. operant; compensatory B. respondent; classical C. instrumental; classical D. Pavlovian; Skinnerian Answer: C 89. Which of the following is not a key difference between classical (C) and operant (O) conditioning? A. Target behaviours are either elicited (C) or emitted (O). B. Behaviour is a function of stimuli before (C) or consequences after (O) the behaviour. C. Behaviour depends on the autonomic nervous system (C) or skeletal muscles (O). D. Conditioning is most effective for either animal (C) or human (O) populations. Answer: D 90. Thorndike's Law of Effect is most closely associated with which operant conditioning principle? A. Premack principle B. Negative reinforcement C. Punishment D. Positive reinforcement Answer: D 91. Which two theorists laid the groundwork for the theory of operant conditioning? A. Thorndike and Skinner B. Pavlov and Skinner C. Bandura and Skinner D. Watson and Skinner Answer: A 92. According to _______________ theory, behaviour is said to be influenced by its consequences. A. cognitive learning B. classical conditioning C. observational learning D. operant conditioning Answer: D 93. The kind of learning that applies to voluntary behaviour is called A. operant conditioning. B. classical conditioning. C. effective based learning. D. spontaneous recovery. Answer: A 94. Who was one of the first researchers to explore and outline the laws of voluntary responses? A. Bandura B. Watson C. Skinner D. Thorndike Answer: D 95. Thorndike was known for his work with A. a Skinner box. B. a puzzle box. C. modelling. D. monkeys. Answer: B 96. Which of the following is not an example of operant behaviour? A. A child doing her homework after she receives her teacher’s approval for her behaviour B. A rat pressing a bar after receiving food for this behaviour C. A dog blinking its eyes after a flash of light is presented D. A rat pressing a bar after avoiding a shock for this behaviour Answer: C 97. The person most closely associated with the Law of Effect is A. Skinner. B. Pavlov. C. Watson. D. Thorndike. Answer: D 98. Skinner was to rats as Thorndike was to A. pigeons. B. dogs. C. rabbits. D. cats. Answer: D 99. A child learns that whenever he eats all of his dinner he gets a cookie for dessert. This type of learning is best explained by A. social learning theory. B. biofeedback theory. C. classical conditioning. D. operant conditioning. Answer: D 100. Any behaviour that is voluntary is referred to as a(n) A. antecedent. B. stimulus. C. response. D. operant. Answer: D 101. “If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.” This is a statement of A. the law of positive reinforcement. B. Rescorla’s cognitive perspective. C. Garcia’s conditional emotional response. D. Thorndike’s law of effect. Answer: D 102. Thorndike’s research with cats led him to conclude that A. cats learn by insight and can grasp the nature of a problem. B. we all experience an “aha reaction” where we solve a problem and respond correctly after that point. C. all learning, in animals and humans, occurs by trial and error. D. learning that is strongly reinforced occurs faster and is less subject to extinction. Answer: C 103. A box used in operant conditioning of animals that limits the available responses and, thus, increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur is called a A. trial box. B. response box. C. Watson box. D. Skinner box. Answer: D 104. A Skinner box is most likely to be used in research on A. classical conditioning. B. operant conditioning. C. vicarious learning. D. cognitive learning. Answer: B 105. Which theorist believed that most of learning occurred by trial and error? A. Thorndike B. Pavlov C. Watson D. Skinner Answer: A 106. Regarding operant conditioning, which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement? A. A student turns in neater homework when the teacher praises neatness. B. A student is exempted from a weekly quiz for exemplary homework. C. A student loses earned free time for playing with lab equipment. D. A student is sent to detention for fighting. Answer: B 107. In operant conditioning, is necessary to create the association between the stimulus and the repetition of a voluntary response. A. the law of negative effect B. reinforcement C. conditional emotional linkages D. a long time delay Answer: B 108. A negative reinforcer is a stimulus that is _______________ and, thus, _______________ the probability of a response. A. removed; increases B. removed; decreases C. presented; increases D. presented; decreases Answer: A 109. A grandmother gives her grandchild a cookie because the child cleaned her room. What is the cookie in this example? A. Punisher B. Positive reinforcer C. Negative reinforcer D. Conditioned response Answer: B 110. Bill hates to clean up after dinner. One night, he volunteers to bathe the dog before cleaning up. When he finishes with the dog and returns to the kitchen, his wife has cleaned everything up for him. Which of the following statements is most likely true? A. Bill will start cleaning up the kitchen before he bathes the dog. B. Bill’s wife has positively reinforced him for bathing the dog. C. Bill’s wife has negatively reinforced him for bathing the dog. D. Bill will never bathe the dog again. Answer: C 111. Fred is afraid of spiders. He won’t even watch a nature show on TV about them. When he sees a picture of a spider, he has a panic attack, but when he avoids looking at the image, his panic goes away. Fred’s avoidance of spiders is being A. extinguished, because he feels anxious after doing so. B. recovered spontaneously, because he will never get better. C. positively reinforced, because he is rewarded by his anxiety going down. D. negatively reinforced, because he is rewarded by his anxiety going down. Answer: D 112. What has occurred when there is a decrease in the likelihood or rate of a target response? A. Punishment B. Positive reinforcement C. Negative reinforcement D. Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement Answer: A 113. Mark and Kathy take their 2-year-old son to the supermarket every Saturday. Each week, the same sequence of events unfolds: Their son screams, demanding that they buy him treats. Although they refuse to give in to his demands, he continues to scream. Finally, either Mark or Kathy gets in their son’s face and yells at the top of their lungs “Shut up!” He stops screaming instantly. What operant conditioning concepts are illustrated in this story? A. Extinction—he feels anxious after doing so. B. Spontaneous recovery—he will never get better. C. Positive reinforcement—he is rewarded by his anxiety going down. D. Negative reinforcement—he is rewarded by his anxiety going down. Answer: D 114. Mark and Kathy take their 2-year-old son to the supermarket every Saturday. Each week, the same sequence of events unfolds: Their son screams, demanding that they buy him treats. Although they refuse to give in to his demands, he continues to scream. Finally, either Mark or Kathy gets in their son’s face and yells at the top of their lungs “Shut up!” He stops screaming instantly. What operant conditioning concepts are illustrated in this story? A. The parents are using negative reinforcement to increase their son’s screaming. B. The parents are in a very dysfunctional marriage; their child’s screaming is his way of trying to get his parents to remain married. C. The parents are using punishment to suppress the screaming; their use of punishment is negatively reinforced by the cessation of screaming. D. Their son probably learned how to scream by observing his parents at home, and now he is reinforced on a variable-interval schedule of reinforcement. Answer: C 115. A stimulus presented to a person or animal that decreases the probability of a particular response is known as A. punishment. B. negative reinforcement. C. extinction. D. positive reinforcement. Answer: A 116. Nicky tends to bite his nails when he becomes nervous because it calms him down. Nicky's behaviour is an example of A. classical conditioning. B. shaping. C. generalization. D. negative reinforcement. Answer: D 117. Punishment can be defined as A. any consequence presented after behaviour that increases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring. B. any consequence presented before behaviour that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring. C. any consequence presented after behaviour that decreases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring. D. any consequence presented before behaviour that increases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccurring. Answer: C 118. Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement? A. Giving a child candy for completing their homework B. Taking away privileges if a child does not follow classroom rules C. Allowing students homework passes if they work hard during class D. Removing a child's chores when he or she complete homework Answer: A 119. Which of the following will decrease the likelihood of behaviour reoccurring? A. Negative reinforcement B. Positive reinforcement C. Punishment D. Fixed ratio reinforcement Answer: C 120. Wearing shorts on a hot summer day is a behaviour that is established by way of A. punishment. B. positive reinforcement. C. classical conditioning. D. negative reinforcement. Answer: D 121. Under what circumstances will a reinforcer make the target response more likely to occur again? A. If it is a primary reinforcer B. If it is a positive reinforcer C. If it is a negative reinforcer D. Regardless of whether it is a positive or negative reinforcer, a reinforcer makes a response more likely to occur. Answer: D 122. A behaviour is negatively reinforced when the consequence involves removing something _______________, and positively reinforced when the consequence involves presenting something _______________. A. pleasant; pleasant B. unpleasant; pleasant C. unpleasant; unpleasant D. pleasant; unpleasant Answer: B 123. Which of the following is an example of negative reinforcement? A. Cheyenne was a good girl at daycare so her mother does not make her help set the table for supper. B. Zane did not do his chores when he got home from school so his mother took away his video games. C. Devin was crying because he wanted a treat so his parents gave him a treat to stop his crying. D. Kennedy was teasing her brother so her mother gave her a spanking. Answer: A 124. Beena is outside in the winter making a snowman, but forgot her gloves. Her hands get cold, so she runs home and puts her mittens on before going back outside to play. Beena’s behaviour is an example of A. positive reinforcement. B. response cost. C. punishment. D. negative reinforcement. Answer: D 125. Which of the following is an example of punishment? A. Nicole yells at her boyfriend for trying to talk to her during a TV show when he wanted to get her attention, and he continues to try to talk to her. B. Russ takes allergy medications as soon as he arrives at his animal research lab as he has noticed that when he takes the pills, he doesn’t get red eyes and a runny nose. C. Shannon gives her friend some of her macaroni and cheese at lunch because she knows her friend is hungry and forgot her lunch. D. Rodney makes fun of a girl who signed up to play basketball on his team because she was not very good, and she stopped coming to the games. Answer: D 126. Jason had a lot of trouble finishing a research paper, but worked really hard and got an A grade on the paper. This is an example of A. positive reinforcement. B. response cost. C. punishment. D. negative reinforcement. Answer: A 127. Which of the following reinforcers would likely work best in motivating high school students to stay on task during class time? A. Smiley faces B. Lunch with the teacher C. Homework passes D. Lunch with the principal Answer: C 128. Most preschool teachers are likely to favour the use of _______________ over _______________ in shaping students' behaviours. A. punishment; negative reinforcement B. punishment; positive reinforcement C. negative reinforcement; positive reinforcement D. positive reinforcement; punishment Answer: D 129. If parents handle discipline by employing mainly a punishment approach, which of the following can be assumed? A. Parents are interested in both eliminating bad behaviours and reinforcing good behaviours. B. Parents are interested in teaching appropriate behaviours to their children through positive reinforcement. C. Parents are interested in eliminating bad behaviours by presenting negative consequences after bad behaviour. D. Parents are interested in teaching appropriate behaviours to their children through negative reinforcement. Answer: C 130. Which of the following statements is representative of general research on spanking and aggression? A. Increased spanking causes increased aggression in children. B. Increased spanking is associated with higher levels of aggression in children from countries where spanking is rare. C. Increased spanking is associated with higher levels of aggression in children from countries where spanking is common. D. Increased spanking causes decreased aggression in children. Answer: B 131. Which of the following is not a disadvantage of punishment? A. Punishment can create anxiety and interfere with future learning. B. Punishment may provide a model for aggressive behaviour. C. Punishment decreases the likelihood that a given behaviour will recur. D. Punishment can encourage continuation of negative behaviours in more covert ways. Answer: C 132. Researchers that have studied the relationship between physical punishment by parents and aggressive behaviour in children have found that A. punishment is associated with more behavioural problems in children. B. there is a causal relationship between parental punishment and childhood aggression. C. punishment is effective for reducing problem behaviour in children and decreases aggressive responses. D. children who have aggressive tendencies will act accordingly independent of how the parents deal with problem behaviours. Answer: A 133. Use of physical discipline is _______________ correlated with behaviour problems in Caucasian families and _______________ correlated with behaviour problems in African American families. A. negatively; inversely B. inversely; positively C. positively; negatively D. inversely; negatively Answer: C 134. Aimee is walking around the mall and sees her friend Jane waving at her, so she walks over to talk to Jane. What is the discriminative stimulus in this example? A. Aimee B. Jane C. The wave D. The conversation Answer: C 135. Which of the following processes occurs in both operant conditioning and classical conditioning? A. Extinction B. Spontaneous recovery C. Generalization D. All of the above Answer: D 136. Which of the following concepts involves displaying a less pronounced response to stimuli that differ from the original stimulus in both classical and operant conditioning? A. Discriminative stimulus B. Stimulus generalization C. Extinction D. Stimulus discrimination Answer: D 137. Sandy loves pop music and every time a “boy band” has come to town for a concert, she has pouted until her husband bought her a ticket. Last year, she heard about the Backstreet Boys concert, and started whining to her husband about how badly she wanted to go, but he ignored her and did not buy her a ticket. This year, she wanted to go see Justin Bieber in concert but did not pout or whine to her husband and bought her own ticket. What process of conditioning has most likely occurred? A. Extinction B. Spontaneous recovery C. Stimulus discrimination D. Stimulus generalization Answer: A 138. Kristine gives her cat a treat every time he catches a mouse in her house, and Sarah gives her dog leftovers from the table once in awhile when he has been a good dog and did not beg. Which of the following statements regarding these examples is most accurate? A. Kristine is using positive reinforcement whereas Sarah is using negative reinforcement. B. Both Kristine and Sarah are using schedules of reinforcement to extinguish bad behaviour. C. It will be harder to extinguish the dog’s behaviour relative to the cat’s behaviour. D. Sarah’s dog will be slower to acquire learned behaviour relative to Kristine’s cat. Answer: C 139. The situation of a student's final grade improving one letter grade for every three books read represents which level of reinforcement? A. Variable interval B. Variable ratio C. Fixed ratio D. Fixed interval Answer: C 140. Which of the following is true regarding schedules of reinforcement? A. Partial reinforcement allows for new behaviours to be learned more quickly as compared to continuous reinforcement. B. Partial reinforcement of target behaviour leads to greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. C. Continuous reinforcement schedules involve reinforcing behaviour based on fixed time interval schedules. D. Continuous reinforcement of target behaviour leads to greater resistance to extinction than does partial reinforcement. Answer: B 141. Omar and Patrice sell magazine subscriptions by telephone. Omar is paid $1.00 for every 5 calls he makes, while Patrice is paid $1.00 for every subscription he sells. Omar is paid on a _______________ schedule while Patrice is paid on a _______________ schedule. A. fixed ratio; fixed interval B. variable ratio; fixed ratio C. fixed ratio; variable ratio D. fixed ratio; variable interval Answer: C 142. Most employees work eight hours per day from Monday through Friday. Most employees are paid on a _______________ schedule of reinforcement. A. variable ratio B. variable interval C. fixed ratio D. fixed interval Answer: D 143. A fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement involves A. giving reinforcement after a specific amount of time has elapsed. B. giving reinforcement after a varied number of behaviours have been produced. C. giving reinforcement after a specific number of behaviours have been produced. D. giving reinforcement after a varied amount of time has elapsed. Answer: C 144. Providing a child a homework pass if she completes 5 word problems during class represents both _______________ reinforcement and a _______________ schedule of reinforcement. A. negative; variable ratio B. positive; variable ratio C. negative; fixed ratio D. positive; fixed interval Answer: C 145. Learned behaviour is less prone to extinction if it is conditioned by _______________ reinforcement. A. intermittent B. negative C. continuous D. delayed Answer: A 146. Julie is expected to cut the lawn weekly. Her parents only give her money once in a while after she cuts the lawn. Julie is being conditioned using a _______________ schedule of reinforcement. A. variable ratio B. continuous C. intermittent D. fixed ratio Answer: C 147. Which of the intermittent schedules produces the highest rates of responding? A. Variable ratio B. Fixed ratio C. Fixed interval D. Variable interval Answer: A 148. Five-year-old Joann will learn to read best if she is reinforced based on A. how many books she reads. B. when she reads. C. how much time she spends reading. D. where she reads. Answer: A 149. Julie is paid based on commission so her salary reflects a _______________ schedule of reinforcement. A. variable interval B. fixed interval C. variable ratio D. fixed ratio Answer: C 150. Which of the following is true concerning intermittent schedules of reinforcement? A. All combinations of intermittent schedules yield similar rates of responding. B. Interval schedules yield higher rates of responding as compared to ratio schedules. C. Fixed schedules yield higher rates of responding as compared to variable schedules. D. Ratio schedules yield higher rates of responding as compared to interval schedules. Answer: D 151. Tara has a gambling problem and continues to put money into her favourite slot machine for hours at a time. She whispers “big money big money!” to the machine hoping to get her big payoff. What schedule of reinforcement is influencing Tara’s behaviour? A. Fixed interval B. Fixed ratio C. Variable interval D. Variable ratio Answer: D 152. It is most appropriate to use operant conditioning when A. teaching a child to swim. B. teaching a child to dive into a swimming. C. teaching a child to cross a busy street. D. teaching a child to read. Answer: D 153. Which of the following describes the situation of chaining? A. Teaching a child to play tennis by providing reinforcement every time the child hits the ball over the net until he or she is able to play the complete game of tennis. B. Teaching a child to play tennis by providing reinforcement in steps for learning to serve, volley, and use the forehand and backhand until the child can play the complete game of tennis. C. Teaching a child to play tennis by reinforcing him or her for effort and then pulling away from reinforcement once the child is skilled enough to play the complete game of tennis. D. Teaching a child to play tennis by reinforcing him or her for effort and not performance until the child is confident enough to play the complete game of tennis. Answer: B 154. Which of the following is true concerning operant conditioning principles? A. Chaining involves the shaping the behaviour by use of punishment and reinforcement. B. Fading involves gradually decreasing reinforcement for wanted behaviours. C. Shaping involves delivering punishment for unwanted behaviours. D. Chaining involves reinforcing behaviours that come closer to the target behaviour. Answer: B 155. Which of the following terms represents the process of moving from a continuous reinforcement schedule to partial reinforcement schedule? A. Shaping B. Chunking C. Coding D. Fading Answer: D 156. Which of the following is an example of the Premack principle? A. Allowing a child to have ice cream only if he/she eats his/her vegetables B. Allowing a child to have ice cream even if he/she does not eat the vegetables C. Allowing the child to have an extra ice cream cone if he/she dislikes the first cone D. Disallowing a child to have ice cream because he/she did not eat his/her vegetables Answer: A 157. Allison is trying to teach her cat to use the toilet rather than the litter box to go to the bathroom. She initially moves the litter box into the bathroom, and gives her cat a treat when she uses it. Then she moves the litter box on top of the toilet, and gives her cat a treat when she uses it. Next, she uses a toilet insert that has litter in it but requires her cat to balance on the toilet seat to go to the bathroom. When her cat successfully does this, Allison gives her a treat. Allison is using which of the following processes of operant conditioning? A. Fading B. Shaping C. Chaining D. Scalloping Answer: B 158. Sheldon is a psychology student and decides to conduct an experiment where he provides reinforcement to his pet rat every minute, independent of its behaviour. After several days of his experiment, Sheldon notices that his rat is engaging in strange behaviours such as turning around in circles repetitively. Which of the following is an explanation for what likely happened in Sheldon’s experiment? A. Negative reinforcement B. Positive reinforcement C. Shaping of successive approximations D. Superstitious conditioning Answer: D 159. Token economies are reinforcement-based strategies that use points, tokens, and chips as _______________ reinforcers. A. primary B. secondary C. neutral D. negative Answer: B 160. A _______________ reinforcer is any reward that satisfies a basic, biological need, such a hunger, thirst, or touch. A. primary B. secondary C. neutral D. negative Answer: A 161. Kelsey just told her family a really funny joke that she made up herself. In order to use a primary reinforcer to encourage her in her joke-telling, Kelsey’s dad might A. offer her money. B. applaud her appropriate behaviour. C. offer her praise for a job well done. D. offer her a piece of candy. Answer: D 162. _______________ is an example of a primary reinforcer, whereas _______________ is an example of a secondary reinforcer. A. A cupcake; a certificate of achievement given to a student B. A kiss; money C. Water; food D. A gold star; cupcake Answer: B 163. A _______________ reinforcer, such as money or praise, gets its value through an association with a _______________ reinforcer. A. positive; negative B. secondary; primary C. natural; artificial D. primary; secondary Answer: B 164. Which of the following is a secondary reinforcer? A. Water B. Food C. Shelter D. A gold star Answer: D 165. Token economies are reinforcement-based strategies that use points, tokens, and chips as _______________ reinforcers. A. primary B. secondary C. neutral D. negative Answer: B 166. Which of the following is true of token economies? A. Token economies have proven to be effective in conditioning behaviour over long periods of time. B. Token economies work best with elementary school children as compared to teens. C. Token economies work best when conditioning behaviour over short periods of time. D. Token economies have proven to be ineffective when employed in juvenile detention centres and group homes. Answer: A 167. Regarding the two-processes of operant and classical conditioning, which is true? A. Concerning brain imaging scans, phobias are based largely in the temporal lobes. B. Concerning brain imaging scans, phobias are based largely in the frontal lobes. C. Phobias are likely caused by classical conditioning maintained by operant conditioning. D. Phobias are likely caused by operant conditioning and maintained by classical conditioning. Answer: C 168. Chiquita is afraid of robots. Her phobia was likely acquired through _______________, and is maintained through _______________ as she avoids contact with robots which help her anxiety. A. operant conditioning, positive reinforcement B. classical conditioning, negative reinforcement C. instrumental conditioning; classical conditioning D. observational conditioning; avoidance conditioning Answer: B 169. The main difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning is that A. operant conditioning describes behaviour as resulting from personality traits. B. operant conditioning describes behaviour as resulting from reasoning about actions and consequences. C. operant conditioning describes behaviour as resulting from moral development. D. operant conditioning describes behaviour as resulting from biological drives. Answer: B 170. Use of operant conditioning techniques and applied behaviour analysis (ABA) have been applied extensively to treating which disorder? A. Schizophrenia B. Phobias C. Autism D. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Answer: C 171. The authors of your text discuss many myths surrounding what B.F. Skinner believed. Which statement about Skinner is fictitious? A. Skinner believed that humans and other animals think and experience emotions. B. Skinner acknowledged that genes influence learning habits. C. Skinner favoured punishment as a behavioural technique. D. Skinner wanted reinforcement principles to better society. Answer: C 172. Advocates of _______________ argued that psychology should focus on both overt and covert (e.g., thinking, emotion) behaviours, whereas those that endorsed _______________ argued that psychology should focus on observable behaviours only. A. methodological behaviourism; radical behaviourism B. radical behaviourism; methodological behaviourism C. classical conditioning; operant conditioning D. operant conditioning; classical conditioning Answer: B 173. B. F. Skinner's critics suggest that he may have neglected the impact of _______________ on learned behaviour. A. parenting B. personality C. free will D. genetics Answer: C 174. The “O” in S-O-R psychology stands for _______________. A. operant B. observational C. organism D. omniscient Answer: C 175. Which of the following is an example of the S-O-R principle? A. A dog salivates when his owner opens a can of dog food. B. Children copy the actions of their parents. C. Two friends respond differently to the same criticism. D. A student studies harder after getting a C-grade on an exam. Answer: C 176. Which of the following is true concerning Tolman and Honzlik's classic study of latent learning? A. Rats were not able to learn if reinforcement was withheld for long periods of time. B. Rats learned when receiving punishment but not when receiving reinforcement. C. Rats learned only when reinforcement was presented immediately following behaviour. D. Rats were able to learn without receiving reinforcement. Answer: D 177. Concerning cognitive maps, which is likely true? A. Forming a mental representation of the layout of the maze will likely confuse teens because they learn best by doing not thinking. B. Teens allowed to view a maze from 10 feet above before beginning will be less capable of working their way through the maze as compared to children given a practice run through the maze before beginning. C. Teens allowed to view a maze from 10 feet above before beginning will be just as capable of working their way through the maze as compared to children given a practice run through the maze before beginning. D. The ability to form accurate mental representations of the layout of the maze will be difficult for teens, so the group viewing the maze before beginning will likely perform worse on this task. Answer: C 178. The case of learning in the absence of reinforcement is demonstrated by studies of A. generalization. B. extinction. C. latent learning. D. spontaneous recovery. Answer: C 179. Studies of latent learning emphasizes the importance of _______________ on learning. A. experience B. punishment C. reinforcement D. cognitive processes Answer: D 180. Tolman proposed that during learning trials, the rats in his experiments developed spatial representations of the maze. Those representations are called _______________. A. token economies B. shaping C. learning histories D. cognitive maps Answer: D 181. Which of the following describes the main difference between observational learning and operant conditioning? A. Observational learning uses punishment and reinforcement of models to condition the behaviours of observers. B. Observational learning uses mainly punishment to condition behaviour as compared to operant conditioning, which uses both reinforcement and punishment. C. Observational learning uses different schedules of punishment and reinforcement to condition behaviours as compared to operant conditioning. D. Observational learning uses mainly reinforcement to condition behaviour as compared to operant conditioning, which uses both reinforcement and punishment. Answer: A 182. John sees others being praised for using good penmanship and now he attempts to use good penmanship. This behaviour is reflective of _______________ learning. A. conditional B. stimulus response C. observational D. stimulus organism response Answer: C 183. Which of the following theories provides the safest strategies for teaching a child to cross a busy street? A. Observational learning B. Stimulus organism response C. Operant conditioning D. Classical conditioning Answer: A 184. Which theorists' views of learning are most closely tied? A. Watson's and Skinner's B. Pavlov's and Skinner's C. Pavlov's and Bandura's D. Skinner's and Bandura's Answer: D 185. Which of the following is true concerning Bandura's classic “Bobo doll” study? A. Exposure to aggressive models led to increased aggression in nursery school children. B. Exposure to aggressive models did not influence levels of aggression in nursery school children. C. Exposure to nonaggressive models led to decreased levels of aggression in nursery school children. D. Exposure to aggressive models led to decreased levels of aggression in nursery school children. Answer: A 186. Researchers studying the effects of television violence on aggression have found that A. media violence may cause aggression in children, but this is difficult to substantiate because correlational studies used to investigate this link are low in internal validity. B. media violence causes aggression in children because high correlations exist between media viewing and amounts of violence viewed and aggressive behaviours. C. media violence may cause aggression in children because most children who watch violent television programs display aggressive personality types. D. media violence causes aggression in children because most correlational studies used to investigate this link have been high in internal validity. Answer: A 187. Which type of neuron becomes active when we engage in observational learning? A. Sensory neuron B. Receiving neuron C. Mirror neuron D. Motor neuron Answer: C 188. Neuroscientists believe that mirror neurons play a central role in _______________. A. empathy B. happiness C. aggression D. latent learning Answer: A 189. _______________ is to the “aha reaction” as _______________ is to positive reinforcement. A. S-O-R psychology; negative reinforcement B. shaping; latent learning C. insight learning; law of effect D. fixed interval; variable ratio Answer: C 190. Every time Charlie eats asparagus, she ends up feeling nauseous and sick to her stomach. After this happened a few times, Charlie starts to feel ill even when she sees asparagus or people talk about it, and she avoids eating or being around it although she doesn’t realize she is behaving this way. Which of the following reflects the type of conditioning Charlie has experienced? A. Operant conditioning B. Avoidance conditioning C. Aversive conditioning D. Instrumental conditioning Answer: C 191. Rodney is an alcoholic, and has been taken to his doctor as part of an intervention program. The doctor puts Rodney on a medication called Antabuse, which causes a nauseous and painful reaction when alcohol is consumed. Rodney doesn’t believe this, and continues to consume alcohol, only to get violently sick every time he does. Pretty soon, the sight of alcohol makes him feel queasy. What type of conditioning is being used to help treat Rodney’s alcoholism? A. Operant conditioning B. Aversive conditioning C. Punishment D. Negative reinforcement Answer: B 192. Which of the following is reflective of Seligman's research on conditioned taste aversion? A. Repeated pairings of the CS with the UCS are needed to produce a taste aversion. B. Once a taste aversion has been conditioned it is relatively easily to extinguish this taste aversion. C. If a taste aversion to mayonnaise has emerged, it is likely that an aversion to other creamy sauces will emerge. D. Contrary to most classically conditioned reactions, only one pairing of the CS with the UCS is needed to produce a taste aversion. Answer: D 193. Last month Walter became sick after eating two chili dogs, so he no longer likes chili dogs. Walter has experienced A. blocking. B. conditioned taste-aversion. C. operant taste conditioning. D. noncontingent conditioning. Answer: B 194. What is likely to happen to rats that drink a saccharin solution and are then shocked? A. They will develop an aversion to saccharin. B. They will refuse to drink any water and die. C. They will not develop an aversion to saccharin solutions. D. They will die as a result of the shocks they received in the research. Answer: C 195. Your parakeet eats some cooked spaghetti. Later, the parakeet gets ill. What would the research on biological preparedness predict? A. The parakeet will probably not eat shell macaroni because it smells similar to spaghetti. B. The parakeet will probably not eat shell macaroni because it tastes similar to spaghetti. C. The parakeet will probably not eat linguini noodles because they are long and thin and look similar to spaghetti. D. The parakeet will eat spaghetti again. Answer: C 196. Which learning theorist is responsible for the discovery of biological influences on conditioned taste aversions? A. Seligman B. Garcia C. Skinner D. Watson Answer: B 197. An important example of conditioned taste aversions might be A. chemotherapy patients losing their appetites for food served around the same time they had their treatments. B. farmers leaving out sheep meat laced with a nauseating substance for coyotes to find in hopes of teaching them not to eat sheep. C. Both of these are examples of taste aversions. D. Neither of these are examples of conditioned taste aversions. Answer: C 198. A farmer is being troubled by coyotes eating his sheep. In an attempt to solve the problem, he kills a sheep and laces its body with a nausea-inducing drug. He leaves the sheep out where he knows the coyotes roam. He hopes they will learn not to eat the sheep. The farmer is attempting to apply the research of _______________ to accomplish this. A. Skinner B. Bandura C. Tolman D. Garcia Answer: D 199. A farmer is being troubled by coyotes eating his sheep. In an attempt to solve the problem, he kills a sheep and laces its body with a nausea-inducing drug. He leaves the sheep out where he knows the coyotes roam. He hopes they will learn not to eat the sheep. The farmer is attempting to apply the principle of _______________ to accomplish this. A. observational learning B. latent learning C. instrumental conditioning D. classical conditioning Answer: D 200. Which of the following represents the concept of equipotentiality? A. After exposure to X-rays, rats develop an aversion to red lights. B. After exposure to X-rays, rats develop an aversion to crackers. C. After exposure to X-rays, rats develop an aversion to both crackers and red lights. D. After exposure to X-rays, rats develop an aversion to food after multiple pairings of the CS with UCS. Answer: C 201. Your friend Hannah is about to begin chemotherapy treatments for cancer. She read in an information packet that chemotherapy patients often develop aversions to their favourite foods due to illness associated with the treatments. Which of the following would you recommend to Hannah to help her avoid these aversions? A. Prior to her chemotherapy, Hannah should eat an unfamiliar scapegoat food so that any aversions she develops will be associated with the scapegoat and not her favourite foods. B. Hannah should continue to eat her favourite foods despite taste aversions as those will eventually go away and her favourite foods will make her feel better. C. Taste aversions only occur to unfamiliar foods so she should eat familiar foods prior to chemotherapy. D. Taste aversions require repeated pairings to develop and as long as she eats something different prior to each chemotherapy treatment, she shouldn’t develop any taste aversions. Answer: A 202. Cancer patients may be asked to _______________ prior to chemotherapy treatments to avoid conditioned taste aversions. A. participate in shock conditioning B. take the drug Antabuse C. make themselves vomit D. eat an unfamiliar scapegoat food Answer: D 203. Human beings generally have an aversion to bitter and sour foods. Some researchers suggest that this is because foods that are inedible or even poisonous are often bitter or sour. The tendency of human beings to find these potentially harmful foods repulsive is an example of A. classical conditioning. B. vicarious conditioning. C. conditioned emotional response. D. biological preparedness. Answer: A 204. Which of the following methods would likely be effective in eliminating a child's phobia of dentists? A. Take the child to their favourite restaurant after visiting the dentist so the dentist is paired with a pleasurable UCS. B. Inform the child that their teeth will hurt if the dentist does not clean them so the dentist is paired with pain relief. C. Inform the child that they will be punished if they do not go to the dentist so the dentist is associated with the positive feelings of nonpunishment. D. Inform the child that their teeth will rot if the dentist does not clean them so the dentist is paired with a feared UCS. Answer: A 205. Research on phobias has suggested that the stimuli that people are most commonly afraid of may have an evolutionary basis, and were stimuli that posed a threat to our early human ancestors. Which of the following concepts fits with this explanation? A. Insight learning B. Latent learning C. Preparedness D. Instinctive drift Answer: C 206. Ed owns a husky dog that is part wolf in its breeding. Although his dog is well trained, Ed comes home one day to find that his dog has captured, killed, and partially eaten his neighbour’s pet rabbit. What phenomenon provides the best explanation for this scenario? A. Preparedness B. Instinctive drift C. Latent inhibition D. Insight learning Answer: B 207. The tendency for animals to return to innate behaviours following repeated reinforcement is called _______________. A. biological preparedness B. instinctive drift C. latent inhibition D. insight learning Answer: B 208. Research on learning styles has demonstrated that A. individuals tend to learn best via one of four specific learning styles (e.g., visual, holistic). B. tailoring teaching methods to student’s learning styles significantly improves their learning. C. there is little scientific evidence for learning styles and assessment of learning styles has not been reliable. D. individuals have a predominant learning style, or preferred mode of learning, as well as a secondary learning style, and teaching tailored to both of these dramatically increases performance. Answer: C 209. Which of the following statements concerning sleep learning is true? A. Sleep learning tapes work because we actively process information while we sleep. B. Sleep learning studies confirm that we can learn languages while we sleep. C. Most evidence from studies on sleep learning suggests that it is an effective learning strategy. D. Sleep learning tapes work because we are likely not asleep when we listen to the tapes. Answer: D 210. Which of the following is true concerning Accelerated Learning techniques? A. Playing classical music for students appears to increase their rates of learning. B. Students who employ relaxed breathing techniques appear to learn more quickly than those students who do not use these techniques. C. Asking students to visualize information that they are learning appears to increase their rates of learning. D. Research concerning suggestive learning techniques does not provide strong evidence supporting the effectiveness of these techniques. Answer: D 211. Which of the following is an example of discovery learning? A. A teacher individually assisting a student with a problem set B. A student working independently on a science project C. A student serving as a skilled assistant who teaches another student D. A student scoring well on a re-test after scoring low the first time Answer: B 212. Which of the following is most representative of research concerning learning styles? A. Most students have a specific learning style and teachers should tailor instruction to the individual student based on their learning style. B. Visual learners are not likely to enjoy tasks that involve analytical skills. C. Learning style inventories may lack validity and reliability so consequently it is difficult to pinpoint how a certain student will learn best. D. Linguistic learners are likely to struggle with tasks that involve mathematical skills. Answer: C Critical Thinking Questions 1. Suppose a student uses inappropriate language in class. Describe how you would attempt to change this student’s behaviour using positive or negative reinforcement. Answer: The student can be praised, offered points, or given privileges if he or she does not use inappropriate language or if there is a decrease in the use of inappropriate language (positive reinforcement). The student could be given an exemption from undesirable tasks if his or her use of inappropriate language decreases. For example, homework passes or classroom chores can be removed if the student’s language improves (negative reinforcement). To address the student's inappropriate language using reinforcement: 1. Positive reinforcement: Praise and reward the student when they use appropriate language in class, such as verbal acknowledgment or small privileges. 2. Negative reinforcement: Remove aversive stimuli when the student refrains from using inappropriate language, like reducing extra assignments or allowing them to skip a less preferred task. Consistently applying these reinforcement techniques can encourage the student to replace inappropriate language with more acceptable behaviors. 2. Describe the similarities and differences between operant conditioning theory and observational learning theory. Answer: Both theories utilize punishment and reinforcement principles. Both use schedules of reinforcement. Observational learning involves conditioning observers through the use of models who are reinforced or punished while operant conditioning involves direct reinforcement of individuals. 3. Describe the process of how conditioned taste aversions are developed, and how principles of learning and reinforcement are being used to avoid these aversions in cancer patients. Answer: Conditioned taste aversion refers to the fact that classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food. In contrast to most classically conditioned reactions, which require repeated pairings between CS and UCS, conditioned taste aversions typically require only one trial to develop. Conditioned taste aversions tend to be remarkably specific and display little evidence of stimulus generalization. Conditioned taste aversions are a particular problem among cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy, which frequently induces nausea and vomiting. As a result, they often develop an aversion to any food that preceded chemotherapy, even though they realize it bears no logical connection to the treatment. Fortunately, health psychologists (see Chapter 12) have developed a clever way around this problem. Capitalizing on the specificity of conditioned taste aversions, they ask cancer patients to eat an unfamiliar scapegoat food—a novel food of which they aren’t fond—prior to chemotherapy. In general, the taste aversion becomes conditioned to the scapegoat food rather than to patients’ preferred foods (Andresen, Birch, & Johnson, 1990). Essay Questions 1. Describe how you would condition a child who is afraid of cats to enjoy playing with a neighbour's cat. Answer: The cat is the CS and ice cream is the UCS. Each time the child plays with the cat, the parents take the child out for ice cream. After several pairings of the CS with the UCS, the child may develop positive feelings for the cat. 2. Using classical conditioning, describe how you would train a three-year-old to safely cross the street. Be sure to identify the CS, UCS, CR, and UCR. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. • CS is street, UCS are loud car horns, CR is fear and looking both ways, UCR is fear and looking both ways. • Child approaches the busy street (CS) and cars beep loudly (UCS) as child nears the curb. The child becomes startled and looks both ways (UCR and CR). After several pairings of CS and UCS the child naturally looks both ways when nearing the busy street. To train a three-year-old to safely cross the street using classical conditioning: 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Pair the sight and sound of a car (UCS) approaching with a loud noise (UCR), like a honking horn, to evoke an innate fear response (UCR). 2. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Over time, the sight and sound of the car (CS) alone will trigger the fear response (CR) in the child. 3. Conditioned Response (CR): The fear response (CR), such as hesitation or pulling back from the street, becomes associated with seeing or hearing a car, promoting safer street crossing behavior over time. 3. Describe how a parent could use operant conditioning to motivate their 9th grade child to move from a “C” student to an “A” student. Discuss positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, and the schedule(s) of reinforcement that you would employ. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. • Positive reinforcement would consist of increased allowance or the promise of new electronic games or CDs and presents in the form of gift cards for improved grades. • Negative reinforcement would consist of periodic removal of chores and early bedtimes, and periodic removal of restrictions on television viewing during the week. • Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement would be used such that for each.5 improvement in overall GPA, the child will be given various combinations of reinforcements listed above. 2.0 to 2.5 (reinforcement), 2.5–3.0 (reinforcement), 3.0– 3.5 (reinforcement), and 3.5–4.0 (reinforcement). • Punishment in the form of increased restrictions placed on television viewing, increased chores, suspended allowance, and restrictions placed on electronic games. Punishments will occur if grades fall under a C average. To motivate their 9th grade child to improve from a "C" to an "A" student using operant conditioning: 1. Positive reinforcement: Reward the child with privileges, such as increased screen time or outings, for achieving higher grades. 2. Negative reinforcement: Remove chores or responsibilities when the child maintains good grades consistently. 3. Punishment: Apply mild consequences, like reduced privileges, for not meeting academic goals. Employing a continuous schedule of reinforcement initially for each improved grade, then transitioning to a variable ratio schedule as performance stabilizes, can effectively reinforce and sustain academic improvement. 4. If you owned a personal business and needed to increase worker productivity, describe how you would do so using operant conditioning. Outline the reinforcers that you would employ and the schedules of reinforcement that you would use. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. • Fixed ratio schedule would be used to set the level of productivity that was needed, and all workers achieving the appropriate level of productivity would be paid would be paid bonuses if this productivity lasted more than 2–3 months. • Other reinforcers for top producers would include salary increases, promotions, extra vacation time, and time off for increased productivity over 3–5 months. To increase worker productivity using operant conditioning in a personal business: 1. Positive reinforcement: Offer monetary bonuses, praise, or recognition for achieving productivity goals. 2. Negative reinforcement: Remove tedious tasks or provide flexible work hours as a reward for meeting targets. 3. Schedules of reinforcement: Implement a variable ratio schedule where rewards are given after a variable number of tasks completed successfully, encouraging consistent high performance without predictability. This approach can maintain motivation and productivity over the long term. 5. Distinguish between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. Provide an example of each. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. Positive Reinforcement: Presenting a desirable stimulus; Increases target behaviour; Gold star on homework Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus; Increases target behaviour; Static on phone that subsides when you move to a different spot in your room Positive Punishment: Presenting an undesirable stimulus; Decreases target behaviour; Scolding by parents Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus; decreases target behaviour; Taking away a child’s dessert Positive reinforcement involves adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior (e.g., giving a child a sticker for completing homework). Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., stopping an annoying alarm by waking up). Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., giving a fine for speeding). Negative punishment takes away a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away screen time for misbehavior). 6. What are the four main disadvantages of punishment? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following information for full credit. (1) Punishment only tells the organism what not to do, not what to do. A child who’s punished for throwing a tantrum won’t learn how to deal with frustration more constructively. (2) Punishment often creates anxiety, which in turn interferes with future learning. (3) Punishment may encourage subversive behaviour, prompting people to become sneakier about the situations in which they can and can’t display forbidden behaviour. A child who’s punished for grabbing his brother’s toys may learn to grab his brother’s toys only when his parents aren’t looking. (4) Punishment from parents may provide a model for children’s aggressive behaviour. A child whose parents slap him when he misbehaves may “get the message” that slapping is acceptable. The four main disadvantages of punishment are: 1. Temporary suppression: Punishment often suppresses behavior temporarily but does not necessarily eliminate the underlying cause. 2. Emotional consequences: It can lead to negative emotional responses, resentment, or fear, damaging the relationship between the punisher and the individual. 3. Counteraggression or avoidance: It may prompt aggressive or avoidant behavior to escape punishment rather than encourage positive alternatives. 4. Limited generalization: Punishment's effectiveness may be limited to specific contexts or situations, failing to generalize across different settings or behaviors. 7. What are the four schedules of reinforcement? Describe each and provide an example. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. (1) In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, we provide reinforcement after a regular number of responses. For example, on an FR 15 schedule, we give a rat a food pellet for every 15 lever presses. Likewise, you might earn a dollar for every three bushels of apples you pick in an orchard. (2) In a fixed interval (FI) schedule, we provide reinforcement for the first response after a specified amount of time has passed. For example, on an FI 2- minute schedule, we give the rat a food pellet for the first lever press it makes after two minutes have elapsed since the last food pellet. Any lever presses that it makes during the two-minute period will be ineffective. Likewise, we will get to talk to a customer service representative when we call the store after it opens one hour from now, but any phone calls before it opens will be ineffective. (3) In a variable ratio (VR) schedule, we provide reinforcement for a variable number of responses, with the number varying randomly around some average. A pigeon on a VR 10 schedule might receive a piece of bird feed after 6 pecks, then after 12 pecks, then after 1 peck, then after 21 pecks, with the average ratio being 10. (4) In a variable interval (VI) schedule, we provide reinforcement for the first response after a variable time interval, with the actual intervals varying randomly around some average. For example, on a VI 60-sec schedule, we could give the rat a food pellet for the first response after a 20-second interval, then after an 80- second interval, then after a 50-second interval, then after a 90-second interval, with the average interval being 60 seconds. The four schedules of reinforcement are: 1. Fixed-ratio (FR): Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses (e.g., a worker gets paid after assembling 10 products). 2. Variable-ratio (VR): Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines payout after a random number of lever pulls). 3. Fixed-interval (FI): Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time has passed (e.g., a weekly paycheck). 4. Variable-interval (VI): Reinforcement is given after varying time intervals (e.g., random drug testing at work). 8. Describe how operant conditioning helps to explain superstitions that people develop? Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the points that reflect the following for full credit. How do superstitions relate to operant conditioning? In a classic study, Skinner (1948) placed food-deprived pigeons in a Skinner box while delivering reinforcement (bird feed) every 15 seconds independent of their behaviour. That is, the birds received reinforcement regardless of what they did. After a few days, Skinner found that six of eight pigeons exposed to this procedure acquired remarkably strange behaviours. According to Skinner, his pigeons had developed superstitious behaviour: Actions linked to reinforcement by sheer coincidence. There’s no actual association between superstitious behaviour and reinforcement, although the animal acts as though there is. The behaviour that the pigeon just happened to be performing immediately prior to reinforcement was strengthened—remember that reinforcement increases the probability of a response—so the pigeon kept on doing it (this kind of accidental operant conditioning is sometimes called superstitious conditioning). Operant conditioning explains superstitions by linking random behaviors to reinforcement. When a behavior coincidentally precedes a positive outcome (e.g., a lucky shirt worn during a win), the individual believes the behavior caused the outcome. This accidental reinforcement increases the likelihood of repeating the behavior, perpetuating the superstition. 9. Explain how classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and preparedness relate to phobias. Answer: Answers will vary but should contain the following for full credit. Acquisition: Classical conditioning: a previously neutral stimulus—say, a dog—is paired with an unpleasant stimulus (the UCS)—a dog bite—resulting in the dog becoming a CS that elicits a CR of fear. Maintenance: Once someone is phobic, they start to avoid their feared stimulus whenever they see it. And because they avoid the feared stimulus whenever they see it, they don’t allow sufficient opportunity for their fear response to extinguish. For example, if they have a dog phobia, they may cross the street whenever they see someone walking toward them with a large German shepherd. When they do, they experience an immediate reduction in anxiety—a surge of relief—which negatively reinforces their tendency to avoid dogs in the future. Preparedness: We’re evolutionarily predisposed to fear certain stimuli more than others. According to Seligman, that’s because certain stimuli, like steep cliffs and poisonous animals, posed a threat to our early human ancestors. In contrast, household items and appliances didn’t, because they weren’t around back then. In the words of Susan Mineka and Michael Cook (1993), prepared fears are “evolutionary memories”: emotional legacies of natural selection. Classical conditioning can lead to phobias when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a frightening event (e.g., a dog bite leading to a fear of dogs). Operant conditioning reinforces phobias when avoiding the feared object reduces anxiety, thereby strengthening the avoidance behavior. Preparedness suggests that we are biologically predisposed to develop phobias of certain objects or situations (e.g., snakes or heights) that posed threats to our ancestors' survival. Fill in the Blank Questions 1. _______________ is credited as developing the theory of classical conditioning. Answer: Pavlov 2. In Pavlov's classic salivating dog experiment, food is _______________ stimulus. Answer: the unconditioned 3. In classical conditioning, the CR and _______________ are usually the same. Answer: the UCR 4. In pairings of the CS with _____________, the CS is presented first and _______________ is presented second. Answer: the UCS, the UCS. 5. _______________ is the term used to describe the situation in which a CS produces a CR. Answer: Acquisition 6. The process by which the CS no longer produces the CR is called _______________. Answer: extinction 7. If a white rat is conditioned to produce fear in a child and soon all white furry animals are feared by the child, _______________ is said to occur. Answer: stimulus generalisation 8. If Sam is afraid of spiders it is likely that his fear of spiders is the result of _______________ and this fear is maintained by _______________. Answer: classical conditioning, operant conditioning 9. Marketing executives use _______________ when they employ celebrities to sell products. Answer: classical conditioning 10. In Watson's study involving “Little Albert,” a white rat was the CS. Answer: a white rat 11. Thorndike's _______________ principle asserts that rewards following behaviour lead to increased production of the behaviour. Answer: law of effect 12. _______________ is most closely associated with developing the theory of operant conditioning. Answer: Skinner 13. Allowing students with A averages exemptions from taking a final exam is an example of _______________. Answer: negative reinforcement 14. _______________ increases the likelihood of behaviour being reproduced, while punishment decreases the likelihood of behaviour being reproduced. Answer: Reinforcement 15. A teacher states that all students who complete 5 word problems by the end of class will be exempt from homework. The teacher is using a _______________ schedule of reinforcement. Answer: fixed ratio 16. Most employees who work 40 hours per week are likely paid on a _______________ schedule. Answer: fixed interval 17. The schedule of reinforcement described as being most resistant to extinction is _______________. Answer: variable ratio 18. The _______________ is a conditioning strategy that promises to provide ice cream to someone if they eat their spinach. Answer: Premack principle 19. Most token economy conditioning strategies use chips, tokens, or points as _______________ reinforcers. Answer: secondary 20. Candy, ice cream, and cookies are examples of _______________. Answer: primary reinforcers 21. _______________ was an advocate of radical behaviourism. Answer: Skinner 22. _______________ uses the principles of operant conditioning with the addition of models being reinforced and punished. Answer: Observational learning (or Social learning) 23. _______________ suggested that aggression is learned by watching aggressive models. Answer: Bandura 24. Mirror neurons are discussed in relation to _______________ learning. Answer: observational 25. Conditioned taste aversions typically result from only one pairing of _______________. Answer: the CS and UCS Test Bank for Psychology: From Inquiry to Understanding Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven J. Lynn, Laura L. Namy, Nancy J. Woolf, Kenneth M. Cramer, Rodney Schmaltz 9780205896110, 9780133793048, 9780133870282
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