This Document Contains Chapters 6 to 9 Chapter Six Test Questions Culture, Data, and Context SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) Every find in archaeology should have __________. A. a precisely recorded location B. a high monetary value C. no value to anyone but specialists D. a place in space but not in time Answer: A 2) Anthropologists would define "culture" as __________. A. art B. material goods C. our adaptive system D. music Answer: C 3) Human culture is never __________. A. dynamic B. static C. technological C. agricultural Answer: B 4) Leonard Woolley of Ur fame excavated the Hittite city at __________. A. Peloponnesia B. Herculaneum C. Pompei D. Carchemish Answer: D 5) The provenience of an artifact refers to __________. A. the material it is made of B. its value C. its size and shape D. its three-dimensional position in the matrix Answer: D 6) The normative view of culture is usually associated with which of the following anthropologists? A. Franz Boaz B. J.J.A. Worsaae C. Edward Tylor D. Bronislaw Malinowski Answer: A 7) The functional view of culture is usually associated with which of the following anthropologists? A. Franz Boaz B. Bronislaw Malinowski C. J.J.A. Worsaae D. John Evans Answer: B 8) For archaeologists, the normative view of culture is most useful in __________. A. working out descriptive sequences of culture history B. discovering underlying symbolic meanings C. reconstructing past lifeways D. explaining cultural change Answer: A 9) Functionalism in archaeology tends to be __________. A. intangible B. ahistorical C. normative D. historical Answer: D 10) Archaeologists concerned with culture process focus on __________. A. trying to reconstruct past lifeways B. working out detailed historical sequences for specific regions C. analyzing the causes of cultural change D. analyzing underlying symbolic meanings Answer: C 11) Archaeological data consist of __________. A. ecosystems B. material remains C. processes D. communications systems Answer: B 12) The term archaeological record refers to __________. A. the distribution of artifacts over the earth's surface B. archaeological field notes C. written records pertaining to ancient people D. archaeological textbooks Answer: A 13) The term ecofacts refers to __________. A. potsherds B. artifacts that cannot be removed from the ground (e.g., post holes) C. food remains such as bones and seeds D. buildings Answer: C 14) An archaeological matrix may be __________. A. created by insect activity B. created by ground squirrel activity C. gravel, sand, water, etc. D. cultural in nature Answer: D 15) The principle of association was first stated by __________. A. Lewis Binford B. J.J.A. Worsaae C. Bronislaw Malinowski D. Sir Mortimer Wheeler Answer: B 16) According to the principle of superposition __________. A. in general, lower strata are older than upper strata B. lower strata are usually not in primary context C. lower strata are usually younger than upper strata D. lower strata are usually in primary context, but upper strata are not Answer: A 17) An archaeological find may be said to be in primary context if __________. A. it has been disturbed by later activity B. it has been displaced over time by geologic activity C. it has not been disturbed since it was first deposited D. it can be dated Answer: C 18) An archaeological culture may be best defined as __________. A. a large geographic area where material remains of a particular culture are found B. the material remains of human culture preserved at a specific space and time at several sites C. the material remains found at one site D. the academic culture of teaching archaeology Answer: B 19) A subassemblage reflects the activities of __________. A. a region B. a large community C. a small community D. an individual Answer: D 20) A site may be classified by __________. A. geographic location, function, and size B. function only C. size only D. soil profile and location Answer: A 21) Archaeologists who work with postprocessual theory have little interest in __________. A. artifacts B. cultural resources C. natural resources D. cultural systems Answer: D Short Answer 22) What is the normative view of culture? Answer: The normative view of culture emphasizes shared values, norms, and behaviors within a society or group, often seen as prescribing how people should behave or what is considered appropriate within that cultural context. 23) What is the functional view of culture? Answer: The functional view of culture focuses on how culture serves to fulfill human needs and facilitate societal functioning, such as providing social cohesion, identity, and a framework for behavior and interaction. 24) Define processual archaeology. Answer: Processual archaeology is an approach within archaeology that emphasizes the study of past societies through systematic analysis of cultural processes, such as social, economic, and environmental factors, to understand how and why cultural changes occurred over time. 25) What three factors affect context? Answer: The three factors that affect context are: 1. Spatial Context: Refers to the physical location and spatial relationships of artifacts or features within a site or landscape. 2. Temporal Context: Relates to the chronological placement of artifacts or features within a specific time period or historical sequence. 3. Associational Context: Involves the relationships and associations between artifacts or features, including their proximity, co-occurrence, or spatial arrangement within a site. 26) What are the four levels of spatial context? Answer: The four levels of spatial context in archaeology are: 1. Micro-context: The immediate physical surroundings of an artifact or feature, such as its exact location within a site or its position relative to other objects. 2. Meso-context: The broader spatial context within a site or settlement, encompassing multiple features or artifacts and their spatial relationships. 3. Macro-context: The regional or landscape-scale context that situates a site within its broader geographical setting, including natural features, topography, and environmental factors. 4. Extra local context: The context that extends beyond the immediate region, considering interactions and connections between different sites or regions, such as trade networks or cultural exchanges. 27) Define a sub assemblage. Answer: A sub assemblage is a subset of artifacts from an archaeological site that are associated with a specific activity or function. 28) Name and describe three common site functions. Answer: 1. Habitation sites - Places where people lived, including houses and villages. 2. Ceremonial sites - Locations used for religious or ritual activities, such as temples or burial grounds. 3. Industrial sites - Areas used for manufacturing or production, such as workshops or quarries. 29) What is an archaeological culture? Answer: An archaeological culture is a pattern of similar artifacts and features from multiple sites within a specific time period and region, indicating a shared way of life. 30) What is a culture area? Answer: A culture area is a geographic region where cultures with similar traits or practices exist, allowing for comparison and study of cultural development and interaction. 31) Define and give an example of an archaeological region. Answer: An archaeological region is a spatially defined area that contains a group of interrelated archaeological sites. Example: The Maya Lowlands, which include numerous cities, temples, and other structures related to the ancient Maya civilization. 32) Define and give examples of the following: artifact, Eco fact, and feature. Answer: • Artifact: Any object made or modified by humans. Example: Pottery shards. • Eco fact: Natural remains that provide information about past human activity. Example: Animal bones. • Feature: Non-portable evidence of human activity. Example: Hearths or post holes. Essay 33) Compare and contrast the normative, functional, and processual models of culture. Answer: Normative Model: • Definition: This model sees culture as a set of shared norms, values, and ideas that guide the behavior of individuals within a society. • Focus: Emphasizes the role of shared beliefs and ideologies in shaping human actions. • Strengths: Highlights the importance of ideas and values in cultural cohesion. • Weaknesses: Tends to overlook the material aspects of culture and the dynamic nature of cultural change. Functional Model: • Definition: This model views culture as a system where different elements function together to meet the needs of individuals and maintain societal stability. • Focus: Concentrates on how cultural traits serve practical purposes and contribute to the overall functioning of society. • Strengths: Emphasizes the practical and utilitarian aspects of cultural practices. • Weaknesses: May underemphasize the symbolic and ideological dimensions of culture. Processual Model: • Definition: This model, also known as the "New Archaeology," sees culture as a system that is constantly changing due to various processes, such as environmental adaptation, technological innovation, and social organization. • Focus: Utilizes scientific methods to understand the dynamic processes that drive cultural change. • Strengths: Provides a comprehensive and systematic approach to studying cultural evolution and change. • Weaknesses: Can be criticized for being overly deterministic and for not adequately considering human agency and subjective experiences. Comparison and Contrast: • Similarities: All three models seek to explain cultural phenomena and the ways in which societies function and evolve. • Differences: The normative model focuses on shared ideas, the functional model on practical purposes and societal stability, and the processual model on dynamic processes and scientific analysis. The normative and functional models tend to be more static in their approach, whereas the processual model is dynamic and change-oriented. 34) Discuss what is meant by the term "cultural process" in archaeology. Answer: Cultural Process: • Definition: Cultural process refers to the sequence of changes and developments that occur within a culture over time. It encompasses the various factors and mechanisms that drive cultural evolution, including environmental adaptation, technological advancements, social organization, and interaction with other cultures. • Significance: Understanding cultural processes helps archaeologists reconstruct past human behaviours, societal structures, and cultural adaptations. It provides insights into how and why cultures change, which is essential for interpreting the archaeological record. • Components: Includes the study of subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, social hierarchies, trade networks, and symbolic systems. It also involves examining how cultures respond to internal and external pressures, such as climate change, resource scarcity, and contact with other groups. 35) Discuss the major elements that make up the archaeological record. Answer: Major Elements of the Archaeological Record: • Artifacts: Portable objects made, modified, or used by humans. Examples include tools, pottery, jewellery, and weapons. • Eco facts: Natural remains that provide information about past human activity. Examples include animal bones, plant remains, and pollen. • Features: Non-portable evidence of human activity. Examples include hearths, post holes, storage pits, and building foundations. • Sites: Locations where evidence of past human activity is found. Examples include settlements, cemeteries, and ceremonial centres. • Contexts: The spatial and temporal relationships between artifacts, Eco facts, features, and sites. Context includes the stratigraphic layers and the position of artifacts within those layers. • Structures: Remnants of buildings or constructions made by humans. Examples include houses, temples, and fortifications. • Human Remains: Physical remains of past humans, such as bones and mummified bodies, which provide information about health, diet, and demographics. • Landscapes: The broader geographical areas that include multiple sites and environmental features, showing how humans interacted with their surroundings. 36) Archaeological materials are often not found in primary context. Discuss three mechanisms that may operate to disturb archaeological remains before an archaeologist can even get to them. Answer: Mechanisms that Disturb Archaeological Remains: 1. Natural Processes: • Erosion: Wind, water, and ice can erode soil and rock, displacing artifacts and features from their original context. • Bioturbation: The activities of plants and animals, such as root growth, burrowing, and digging, can disturb and relocate artifacts and Eco facts. • Flooding: Water can wash away or redeposit archaeological materials, mixing them with materials from other contexts. 2. Human Activity: • Agriculture: Ploughing, tilling, and other farming practices can disturb the soil and displace artifacts. • Construction: Building roads, houses, and other structures can destroy or alter archaeological sites. • Looting: Illegal excavation and removal of artifacts by treasure hunters can severely disrupt the context and integrity of archaeological sites. 3. Geological Events: • Earthquakes: Seismic activity can cause ground shifts, landslides, and the collapse of structures, mixing and dispersing archaeological materials. • Volcanic Eruptions: Lava flows and ash deposits can bury sites deeply, while also potentially preserving them under layers of volcanic material. • Climate Change: Long-term changes in climate, such as desertification or rising sea levels, can alter landscapes and affect the preservation and location of archaeological sites. 37) State and explain the law of association. Discuss how it may be complicated in an actual archaeological situation. Answer: Law of Association: • Definition: The law of association states that artifacts found in the same stratigraphic layer or context are contemporaneous, meaning they were deposited around the same time. • Explanation: This principle is fundamental in archaeology as it helps establish chronological relationships between artifacts and features. If objects are found together in the same layer, they are likely to have been used, discarded, or deposited together. Complications in Actual Situations: • Disturbance Events: Natural processes like erosion, flooding, and animal burrowing can mix artifacts from different periods, complicating the association. • Human Activities: Modern or ancient activities, such as plowing, construction, or looting, can disturb stratigraphy, making it challenging to interpret associations accurately. • Secondary Context: Artifacts may be redeposited from their original context to a new location, especially in areas with high human activity. This results in mixed contexts where objects from different times and uses are found together. • Post-depositional Processes: Factors such as soil movement, sediment deposition, and bioturbation can alter the original context of artifacts, making it difficult to establish clear associations. 38) What is the principle of superposition? Give a specific example of how this principle can be complicated in an actual archeological situation. Answer: Principle of Superposition: • Definition: The principle of superposition states that in undisturbed stratigraphic sequences, the oldest layers are at the bottom, and the youngest layers are at the top. • Explanation: This principle helps archaeologists determine the relative ages of layers and the artifacts within them, creating a chronological sequence of occupation and use. Complications in Actual Situations: • Disturbances: Natural events like earthquakes, landslides, or human activities such as digging pits or trenches can invert or mix layers, disrupting the natural sequence. • Complex Stratigraphy: In sites with multiple phases of occupation, construction, and demolition, the stratigraphy can be complex and difficult to interpret. For example, a medieval house built on top of a Roman villa might include layers from different periods that are intermingled. • Erosion and Deposition: Erosion can remove upper layers, while deposition can add new materials, altering the original stratigraphic sequence. For instance, flood deposits might cover an ancient layer, creating a mixed stratigraphy. 39) Discuss the different kinds of archaeological sites. Answer: Kinds of Archaeological Sites: • Habitation Sites: Places where people lived, such as villages, towns, and cities. These sites include domestic structures, hearths, and refuse pits. • Ceremonial Sites: Locations used for religious or ritual activities, such as temples, shrines, burial grounds, and stone circles. These sites often contain artifacts related to rituals, offerings, and human remains. • Industrial Sites: Areas used for manufacturing and production activities, such as workshops, quarries, mines, and kilns. Artifacts include tools, by-products, and finished goods. • Trade and Exchange Sites: Places where goods were traded or exchanged, including marketplaces, ports, and trade routes. These sites often have diverse artifacts from different regions. • Military Sites: Locations related to warfare and defense, such as forts, battlegrounds, and watchtowers. Artifacts include weapons, armor, and fortification remains. • Agricultural Sites: Areas used for farming and animal husbandry, such as fields, terraces, and irrigation systems. These sites often include tools, storage facilities, and agricultural remains. • Special-Purpose Sites: Locations with specific functions, such as hunting camps, seasonal campsites, and resource extraction sites. Artifacts and Eco facts indicate specific activities conducted at these sites. 40) Define and discuss the meanings of the terms assemblages and subassemblies. Answer: • Definition: An assemblage is a collection of artifacts and Eco facts from a specific archaeological context or site that represents the material culture of a particular group or period. • Discussion: Assemblages provide a comprehensive view of the activities, technologies, and behaviours of past societies. They include all types of artifacts, from tools and pottery to Eco facts like animal bones and plant remains. Studying assemblages helps archaeologists understand the overall cultural and economic patterns of a site. Sub assemblages: • Definition: A sub assemblage is a subset of an assemblage that consists of artifacts related to a specific activity or function within the broader context. • Discussion: Sub assemblages focus on particular aspects of daily life, such as cooking, hunting, or tool-making. For example, a sub assemblage might include only the pottery and cooking implements from a habitation site, providing insights into dietary practices and culinary techniques. Analysing subassemblies allows archaeologists to reconstruct specific activities and understand their roles within the larger cultural system. Chapter Seven Test Questions How Old Is It? SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) Relative chronology is based on __________. A. stratigraphic principles B. early antiquarianism C. the Christian bible D. functionalism Answer: A 2) The concept of stratigraphy is derived from __________. A. processual archaeology B. archaeology C. geology D. art history Answer: C 3) Chronometric dates are __________. A. expressed only in terms such as "older than" and "younger than" B. always correct C. expressed in years D. based on superposition Answer: C 4) A date measured in years is __________. A. wrong B. relative C. absolute D. always correct Answer: C 5) The law of superposition provides the basis for __________. A. relative dates B. absolute dates C. correct dates D. chronometric dates Answer: A 6) Which kind of date is simpler to establish? A. chronological B. absolute C. chronometric D. relative Answer: d 7) Transformations, which are the result of human behavior, are known as __________. A. cultural B. natural C. relative D. chronometric Answer: A 8) Phenomena such as erosion, wind, and burrowing rodents result in transformations which are described as __________. A. relative B. cultural C. natural D. serial Answer: C 9) An example of a cultural transformation in the stratigraphic record is __________. A. a flood B. construction work C. burrowing rodents D. a volcanic eruption Answer: B 10) An example of a natural transformation in the stratigraphic record is/are __________. A. laying a new road bed over an old road bed B. a mudslide or flood C. burials D. excavation of trash pits Answer: B 11) Most artifact changes in the prehistoric record are __________. A. gradual B. abrupt C. simple D. beyond most archaeologists’ comprehension Answer: A 12) Seriation may be defined as __________. A. the technique of ordering items by their structure and design B. ordering items according to their absolute dates C. determining artifact function based on spatial location within a site D. dating of coins by means of the stamped dates on the coins Answer: A 13) Seriation works particularly well in combination with __________. A. chronology B. relative dating methods C. absolute dating methods D. stratigraphy Answer: B 14) Edwin Dethlefsen and James Deetz tested the battleship curve assumption on data from __________. A. Egyptian burials B. New England colonial gravestones C. ceramics from the Tehuacan Valley in Mexico D. artifacts from Nelson Bay Cave Answer: B 15) Cross-dating is a form of __________. A. relative chronology B. absolute chronology C. chronometric dating D. serration Answer: B 16) In its classic applications, cross-dating is based on __________. A. artifacts of unknown age B. artifacts that are not very old C. artifacts whose precise ages are known in their original locality D. artifact serration Answer: C 17) Which of the following objects could be used in cross-dating? A. Chinese porcelain, cotton fabric, and fossil leaves B. cotton fabric and fossil leaves C. Greek wine amphorae and dinosaur remains D. Chinese porcelain, cotton fabric, and Greek wine amphorae Answer: D 18) For archaeological purposes, potassium-argon dating is limited to __________. A. very recent archaeological sites B. the earliest archaeological sites C. wooden artifacts D. sites in Africa Answer: B 19) Radiocarbon dating is limited to __________. A. materials up to 50,000 years old B. sites older than 55,000 years C. obsidian artifacts D. sites in Africa Answer: A 20) Historical documents are useful in dating as far back as approximately __________. A. 3000 B.C. B. the fifteenth century A.D. C. 500 years ago D. the fifteenth century B.C. Answer: A 21) Potassium-argon dating is limited to __________. A. volcanic rocks such as feldspar B. stone tools C. Africa D. Olduvai Gorge Answer: A 22) Radiocarbon dates may be taken from __________. A. only charcoal B. many inorganic materials C. many organic materials D. igneous rock Answer: C 23) Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) dating may be used on __________. A. almost any inorganic material B. basaltic rocks C. wood fragments D. calcareous rocks, like limestone Answer: C 24) Radiocarbon dating was developed by __________. A. Cutler B. Douglass C. Libby D. Dean Answer: C 25) One advantage of using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) for radiocarbon dating is that __________. A. very small samples may be dated B. volcanic rocks can be dated C. the dates are easier to obtain D. the dates are not statistical approximations Answer: A 26) Calibration of radiocarbon dates __________. A. is unnecessary B. can be done by comparing radiocarbon dates to tree ring dates C. is not yet widespread among archaeologists D. is only done in the New World Answer: B 27) Experimental methods being developed to bridge the dating gap between about 50,000 and 1 million years ago include __________. A. dendrochronology, thermoluminescence, and uranium series B. electronic spin resonance, potassium argon, and dendrochronology C. electronic spin resonance, thermoluminescence, and uranium series D. dendrochronology, radiocarbon, and potassium argon Answer: C 28) Thermoluminescence dating is used on which of the following materials? A. fired pottery B. bones C. volcanic materials D. untreated flint Answer: A 29) Uranium series dating __________. A. can be applied to limestone and cave stalactites B. is used to date volcanic rocks such as occur at Olduvai Gorge C. measures the trapped electrons in a bone or shell sample D. is used primarily on burned hearths and pottery Answer: A 30) Fission track dating is similar to potassium-argon dating in that it can be used on __________. A. organic materials B. bone collagen C. volcanic rocks D. amino acids Answer: C 31) Obsidian hydration dating is based on the fact that __________. A. fresh obsidian surfaces crack and split at a known rate B. obsidian decays to potassium and argon C. burned obsidian traps electrons D. fresh obsidian surfaces absorb water Answer: D 32) Dendrochronology was developed in __________. A. California B. Ohio C. Arizona D. Africa Answer: C 33) Jeffrey Dean reconstructed the chronological history of Betatakin using __________. A. obsidian hydration B. electron spin resonance C. dendrochronology D. fission track dating Answer: C 34) Archaeomagnetic dating can be used to directly date __________. A. animal bones B. very ancient sites such as Oiduvai Gorge C. features with well-baked clay floors, such as ovens D. ancient coins Answer: C 35) Clay pipes are useful for dating historic sites because __________. A. they changed very little through time B. they exhibited rapid changes in bowl shape and other characteristics C. they can be radiocarbon dated D. they are very rare Answer: B 36) The Maya calendric system was known as __________. A. the Long Count B. stelae C. Tikal D. Palenque Answer: A Short Answer 37) Explain Sir Flinders Petrie's contribution to relative dating. Answer: Sir Flinders Petrie developed the technique of seriation, which involves arranging artifacts in a sequence based on their stylistic changes over time. This method allows archaeologists to establish relative dates for artifacts by observing patterns of change and development. 38) Define seriation. Answer: Seriation is a relative dating method that involves arranging artifacts in a chronological sequence based on stylistic or functional changes. It helps to determine the relative age of archaeological finds by identifying trends in artifact types and styles. 39) Why is chronometric dating important? Answer: Chronometric (or absolute) dating is important because it provides specific calendar dates or date ranges for archaeological materials, allowing for more precise and accurate reconstructions of past events and timelines compared to relative dating methods. 40) What is accelerator mass spectrometry? Answer: Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) is a highly sensitive technique used in radiocarbon dating. It measures the ratio of carbon isotopes directly, allowing for the dating of very small samples with high precision and accuracy. 41) What are some limitations of obsidian hydration dating? Answer: • Environmental Factors: Variations in temperature, humidity, and soil chemistry can affect the hydration rate, leading to inaccurate dates. • Surface Weathering: Erosion and weathering can alter the hydration layer, complicating the dating process. • Calibration: Requires local calibration with other dating methods to ensure accuracy. 42) Why is dendrochronology limited in its application? Answer: • Wood Availability: Requires well-preserved wood samples with clear annual growth rings. • Regional Limitations: Effective primarily in regions where trees produce distinct annual rings, such as temperate climates. • Species Specific: Not all tree species are suitable for dendrochronological analysis. 43) How may chronometric techniques complement each other? Answer: Chronometric techniques can be used together to cross-verify dates and increase accuracy. For example, radiocarbon dating can be calibrated with dendrochronology, while thermoluminescence can provide dates for ceramics that complement radiocarbon dates for organic materials. 44) What are the effective age ranges for archaeomagnetic dating, dendrochronology, and thermoluminescence dating? Answer: • Archaeomagnetic Dating: Up to about 10,000 years. • Dendrochronology: Up to about 10,000 years, depending on the region and tree species. • Thermoluminescence Dating: From a few hundred to about 500,000 years. 45) How are historical documents useful in chronology? Answer: Historical documents provide written records that can be correlated with archaeological findings, offering specific dates, event descriptions, and cultural contexts. They help establish a more accurate and detailed chronology by linking archaeological evidence to documented historical events. Essay 46) Discuss the principles and techniques of serration. Answer: Principles of Seriation: • Definition: Seriation is a relative dating method that involves arranging artifacts in a chronological sequence based on changes in style, frequency, or other attributes over time. • Underlying Principle: The principle behind seriation is that cultural styles and artifact types gradually change over time. By identifying and ordering these changes, archaeologists can create a relative chronology. Techniques of Seriation: 1. Frequency Seriation: • Technique: Artifacts are arranged based on their frequency of occurrence within different contexts. The assumption is that a particular style or type of artifact will gradually increase in popularity, reach a peak, and then decline. • Example: Arranging pottery shards from different layers of a site to show the rise and fall of a specific pottery style. 2. Contextual Seriation: • Technique: Artifacts are grouped and ordered based on their association with other artifacts within specific contexts. The goal is to find a sequence that reflects the chronological order of use and deposition. • Example: Ordering tombs or grave goods by comparing the combinations of artifacts found in each. 3. Typological Seriation: • Technique: Artifacts are classified into types based on stylistic or functional attributes, and these types are then ordered in a sequence that reflects their development over time. • Example: Classifying and ordering projectile points from simple to more complex forms to show technological evolution. 47) Discuss and give an example of cross-dating. Answer: Cross-Dating: • Definition: Cross-dating is a relative dating method that involves comparing artifacts or features from different sites or layers to establish a chronological relationship. It is based on the principle that similar artifacts found in different contexts are likely to be contemporaneous. • Principles: This method relies on the presence of diagnostic artifacts (such as pottery styles or tool types) that can be used as chronological markers. When these markers are found at multiple sites, they help establish relative dates for those sites. Example: • Egyptian Pottery: Suppose an archaeologist finds a distinctive type of pottery in a stratified context in Mesopotamia. If this same pottery type is already well-dated in Egypt due to its association with a specific pharaoh’s reign, the Mesopotamian site can be cross-dated based on the Egyptian chronology. This helps establish a relative date for the Mesopotamian layers containing the same pottery style. 48) Discuss some natural and cultural transformations which may have an effect on archaeological stratigraphy. Illustrate your answer with specific examples. Answer: Natural Transformations: 1. Erosion: • Effect: Removes or displaces layers of soil and artifacts, leading to mixed or incomplete stratigraphy. • Example: Riverbank erosion can wash away archaeological layers, redistributing artifacts downstream. 2. Bioturbation: • Effect: Animal burrowing and root growth disturb the stratigraphy by mixing soil and artifacts from different layers. • Example: Rodents digging burrows can relocate artifacts from deeper layers to shallower contexts, creating a misleading stratigraphic profile. 3. Flooding: • Effect: Deposits new layers of sediment over existing archaeological layers, sometimes mixing materials from different periods. • Example: A flood event can cover a site with a thick layer of silt, obscuring and protecting earlier deposits while potentially incorporating new materials. Cultural Transformations: 1. Construction and Building Activities: • Effect: Disturb existing stratigraphy by digging foundations, pits, or trenches, often leading to mixed or inverted layers. • Example: Building a new house over an ancient settlement may involve digging deep foundations that disturb earlier deposits and mix artifacts from different periods. 2. Agricultural Practices: • Effect: Plowing and other farming activities can disturb the soil, blending artifacts from different layers. • Example: Continuous plowing of fields over ancient sites can bring artifacts from deeper layers to the surface, creating a mixed assemblage. 3. Looting and Excavation: • Effect: Illegal digging and treasure hunting disrupt stratigraphy by removing artifacts without proper documentation. • Example: Looters digging for valuable items in a burial mound can destroy the context, making it difficult for archaeologists to interpret the site accurately. 49) Explain the principles and the process of potassium argon dating. Provide an example. Answer: Principles of Potassium-Argon Dating: • Radioactive Decay: Potassium-40 (K-40) is a radioactive isotope that decays into argon-40 (Ar-40) over time. The decay occurs at a known rate, with a half-life of about 1.25 billion years. • Measurement: The ratio of K-40 to Ar-40 in a sample is measured to determine the time since the rock or mineral cooled and solidified, effectively "locking in" the argon produced by decay. Process of Potassium-Argon Dating: 1. Sample Collection: Obtain a sample of volcanic rock or mineral that contains potassium. 2. Laboratory Analysis: Measure the concentrations of K-40 and Ar-40 using a mass spectrometer. 3. Age Calculation: Calculate the age of the sample based on the measured ratio of K-40 to Ar-40 and the known decay rate of K-40. Example: • Hominid Fossils in East Africa: Potassium-argon dating has been used to date volcanic layers above and below hominid fossil beds in the Rift Valley of East Africa. By dating the volcanic layers, archaeologists can determine the age range of the fossils found between them. For instance, the famous hominid fossil "Lucy" was dated using potassium-argon dating of surrounding volcanic ash layers. 50) Explain the principles and the process of radiocarbon dating. Provide an example. Answer: Principles of Radiocarbon Dating: • Radioactive Decay: Carbon-14 (C-14) is a radioactive isotope of carbon that decays into nitrogen-14 (N-14) at a known rate, with a half-life of about 5,730 years. • Carbon Cycle: Living organisms constantly absorb C-14 and carbon-12 (C-12) while they are alive. Upon death, they stop absorbing carbon, and the C-14 starts to decay. • Measurement: The remaining amount of C-14 in a sample is measured to determine the time since the organism's death. Process of Radiocarbon Dating: 1. Sample Collection: Obtain a sample of organic material (e.g., wood, bone, charcoal). 2. Pretreatment: Clean and prepare the sample to remove contaminants. 3. Laboratory Analysis: Measure the C-14 content using techniques like liquid scintillation counting or accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). 4. Age Calculation: Calculate the age of the sample based on the measured C-14 content and the known decay rate. Example: • Ancient Egyptian Artifacts: Radiocarbon dating has been used to date organic materials from ancient Egyptian tombs, such as wooden coffins and linen wrappings. By measuring the remaining C-14 in these artifacts, archaeologists have established dates for the burials, which help reconstruct the timeline of ancient Egyptian history. For instance, the dating of King Tutankhamun's burial artifacts has provided insights into the chronology of the late 18th Dynasty. 51) Compare and contrast conventional radiocarbon dating and accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). Answer: Conventional Radiocarbon Dating: • Principle: Measures the beta particles emitted by the decay of carbon-14 (C-14) in a sample. • Sample Size: Requires larger sample sizes (several grams) to obtain accurate measurements. • Accuracy: Less sensitive, particularly for older samples where C-14 content is very low. • Process: The sample is converted into a gas or liquid form and the decay events are counted over a period of time. • Advantages: Established method with a long history of use in archaeology and geology. • Limitations: Requires large samples, less accurate for small or contaminated samples, and has lower precision for very old samples. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS): • Principle: Directly measures the ratio of carbon isotopes (C-14, C-12, and C-13) using a particle accelerator. • Sample Size: Requires much smaller sample sizes (as little as a few milligrams). • Accuracy: Highly sensitive and precise, capable of dating very small samples and older samples with greater accuracy. • Process: The sample is converted to a graphite form and then ionized. The isotopes are separated and counted in a mass spectrometer. • Advantages: Requires smaller samples, higher precision, and can date older samples more accurately. • Limitations: More expensive and requires sophisticated equipment and expertise. Comparison and Contrast: • Similarity: Both methods are used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the amount of C-14 remaining in a sample. • Difference: AMS is more sensitive and precise, requires smaller sample sizes, and can provide accurate dates for older samples, whereas conventional radiocarbon dating is less sensitive, requires larger samples, and may not be as accurate for older samples. 52) Discuss why radiocarbon dates need to be calibrated. Answer: Radiocarbon dates need to be calibrated because the concentration of carbon-14 (C-14) in the atmosphere has not been constant over time. Several factors cause fluctuations in the amount of C-14, including: 1. Variations in Solar Activity: Changes in solar radiation affect the production rate of C-14 in the atmosphere. 2. Geomagnetic Field Strength: Variations in the Earth’s magnetic field influence the amount of cosmic radiation reaching the atmosphere, thereby affecting C-14 production. 3. Fossil Fuel Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels (which contain no C-14) since the Industrial Revolution has diluted the atmospheric C-14 concentration, known as the Suess effect. 4. Nuclear Testing: Atmospheric nuclear bomb testing in the 1950s and 1960s increased the amount of C-14, known as the bomb effect. Calibration Process: • Dendrochronology: Tree-ring data provide a precise annual record of atmospheric C-14, which is used to create calibration curves. • Marine and Varve Records: These provide additional data points for calibration over different periods and geographic locations. • Calibration Curves: Tools like IntCal and MarineCal are used to convert radiocarbon years into calibrated calendar years, accounting for the variations in atmospheric C-14. Example: • Example: A radiocarbon date of 4,000 years BP (Before Present) might calibrate to 4,300–4,600 calendar years BP, providing a more accurate age for the sample. 53) Explain the techniques and procedures for fission track dating. Provide an example. Answer: Principles of Fission Track Dating: • Radioactive Decay: Fission track dating is based on the spontaneous fission of uranium-238 (U-238) atoms within minerals, which creates microscopic tracks in the crystal structure. • Accumulation: The number of tracks accumulates over time and is proportional to the age of the sample. Techniques and Procedures: 1. Sample Collection: Collect minerals like zircon, apatite, or volcanic glass from rock samples. 2. Polishing and Etching: Polish the sample to expose a flat surface, then etch it with acid to reveal the fission tracks. 3. Microscopic Counting: Use a microscope to count the number of fission tracks per unit area. 4. Uranium Content Measurement: Determine the uranium content of the sample using techniques like neutron activation analysis or inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). 5. Age Calculation: Calculate the age based on the density of fission tracks and the uranium content, using the known decay rate of U-238. Example: • Example: Fission track dating has been used to date volcanic ash layers in sedimentary sequences. For instance, fission track dating of zircon crystals in volcanic ash from the East African Rift has provided ages for hominid fossils and helped reconstruct the timeline of human evolution. 54) Explain the principles and techniques of obsidian hydration dating. Provide an example. Answer: Principles of Obsidian Hydration Dating: • Hydration Process: When obsidian (volcanic glass) is freshly exposed, it begins to absorb water from the environment, forming a measurable hydration rind or layer. • Thickness Measurement: The thickness of the hydration layer increases over time and can be measured to determine the age of the artifact since its last flaking or exposure. Techniques and Procedures: 1. Sample Collection: Obtain obsidian artifacts from an archaeological site. 2. Sectioning and Polishing: Cut a thin section of the artifact and polish it to expose the hydration layer. 3. Microscopic Measurement: Use a high-powered microscope to measure the thickness of the hydration layer. 4. Calibration: Develop a calibration curve based on known-age samples from the same region and environment to correlate hydration thickness with age. Example: • Example: Obsidian hydration dating has been used to date artifacts from Mesoamerican sites. For example, obsidian tools from Teotihuacan, Mexico, have been dated using this method, helping to establish a timeline for the city's occupation and development. 55) Explain the techniques and procedures of thermoluminescence dating. Provide an example. Answer: Principles of Thermoluminescence Dating: • Trapped Electrons: When minerals in ceramics or sediments are exposed to heat or sunlight, electrons become trapped in the crystal lattice defects. • Release by Heating: When the sample is reheated in the laboratory, these trapped electrons are released as light (thermoluminescence), the intensity of which is proportional to the time since the last heating event. Techniques and Procedures: 1. Sample Collection: Collect ceramics, burned stones, or sediments from an archaeological site, ensuring they are kept in dark conditions to prevent light exposure. 2. Sample Preparation: Clean and prepare the sample to remove any contaminants. 3. Initial Measurement: Measure the natural thermoluminescence of the sample. 4. Laboratory Irradiation: Irradiate the sample with a known dose of artificial radiation to calibrate the natural dose. 5. Final Measurement: Reheat the sample to release the trapped electrons and measure the thermoluminescence emitted. 6. Age Calculation: Calculate the age based on the measured thermoluminescence and the known radiation dose rate of the environment. Example: • Example: Thermoluminescence dating has been used to date pottery shards from prehistoric sites. For instance, thermoluminescence dating of pottery from the Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük in Turkey has provided dates that help reconstruct the chronology of the site's occupation and cultural development. 56) Explain the techniques and procedures of dendrochronology. Provide an example. Answer: Principles of Dendrochronology: • Tree Rings: Dendrochronology, or tree-ring dating, is based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings. Each ring represents one year of growth, with variations in ring width reflecting climatic conditions during that year. • Crossdating: By matching ring patterns from different trees, dendrochronologists create a continuous record extending back hundreds or even thousands of years. Techniques and Procedures: 1. Sample Collection: Collect wood samples using increment borers or from archaeological wood remains. 2. Ring Measurement: Measure the width of each tree ring under a microscope or with digital calipers. 3. Cross dating: Match ring patterns between samples from different trees to build a continuous sequence. This helps identify the exact year each ring was formed. 4. Chronology Construction: Construct a master chronology from overlapping sequences of tree rings from different samples. 5. Age Determination: Compare the ring pattern of the archaeological wood sample to the master chronology to determine its age. Example: • Example: Dendrochronology has been used to date ancient wooden structures such as the cliff dwellings in Mesa Verde, Colorado. By comparing the ring patterns of wooden beams in the dwellings to a master chronology, archaeologists determined the construction dates of these structures, which provided insights into the Ancestral Puebloan civilization. 57) Discuss some of the dating techniques that are being developed to bridge the dating gap between about 45,000 and 1 million years ago. Answer: Emerging Dating Techniques: 1. Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL): • Principle: Measures the last time sediment grains (e.g., quartz or feldspar) were exposed to light. • Application: Useful for dating sediment layers and associated archaeological materials. • Range: Up to about 200,000 years, potentially extending to 500,000 years with advanced methods. 2. Electron Spin Resonance (ESR): • Principle: Measures trapped electrons in materials such as tooth enamel, quartz, and fossilized bones. • Application: Used to date teeth from early hominids and other fossils. • Range: Up to 2 million years, bridging the gap effectively. 3. Amino Acid Racemization (AAR): • Principle: Measures the ratio of D- to L-amino acids in organic materials. • Application: Used to date bones, shells, and sediments. • Range: Up to several hundred thousand years, providing a useful method for dating materials older than the effective range of radiocarbon dating. 4. Uranium-Series Dating: • Principle: Measures the decay of uranium isotopes in calcium carbonate materials, such as cave deposits (speleothems) and corals. • Application: Useful for dating cave art and hominid fossils found in limestone caves. • Range: Up to about 500,000 years. Example: • Example: ESR dating has been used to date tooth enamel from Neanderthal fossils in Europe, providing ages that fill the gap between the radiocarbon limit and older methods like potassium-argon dating. 58) Explain the principles and techniques of archaeomagnetic dating. Provide an example. Answer: Principles of Archaeomagnetic Dating: • Earth's Magnetic Field: The Earth's magnetic field has changed over time. Archaeomagnetic dating is based on the analysis of the direction and intensity of the magnetic field recorded in archaeological materials. • Magnetic Minerals: When heated above their Curie point and then cooled, magnetic minerals in materials like clay align with the Earth's magnetic field. This alignment is preserved and can be measured. Techniques and Procedures: 1. Sample Collection: Collect samples from archaeological features like hearths, kilns, or fired clay structures, ensuring they have not been disturbed since their last firing. 2. Laboratory Analysis: Measure the remanent magnetization of the samples using magnetometers. 3. Comparison with Reference Curves: Compare the measured magnetic direction and intensity with reference curves that document changes in the Earth's magnetic field over time. 4. Age Determination: Determine the age of the archaeological feature based on where the sample’s magnetic data fits within the reference curve. Example: • Example: Archaeomagnetic dating was used to date ancient pottery kilns in the American Southwest. By comparing the magnetic data from kiln samples with the regional geomagnetic reference curve, archaeologists established the construction and usage dates of these kilns. 59) What are objects of known age? How are they useful in archaeology? Answer: Objects of Known Age: • Definition: Objects of known age are artifacts or materials with precisely known dates of manufacture, use, or deposition. These dates are usually derived from historical records, inscriptions, or other documented sources. Usefulness in Archaeology: 1. Calibration and Verification: • Dating Methods: Objects of known age are used to calibrate and verify dating techniques. For instance, radiocarbon dates can be cross-checked against the known age of historical artifacts to ensure accuracy. 2. Establishing Chronologies: • Stratigraphic Context: When objects of known age are found in stratified layers, they help establish a reliable chronological framework for the site. They serve as chronological anchors for relative dating methods. 3. Cultural and Historical Insights: • Contextual Information: These objects provide direct evidence of historical events, trade, and cultural practices. They offer a precise chronological context for interpreting archaeological findings. Example: • Example: Coins with inscribed dates found at archaeological sites provide exact dates for the layers in which they are found. Roman coins discovered in British sites help establish the time frame of Roman occupation and activities in the region. 60) Compare and contrast absolute and relative dating techniques. Give examples. Answer: Absolute Dating Techniques: • Definition: Absolute dating techniques provide specific calendar dates or date ranges for artifacts or features. They are based on measurable physical or chemical properties. • Examples: • Radiocarbon Dating: Measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials to determine their age up to about 50,000 years. • Dendrochronology: Uses tree-ring patterns to date wooden objects with annual precision. • Potassium-Argon Dating: Measures the decay of potassium-40 to argon-40 in volcanic rock, useful for dating samples over 100,000 years old. Relative Dating Techniques: • Definition: Relative dating techniques establish the chronological sequence of artifacts or features based on their relative positions or associations. They do not provide specific calendar dates. • Examples: • Stratigraphy: Analyses the layering of deposits at a site. Older layers are typically deeper than newer ones. • Seriation: Orders artifacts based on changes in style or frequency, creating a relative chronological sequence. • Cross-Dating: Uses objects of known age from different sites to establish a relative chronology. Comparison and Contrast: • Accuracy: Absolute dating provides specific dates or date ranges, offering higher accuracy. Relative dating places artifacts in a sequence without precise dates. • Application: Absolute dating is useful for establishing precise timelines, while relative dating is valuable for understanding the chronological order of events and cultural changes. • Examples: Radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology provide exact dates, while stratigraphy and seriation establish the order of deposition or cultural evolution. By using both types of dating methods, archaeologists can build comprehensive chronological frameworks that enhance our understanding of past human activities and cultural developments. Chapter Eight Test Questions They Sought It Here, They Sought It There: Finding the Past SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) Archaeological sites can be studied __________. A. only through excavation B. only on a local basis C. without actual excavation D. only through destructive methods Answer: C 2) A recent trend in archaeological survey has been to __________. A. pay more attention to "off-site" areas B. ignore small sites C. focus on finding large, spectacular sites D. find and collect precious artifacts Answer: A 3) The collecting of surface data and evaluation of a site's archaeological significance is known as __________. A. archaeological survey B. excavation C. publication D. site assessment Answer: D 4) The temple of Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl in Mexico City was found __________. A. during construction of the national archaeology museum B. during construction of a subway station C. by systematic archaeological survey D. by a class of archaeology students Answer: B 5) Suppose you are doing a probabilistic sampling in a certain defined geographic area. The point of doing this type of sampling would be to find __________. A. all of the sites in the area B. at least one of each type of site in the area C. how the samples of data might relate to the larger area D. as many sites as possible in the time you have Answer: C 6) Which of the following has destroyed many archaeological sites while revealing others? A. road construction and farming B. farming only C. industrial activities only D. farm fallowing systems Answer: D 7) Remote sensing __________. A. can only be applied to historic sites B. is useful only in areas that are covered by crops C. encompasses a variety of non-destructive techniques D. has generally not been applied in the Old World Answer: C 8) Archaeological survey may be done __________. A. only in select areas where little cover vegetation exists B. on foot in desert and near-desert environments C. in a variety of ways, by air, or on land D. via ship Answer: C 9) Which of the following best describes how archaeological sites in the United States are recorded? A. each is given a name and a number B. large, important sites are given a name and a number C. sites found by archaeologists are given numbers; sites found accidentally are given names D. sites are not named or numbered Answer: A 10) The analysis of archaeological phenomena without excavations or collection of artifacts is known as __________. A. destructive archaeology B. testing C. nonintrusive archaeology D. stratigraphy Answer: C 11) Shadow marks are discovered using __________. A. excavation B. oblique light C. foot survey D. construction Answer: B 12) Crop and soil marks are generally visible only from __________. A. the air B. horseback C. the surface D. underwater Answer: A 13) Aerial photography was used to find clear traces of a road system in __________. A. the Nile Valley B. Tenochtitlan C. Chaco Canyon D. the Basin of Mexico Answer: C 14) Sideways-looking airborne radar (SLAR) has potential for the location of __________. A. very small sites B. small artifacts C. ancient calendrical systems D. ancient roads and irrigation systems Answer: D 15) The radar system of the former space shuttle Columbia detected __________. A. ancient river courses in the Sahara desert B. ancient roads in the vicinity of Chaco Canyon C. remains of a Boy Scout Jamboree in Pennsylvania D. canals in northern Belize Answer: A 16) A disadvantage of the auger or core borer in site detection is that it __________. A. is very heavy B. is awkward to use C. is expensive D. may destroy valuable artifacts Answer: D 17) Resistivity survey is used to detect __________. A. variations in the resistance of the ground to electric current B. variation in magnetism C. variation in reflected light D. earthworm tracks that lead to remixing of archaeological matrix Answer: A 18) Relatively reliable conclusions reached on a basis of a sample improves with __________. A. remote sensing B. probability sampling C. pulse radar D. resistivity survey Answer: B 19) The Teotihuacan Mapping Project was undertaken by __________. A. Gordon Willey B. John Lloyd Stevens C. Louis and Mary Leakey D. George Cowgill and Rene Millon Answer: D 20) Site plans __________. A. record horizontal provenience of artifacts B. relate the number of settlements to the natural landscape C. relate different archaeological features to each other D. record stratigraphy Answer: A 21) The Onondaga survey that suggests that communication between villages and defensive needs may have been important factors in Iroquois settlement patterns used __________. A. GIS (Geographic Information Systems) B. resistivity survey C. sideways-looking airborne radar (SLAR) D. air photography Answer: A 22) Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology is __________. A. used only by geographers B. useful primarily during archaeological excavation C. a new way to find archaeological sites D. relatively new in archaeology Answer: D Short Answer 23) How have large construction projects affected archaeology? Give an example. Answer: Large construction projects can significantly impact archaeological sites by potentially damaging or destroying them before they are discovered or properly studied. However, they also often lead to important archaeological discoveries because they necessitate archaeological assessments and excavations as part of the planning process. Example: The construction of the Aswan High Dam in Egypt led to the relocation and extensive archaeological investigation of ancient sites, including the famous temples of Abu Simbel, which were moved to higher ground to avoid submersion. 24) Explain what is meant by the term "site survey." Answer: A site survey is a systematic examination of an area to identify and record archaeological sites. This involves mapping, surface collection of artifacts, and sometimes subsurface testing to determine the presence, extent, and significance of archaeological remains. 25) Explain what is meant by the term "site assessment." Answer: A site assessment is the evaluation of an archaeological site to determine its significance and the extent of preservation. This typically includes detailed mapping, excavation of test units, and analysis of artifacts and features to decide whether the site warrants further excavation or preservation. 26) What are magnetic surveys used for? Answer: Magnetic surveys are used in archaeology to detect and map subsurface archaeological features by measuring variations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by buried structures or objects, such as kilns, hearths, walls, and pits. They help identify locations for further excavation. 27) What is remote sensing, and why is it important in archaeology? Answer: Remote sensing in archaeology refers to the use of aerial or satellite imagery and ground-based geophysical techniques to detect and analyse archaeological sites without direct contact. It is important because it allows archaeologists to survey large areas efficiently, identify potential sites, and gain insights into site layout and environmental context. 28) What are some objectives of a site survey? Answer: The objectives of a site survey include: 1. Identification: To locate and document archaeological sites within a specific area. 2. Mapping: To create detailed maps of site locations and features. 3. Assessment: To evaluate the extent, condition, and significance of sites. 4. Research Planning: To gather information that informs decisions about future excavations and research priorities. 5. Preservation: To identify sites that may need protection from development or other threats. Essay 29) Name and discuss four surface indicators of archaeological sites. Give examples of each. Answer: Surface Indicators of Archaeological Sites: 1. Artifact Scatter: • Description: Concentration of artifacts on the ground surface, indicating human activity. • Example: Flint flakes and pottery sherds scattered across a field indicate prehistoric habitation sites. 2. Mound or Midden: • Description: Accumulation of cultural debris, often forming a mound or elevation. • Example: Shell middens along coastlines, composed of discarded shells and artifacts, represent ancient shellfish consumption sites. 3. Crop Marks: • Description: Subtle variations in crop growth or colour due to buried archaeological features affecting plant growth. • Example: Ancient walls or ditches can cause crops to grow differently, revealing buried structures from aerial or satellite imagery. 4. Soil Discoloration: • Description: Changes in soil colour or texture caused by human activities such as hearths, pits, or postholes. • Example: Darkened patches in otherwise light soil may indicate the former presence of a hearth or cooking area in prehistoric settlements. 30) Discuss Michael Schiffer's four basic types of ground reconnaissance. Answer: Michael Schiffer's Types of Ground Reconnaissance: 1. Pedestrian Survey: • Description: Systematic walking over an area to visually inspect and record surface artifacts. • Purpose: To locate and document archaeological sites without excavation. • Example: Archaeologists walk grid patterns across a field, collecting artifacts for analysis. 2. Transect Survey: • Description: Survey along linear paths (transects) through an area. • Purpose: To sample different environments or detect linear features. • Example: Transects across a forested area to find ancient paths or roads. 3. Zone Survey: • Description: Division of an area into zones for intensive survey. • Purpose: To focus detailed examination on specific areas of interest. • Example: Archaeologists divide a large site into zones for detailed artifact collection and mapping. 4. Areal Survey: • Description: Comprehensive survey covering an entire site or landscape. • Purpose: To document all visible archaeological features and artifacts. • Example: Surveying an entire ancient city site to map structures, streets, and activity areas. 31) Discuss four types of nonphotographic survey methods. Answer: Nonphotographic Survey Methods: 1. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): • Description: Uses radar pulses to image the subsurface, detecting buried features or anomalies. • Example: Used to locate buried walls or graves without excavation. 2. Electrical Resistivity Survey: • Description: Measures variations in soil resistance to electrical currents, which can indicate buried features. • Example: Identifies ditches, walls, or pits by their different resistivity compared to surrounding soil. 3. Magnetic Gradiometry: • Description: Measures variations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by buried features with different magnetic properties. • Example: Detects hearths, kilns, or iron artifacts buried beneath the ground. 4. Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging): • Description: Uses laser pulses from aircraft or drones to create detailed 3D maps of the landscape, revealing subtle terrain variations. • Example: Identifies ancient roads, terraces, or settlement patterns obscured by vegetation. 32) Discuss three types of mechanical detection. Give examples. Answer: Mechanical Detection Methods: 1. Proton Magnetometer: • Description: Measures variations in the Earth's magnetic field to locate buried features like walls, hearths, or artifacts. • Example: Used to map Iron Age settlements in Europe by detecting iron-rich features. 2. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): • Description: Sends radar pulses into the ground and records reflections to detect buried structures or anomalies. • Example: Locates graves or buried walls in archaeological sites without excavation. 3. Electrical Resistivity Meter: • Description: Measures soil resistance to electrical currents to detect buried features with different resistivity. • Example: Identifies buried structures like walls or pits by their contrast with surrounding soil. 33) Discuss various types of maps used to record archaeological sites/finds. Answer: Types of Maps Used in Archaeology: 1. Topographic Maps: • Description: Detailed maps showing elevation contours, vegetation, and water features. • Use: Provide context for site locations and landscape features. 2. Site Plans: • Description: Maps depicting the layout and features of archaeological sites. • Use: Record locations of structures, artifacts, and excavation units. 3. Photogrammetric Maps: • Description: Maps created from aerial photographs or satellite images. • Use: Identify crop marks, landscape features, or site boundaries. 4. Geophysical Survey Maps: • Description: Maps showing results of surveys like GPR or magnetic gradiometry. • Use: Display buried features or anomalies detected without excavation. 34) Compare and contrast nonprobabilistic sampling and probabilistic sampling. Answer: Nonprobabilistic Sampling: • Description: Selection of sample units based on accessibility or judgment rather than random selection. • Use: Often used in preliminary surveys or when specific areas of interest are targeted. • Example: Purposefully selecting areas likely to contain artifacts based on historical records or local knowledge. Probabilistic Sampling: • Description: Random selection of sample units to ensure representative coverage of an area. • Use: Provides statistically valid data on site distribution and artifact density. • Example: Randomly selecting grid squares for survey or excavation to avoid bias and ensure accuracy. Comparison and Contrast: • Comparison: Both aim to sample archaeological data but differ in their approach to sample selection. • Contrast: Nonprobabilistic sampling is subjective and targeted, while probabilistic sampling is objective and ensures unbiased coverage. 35) What are the objectives of surface collection? What are some limitations? Answer: Objectives of Surface Collection: • Identification: Locate and document artifacts on the ground surface. • Mapping: Create maps of artifact distributions to understand site layout. • Analysis: Collect diagnostic artifacts for dating or cultural analysis. • Preservation: Recover artifacts before erosion or construction destroys them. Limitations: • Selective Bias: Only artifacts on the surface are collected, potentially missing buried features. • Context Loss: Lack of stratigraphic context makes it difficult to interpret artifact relationships. • Surface Disturbance: Collection may disturb fragile artifacts or delicate surface features. • Visibility: Some artifacts may be hidden or obscured, especially in vegetated or disturbed areas. 36) Make an argument for doing site survey rather than excavation. Answer: Site Survey vs. Excavation: • Preservation: Survey minimizes disturbance to fragile sites, preserving them for future study. • Efficiency: Surveys cover large areas quickly, identifying potential sites for targeted excavation. • Cost-Effectiveness: Surveys are generally less expensive than extensive excavation projects. • Holistic Understanding: Surveys provide a broad view of site distribution and landscape context. • Ethical Considerations: Minimizes impact on cultural heritage while still gathering valuable data. 37) Discuss some of the ways in which advances in space technology have been used in archaeology. Answer: Advances in Space Technology in Archaeology: • Remote Sensing: Uses satellite imagery and aerial photography to detect archaeological features like buried structures or ancient roads. • Lidar Mapping: Creates detailed 3D maps of terrain, revealing subtle features or site layouts. • Geospatial Analysis: Combines satellite data with geographic information systems (GIS) to analyze site distributions and landscape changes over time. • Environmental Monitoring: Tracks environmental changes affecting archaeological sites, such as erosion or vegetation growth. 38) Discuss some of the geophysical methods that have been used at the site of Ceren in San Salvador. Answer: Geophysical Methods at Ceren: • Magnetic Gradiometry: Detected buried structures and building foundations by measuring magnetic variations in the soil. • Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR): Identified house floors, pathways, and agricultural plots beneath volcanic ash layers. • Electrical Resistivity Survey: Mapped buried walls and features by measuring soil resistance to electrical currents. • Lidar Mapping: Created detailed maps of site layout and structures obscured by vegetation or volcanic deposits. 39) Discuss an example of how GIS has been used in archaeological investigations. Answer: Use of GIS in Archaeological Investigations: • Mapping: GIS integrates data from surveys, excavations, and remote sensing to create detailed maps of site locations, features, and environmental factors. • Analysis: Spatial analysis tools in GIS help archaeologists analyze site distributions, artifact concentrations, and landscape changes over time. • Modeling: GIS models simulate ancient landscapes, settlement patterns, or trade routes based on archaeological data and environmental factors. • Visualization: GIS visualizations aid in interpreting site relationships, cultural interactions, and historical developments. Example: In the study of ancient Mayan cities, GIS has been used to map urban centers, agricultural terraces, and ceremonial complexes. By integrating data from excavations 40) Suppose that you have been assigned the task of surveying a large area (several hundred acres) to inventory the archaeological sites that are there. Given the constraints of time and money, you simply cannot cover every square inch of the land. Design an archaeological survey for this parcel of land that uses sampling techniques discussed in class. Describe clearly the sampling technique(s) you choose. Answer: Designing an Archaeological Survey Using Sampling Techniques Given the constraints of time and resources, conducting a comprehensive survey of a large parcel of land, spanning several hundred acres, requires strategic use of sampling techniques. The goal is to inventory archaeological sites efficiently while maintaining accuracy and representativeness across the entire area. Sampling Technique: Systematic Sampling Description: Systematic sampling involves selecting sample units at regular intervals across the study area. This approach ensures that the entire area is systematically covered, providing a representative sample of archaeological sites without the need to survey every square inch. Steps to Implement Systematic Sampling: 1. Grid Formation: Divide the study area into a grid of manageable units, such as 100-meter by 100-meter squares. This grid should cover the entire area to be surveyed. 2. Sample Selection: Use a systematic pattern to select sample units. For instance, start at one corner of the grid and select every nth square (e.g., every 5th square) until the entire area is covered. 3. Field Survey: Send field teams to the selected grid squares. Each team will conduct a thorough pedestrian survey within their assigned square, systematically walking transects or covering the entire square depending on the density of surface indications. 4. Surface Collection: Document and collect surface artifacts encountered during the survey. Each team should record the types, quantities, and locations of artifacts found within their assigned squares. 5. Mapping: Create detailed maps of the locations where artifacts are found. Use GPS coordinates or traditional mapping techniques to accurately plot artifact distributions within each surveyed square. 6. Analysis and Interpretation: Analyse the collected data to identify patterns in artifact distribution, site types, and chronological periods represented. Use statistical methods to extrapolate findings from sampled squares to the entire study area. Advantages of Systematic Sampling: • Representativeness: Ensures that each part of the study area has an equal chance of being surveyed, providing a representative sample of archaeological sites. • Efficiency: Maximizes survey efficiency by covering large areas with a manageable number of sampled squares, reducing time and cost compared to a full-coverage survey. • Data Quality: Provides reliable data for making informed decisions about the presence, distribution, and significance of archaeological sites across the landscape. Conclusion: Systematic sampling is an effective method for inventorying archaeological sites in large areas while balancing the constraints of time and resources. By applying this sampling technique, archaeologists can systematically uncover and document the rich cultural heritage hidden within the landscape, contributing valuable insights into past human activities and environments. Chapter Nine Test Questions How to Excavate SAMPLE QUESTIONS Multiple Choice 1) Archaeological excavations __________. A. are the major way that archaeologists recover data from beneath the surface B. have been made obsolete by remote sensing technology C. are the only way to recover precise data about the past D. are normally only conducted in extreme emergencies (e.g., a site is about to be destroyed) Answer: A 2) Skilled excavators responsible for excavating trenches and recording specific locations are called __________. A. site supervisors B. recording experts C. conservators D. artifact and small-finds staff Answer: A 3) Most excavations today __________. A. are conducted by a lone archaeologist B. involve hundreds of workers C. are relatively small scale D. do not include students Answer: C 4) Most archaeologists agree that excavation __________. A. is no longer necessary in most cases B. is destructive C. is absolutely necessary to learn anything about the past D. should not include students Answer: B 5) Which of the following would most archaeologists today consider to be the most important aspect of an archaeological excavation? A. recovery of as much material as possible B. recovery of many valuable objects C. pleasant working conditions D. a focused research design Answer: D 6) The Koster site is located in __________. A. the lower Illinois Valley B. the Basin of Mexico C. South America D. Britain Answer: A 7) The Koster site __________. A. is a very small cave site B. covers a large area, but is very shallow C. is a deeply stratified site D. was never excavated Answer: C 8) In large scale horizontal excavation, test pits are __________. A. a major component B. very large C. preliminary D. dug only when burials are encountered Answer: C 9) Which of the following tools may be used in vertical excavation? A. a backhoe B. a needle C. a brush D. a shovel or auger for boring Answer: D 10) Today, large excavations such as those carried out at the Koster site __________. A. are routinely carried out in most parts of the world B. are the exception rather than the rule C. are only carried out in the United States D. are common in the Old World, but not in the United States Answer: B 11) Archaeological stratigraphy __________. A. is normally relatively simple to interpret B. is not usually exposed during the course of excavation C. is usually very complicated D. is exposed only in horizontal excavation Answer: C 12) Vertical excavation methods include __________. A. sondages, test pits, and vertical trenches B. horizontal test pits C. vertical cutouts D. stratified vertical cutouts Answer: A 13) Kathleen Deagan's excavation at St. Augustine, Florida, is a good example of the use of which of the following excavation techniques? A. test pits B. tunnelling C. horizontal excavation D. vertical trenching Answer: C 14) The problem with horizontal digs are exactly the same as those with any excavation: __________. A. stratigraphic control and accurate measurement B. horizontal distributions of artifacts C. the topography of a site D. important artifact finds Answer: A 15) The total station __________. A. is used by geologists, but not by archaeologists B. consists of an Electronic Distance Measuring device and theodolite C. is used to probe archaeological sites in order to decide where to dig D. slows down the process of archaeological excavation Answer: B 16) Archaeologist Philip Barker advocates recording archaeological stratigraphy by using __________. A. only horizontal excavation B. tunnelling C. only vertical excavation D. a combination of horizontal and vertical excavation Answer: D Short Answer 17) Describe three-dimensional recording in archaeology. Give an example. Answer: Three-dimensional recording in archaeology involves capturing detailed spatial data of archaeological sites or artifacts using technologies like laser scanning or photogrammetry. For example, laser scanning can create precise 3D models of excavation trenches or artifacts, aiding in accurate documentation and analysis. 18) How are storage and trash pits identified in archaeological excavations? Answer: Identifying storage and trash pits in archaeological excavations involves recognizing distinctive features such as their shape, contents (e.g., domestic refuse or broken pottery), and their stratigraphic context relative to other archaeological layers. These pits often have different soil characteristics or contain artifacts that suggest their function. 19) Describe horizontal excavation methods. Answer: Horizontal excavation methods involve digging broadly across a site's surface to uncover and document artifacts and features within a single archaeological layer. This method allows for the exploration of spatial relationships and the distribution of artifacts within a specific stratum. 20) Describe vertical excavation methods. Answer: Vertical excavation methods involve digging downwards through multiple layers of an archaeological site to uncover the sequence of occupation and changes over time. This method helps archaeologists understand chronological sequences and cultural changes through stratigraphy. 21) Describe the variety of tools used by archaeologists during excavation. Answer: Tools used by archaeologists during excavation include trowels for delicate digging, brushes for cleaning artifacts, shovels for larger-scale digging, sieves for sifting through soil, measuring tapes for accurate spatial recording, and sometimes more specialized equipment like ground-penetrating radar or total stations for mapping. 22) Why are modern archaeologists reluctant to excavate sites? Answer: Modern archaeologists are reluctant to excavate sites because excavation is destructive—it permanently alters or destroys the context of artifacts and structures. Many prefer non-invasive techniques like remote sensing or careful surface surveys to preserve sites for future research or to gather more data before excavation. 23) Why are multidisciplinary approaches to archaeological sites necessary? Answer: Multidisciplinary approaches are necessary in archaeology because they integrate diverse scientific and academic disciplines (such as anthropology, geology, biology, chemistry, etc.) to gain a comprehensive understanding of past human societies. Each discipline contributes unique perspectives and methods that enrich archaeological interpretations and conclusions. Essay 24) Explain the data flow system developed for the Koster site. Why was it developed? Answer: The data flow system developed for the Koster site was a pioneering effort in archaeological fieldwork management, implemented by Jonathan Friedman in the 1960s. It was designed to streamline the collection, processing, and analysis of vast amounts of data generated during excavations at the Koster site in Illinois, USA. The system included standardized forms for recording various archaeological data such as artifact types, provenience details, and stratigraphic relationships. Each form was meticulously organized to ensure consistency and accuracy in data collection across different excavation areas and over multiple field seasons. The system was developed to address several key challenges faced in archaeological fieldwork: 1. Data Organization and Management: With multiple excavation units and teams working simultaneously at Koster, maintaining consistency in data recording and ensuring that all relevant information was captured posed a significant logistical challenge. The data flow system provided a structured approach to organizing and managing excavation data, thereby facilitating efficient data retrieval and analysis. 2. Data Integration and Analysis: By standardizing data collection procedures, the system enabled archaeologists to integrate findings from different excavation units and stratigraphic layers. This integration was crucial for reconstructing the site's chronological sequence, interpreting cultural changes over time, and identifying patterns in artifact distribution. 3. Accuracy and Reliability: The system emphasized the importance of precise documentation of provenience (the precise location within the site where artifacts were found) and stratigraphic context (the layers of soil and their relative dating). This meticulous documentation enhanced the reliability of interpretations drawn from the archaeological data and minimized errors in analysis. 4. Long-Term Research: Beyond immediate fieldwork needs, the data flow system was designed to support long-term research objectives at Koster. It facilitated data preservation and archival, allowing future generations of archaeologists to revisit and reinterpret the excavation findings using standardized, well-documented data. In summary, the data flow system developed for the Koster site was a proactive response to the complexities of managing archaeological data during large-scale excavations. It played a crucial role in enhancing the efficiency, accuracy, and interpretative potential of archaeological research at the site, setting a precedent for systematic data management in field archaeology. 25) What are some of the most common problems encountered in excavation? Discuss and give examples. Answer: Excavation in archaeology, while essential for uncovering and studying ancient civilizations, often encounters several common challenges: 1. Stratigraphic Mixing: This occurs when different archaeological layers or contexts become mixed, either naturally over time due to erosion or human activity, or during previous excavations. For example, if a modern construction disturbs an ancient site, artifacts from different time periods might be intermingled, complicating interpretations. 2. Poor Preservation Conditions: Archaeological sites are vulnerable to natural processes like erosion, climate change, or human activities such as farming or construction. For instance, organic materials like wood or textiles may decay quickly if not preserved in specific conditions like waterlogged environments or dry deserts. 3. Biased Sampling: In some cases, excavations may unintentionally focus on certain areas of a site more than others, leading to biased interpretations of the overall cultural practices or chronological sequences. This can skew conclusions about ancient societies based on incomplete evidence. 4. Artifact Fragmentation: Fragile artifacts may break during excavation or while being transported to laboratories. For example, delicate pottery or bone tools can fracture, making it challenging to reconstruct artifacts accurately and interpret their original form or function. 5. Ethical Considerations: Excavations may involve sensitive cultural heritage issues, such as indigenous rights or religious beliefs. For instance, uncovering human remains may require careful consultation with descendant communities to ensure respectful treatment and appropriate handling. Addressing these challenges requires careful planning, methodical excavation techniques, and collaboration with specialists in fields like conservation, stratigraphy, and cultural heritage management. By mitigating these issues, archaeologists can maximize the scientific value of excavations and responsibly contribute to our understanding of past human civilizations. 26) What are the four points that must be taken into account when interpreting archaeological stratigraphy? Discuss. Answer: Interpreting archaeological stratigraphy involves analysing the layers of soil, sediment, or rock at a site to understand the sequence of human activities and natural processes over time. Four key points to consider in this interpretation are: 1. Law of Superposition: This principle states that in undisturbed sedimentary deposits, younger layers are deposited on top of older layers. By examining the relative position of artifacts and features within these layers, archaeologists can establish a chronological sequence of events at the site. 2. Stratigraphic Relationships: Analysing the physical relationships between different layers (e.g., which layers cut through others, which layers contain artifacts) provides insights into the chronological order and cultural significance of archaeological deposits. For example, a layer containing pottery shards may indicate a domestic occupation layer, while layers with ash or charcoal might suggest ancient hearths or ritual activities. 3. Contextual Associations: Understanding the spatial and temporal context in which artifacts or features are found is crucial for interpreting their cultural significance. For instance, artifacts found within the same stratigraphic layer are more likely to be contemporaneous, whereas artifacts found in different layers may reflect different phases of occupation or abandonment at the site. 4. Natural Processes and Human Activities: Recognizing how natural processes (e.g., erosion, sediment deposition) and human activities (e.g., construction, ritual practices) have shaped the stratigraphy is essential. For example, disturbances like digging pits or building structures can create new layers or disrupt existing ones, complicating interpretations of stratigraphic sequences. By systematically applying these points in stratigraphic analysis, archaeologists can reconstruct past environments, trace cultural changes over time, and interpret the significance of archaeological deposits within broader historical contexts. 27) Compare and contrast horizontal and vertical excavation methods. Under what circumstances might you choose each one? Are they mutually exclusive? Answer: Horizontal Excavation: • Method: Involves digging broadly across a site to uncover a wide area at a shallow depth. • Purpose: Used to reveal the extent and layout of a site, identifying surface features and artifacts. • Circumstances: Preferable when trying to understand the spatial distribution of artifacts or when the site is extensive but shallow in depth, such as a settlement or a battlefield. Vertical Excavation: • Method: Involves digging deeply into a specific area or feature to uncover successive layers of occupation. • Purpose: Used to establish chronological sequences, stratigraphy, and detailed contexts of artifacts and features. • Circumstances: Ideal when aiming to uncover the chronological history of a site, especially in deep deposits like burial mounds, ruins, or deeply stratified sites. Comparison: • Depth vs. Breadth: Vertical focuses deep into the ground, while horizontal covers a wide surface area. • Chronology vs. Spatial Distribution: Vertical aids in establishing time sequences, while horizontal helps in understanding spatial layouts. • Precision: Vertical is more precise for dating layers, while horizontal gives a broader overview. Choosing Each Method: • Horizontal: Chosen for initial site exploration, mapping, and understanding surface artifacts and features. • Vertical: Chosen for detailed excavation of specific areas to establish chronological sequences and stratigraphy. Mutual Exclusivity: • They are not mutually exclusive; often, both methods are employed sequentially or concurrently in archaeological digs. Horizontal excavation may precede vertical to identify areas of interest, and both may be used to complement each other in understanding a site's history comprehensively. 28) Discuss the importance of record keeping in archaeology, giving examples of the kinds of records that must be kept. Answer: Record keeping is crucial in archaeology as it ensures accurate documentation and interpretation of findings, aiding in scholarly analysis and future research. Examples of essential records include: • Field Notes: Detailed descriptions of excavation areas, stratigraphy, features, and contexts. • Photographs and Drawings: Visual documentation of artifacts, structures, and excavation layers. • Catalogs and Inventories: Systematic lists of artifacts, categorized by type, context, and provenance. • Maps and Plans: Site maps showing excavation units, trenches, and artifact distributions. • Contextual Information: Records of sediment samples, soil types, environmental conditions, and spatial relationships between artifacts. • Digital Data: Databases or spreadsheets storing all recorded information in a structured format for analysis and sharing. Importance: • Accuracy: Ensures findings are accurately represented and can be verified by other researchers. • Interpretation: Facilitates interpretation of archaeological contexts and patterns. • Legal and Ethical Compliance: Meets legal requirements for excavation permits and ethical guidelines for artifact preservation and study. In conclusion, thorough and systematic record keeping not only preserves archaeological data but also forms the foundation for scholarly analysis, interpretation, and future discoveries in the field. 29) Choose one of the following and discuss some of the special excavation problems associated with your choice. Choices: fragile objects, burials, structures, and pits. Answer: Burial excavation presents unique challenges due to cultural, ethical, and scientific considerations: • Cultural Sensitivity: Many societies regard burials as sacred, requiring respectful handling and consultation with descendant communities. • Preservation: Burials often contain fragile human remains and associated artifacts that require delicate handling to avoid damage. • Ethical Considerations: Respect for the deceased and their cultural practices necessitates ethical guidelines for excavation, analysis, and reburial protocols. • Legal Issues: Excavation of burials may require specific permits and adherence to laws protecting human remains and burial sites. • Interpretation: Burials offer insights into ancient social structures, health, and rituals, but interpreting them requires contextual understanding and multidisciplinary approaches. 30) It has been said that "excavation is destruction." Nonetheless, archaeologists still excavate sites in order to learn about the past. Discuss the ways in which archaeologists compensate for the fact that by excavating sites, we destroy them. Answer: Excavation indeed involves irreversible alteration of archaeological sites, but archaeologists employ several strategies to mitigate this destruction: • Documentation: Comprehensive recording through photography, mapping, and detailed notes preserves site information for future study. • Sampling: Selective excavation focuses on representative areas to minimize overall disturbance while maximizing information gained. • Conservation: Techniques like stabilization and protective coverings can preserve exposed features and artifacts post-excavation. • Public Engagement: Sharing findings with the public promotes awareness and appreciation, advocating for site preservation and ethical excavation practices. • Digital Preservation: Advancements in digital technologies allow virtual reconstructions and data storage, preserving sites digitally beyond physical excavation. These methods aim to balance scientific inquiry with preservation ethics, ensuring that excavation contributes knowledge while respecting the integrity of archaeological sites. 31) Discuss the importance of a research design in excavation. Answer: A research design is crucial for effective and meaningful excavation in archaeology: • Guiding Principles: Establishes clear research questions, objectives, and methodologies, ensuring systematic investigation. • Site-Specific Planning: Tailors excavation strategies to site characteristics, such as size, complexity, and preservation conditions. • Resource Allocation: Efficiently manages time, personnel, and funding to maximize research outcomes. • Contextual Understanding: Emphasizes stratigraphy, spatial relationships, and cultural contexts, aiding interpretation. • Ethical Considerations: Incorporates protocols for artifact handling, community engagement, and site conservation. • Data Management: Defines recording standards, ensuring comprehensive documentation and data integrity. • Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Integrates diverse expertise (e.g., archaeology, anthropology, geology) for comprehensive site analysis. Ultimately, a well-designed research plan enhances excavation's scientific rigor, ethical responsibility, and contribution to broader archaeological knowledge. Test Bank for In the Beginning: An Introduction to Archaeology Brian M. Fagan, Nadia Durrani 9780205968039
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