Chapter Five – Motivating Behavior Overview Given the complex array of individual differences discussed in Chapter 3 (and extended later in this chapter), it should be obvious that people work for a wide variety of reasons. Some people want money, some want a challenge, and some want power. What people in an organization want from work and how they think they can achieve it plays an instrumental role in determining their motivation to work. As we see in this chapter, motivation is vital to all organizations. Indeed, the difference between highly effective organizations and less effective ones often lies in the motivations of their members. Thus, managers need to understand the nature of individual motivation, especially as it applies to work situations. In this chapter we first explore various need-based perspectives on motivation. We then turn our attention to the more sophisticated process-based perspectives. We conclude with a discussion of learning-based perspectives on motivation. Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Characterize the nature of motivation, including its importance and basic historical perspectives. 2. Identify and describe the need-based perspectives on motivation. 3. Identify and describe the major process-based perspectives on motivation. 4. Describe learning-based perspective on motivation. Real World Challenge: Motivating Cast Members at Disney Summary: The Walt Disney Company owns a cruise line, several television networks and eleven theme parks, which are known to millions worldwide. The company strives to provide legendary customer service in its theme parks and cruise ships. Real World Challenge: How can Disney motivate its cast members to provide the four basic service basics of projecting a positive image and energy, being courteous and respectful to all guests, staying in character and play the part, and going above and beyond expectations? Real World Response: To motivate case members at Disney theme parks to provide exemplary customer service, the company begins by thoroughly training new hires in topics ranging from performance expectations to how to dress to how to anticipate guests’ needs. Chapter Outline I. THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION Motivation is the set of forces that causes people to engage in one behavior rather than some alternative behavior. From the manager’s viewpoint, the objective is to motivate people to behave in ways that are in the organization’s best interest. A. The Importance of Motivation Job performance depends on ability and environment as well as motivation. This relationship can be stated as follows: P = M × A × E where P = performance, M = motivation, A = ability, and E = environment A deficiency in any one of these areas hurts performance. A manager should thus strive to ensure that all three conditions are met. In most settings, motivation is the most difficult of these factors to manage. For example, if a worker cannot complete a project without sales forecast data from marketing, the manager can contact marketing and request that information. But if motivation is deficient, the manager faces the more complex situation of determining what will motivate the employee to work harder. B. The Motivational Framework We can start to understand motivation by looking at need deficiencies and goal-directed behaviors. Figure 5.1 shows the basic motivational framework we use to organize our discussion. A need—something an individual requires or wants—is the starting point. A need deficiency usually triggers a search for ways to satisfy it. Next comes a choice of goal-directed behaviors, most effort is likely to be directed at one option. Next the person experiences either rewards or punishment as a result of this choice. Finally, the person assesses the extent to which the outcome achieved fully addresses the original need deficiency. C. Early Perspectives on Motivation Historical views on motivation, although not always accurate, are of interest because they provide a foundation for contemporary thinking about motivation. These views were generally based on common sense and intuition, an appreciation of their strengths and weaknesses can help managers gain useful insights into employee motivation in the workplace. 1. The Traditional Approach One of the first writers to address work motivation was Frederick Taylor. Taylor developed a method for structuring jobs that he called scientific management. Taylor assumed that economic gain was the primary thing that motivated everyone. Other assumptions of the traditional approach were that work is inherently unpleasant for most people and that the money they earn is more important to employees than the nature of the job they are performing. Proponents of the traditional approach took too narrow a view of the role of monetary compensation and also failed to consider other motivational factors. 2. The Human Relations Approach The human relations approach supplanted scientific management in the 1930s. The human relations approach suggests that fostering a sense of employees’ inclusion in decision making will result in positive employee attitudes and motivation to work hard. The approach assumed that employees want to feel useful and important, that employees have strong social needs, and that these needs are more important than money in motivating employees. 3. The Human Resource Approach The human resource approach to motivation carries the concepts of needs and motivation one step farther, making the assumption that people want to contribute and are able to make genuine contributions. Management’s task, then, is to encourage participation and to create a work environment that makes full use of the human resources available. This philosophy guides most contemporary thinking about employee motivation. D. Individual Differences and Motivation Simply put, different things motivate different people. Because of these myriad differences, there is no one best way to motivate everyone. An easy mistake to make when trying to motivate others is assuming that the same things that motivate you also motivate them. The starting point for motivated employees is hiring people whose individual characteristics lead to high motivation on the job. A job requiring high-quality work will not be as motivating to someone who lacks attention to detail as it will to a conscientious, detail-oriented person. In addition to the various individual differences we have already discussed, one additional element is often very specifically related to the motivation to perform a specific task. A specific form of self-efficacy is especially related to employee motivation. Task-specific self-efficacy is a person’s beliefs in his or her capabilities to do what is required to accomplish a specific task. Task-specific self-efficacy beliefs have three dimensions: 1. Magnitude: beliefs about how difficult a specific task can be accomplished. 2. Strength: beliefs about how confident the person is that the specific task can be accomplished. 3. Generality: beliefs about the degree to which similar tasks can be accomplished. Because task-specific self-efficacy perceptions are changeable, good managers proactively enhance subordinates’ perceptions of their abilities. Managers can raise task-specific self-efficacy through coaching and encouragement, assuming the employee really does have the potential to perform better. If you find yourself lacking the confidence that you can do a task, you can take steps to eliminate the performance barriers you identify. Perhaps more practice, seeking a coach, or watching others perform the task successfully will increase your task-specific self-efficacy and motivation. Global Issues: Motivating A Global Workforce Summary: Effectively motivating employees located across the globe is a significant challenge. Managers must be sensitive to cultural differences in values and needs and understand that what is acceptable in one culture may be taboo in another. The American culture is more individualistic and egocentric than many other cultures. Because American culture values individual achievement, Americans often have a desire to be singled out and praised. In some cultures, people are embarrassed or ashamed if they receive attention. However, some motivation principles, like treating people with respect, apply equally well around the world. Fairness and respect resonate globally. II. NEED-BASED PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION The basic premise of need-based theories and models is the assumption that need deficiencies cause behavior. Need theorists have attempted to identify and categorize the needs that are most important to people. The best-known need theories are the hierarchy of needs and the ERG theory. A. The Hierarchy of Needs The hierarchy of needs, developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s, is the best-known need theory. Maslow argued that human beings are “wanting” animals: They have innate desires to satisfy a given set of needs. Furthermore, Maslow believed that these needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, with the most basic needs at the foundation of the hierarchy. Figure 5.2 shows Maslow’s hierarchy of needs which assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. The three sets of needs at the bottom of the hierarchy are called deficiency needs because they must be satisfied for the individual to be fundamentally comfortable. The top two sets of needs are termed growth needs because they focus on personal growth and development. The most basic needs in the hierarchy are physiological needs. These include the needs for food, sex, and air. Next in the hierarchy are security needs: things that offer safety and security, such as adequate housing and clothing and freedom from worry and anxiety. Belongingness needs, the third level in the hierarchy, are primarily social. Examples include the need for love and affection and the need to be accepted by peers. The fourth level, esteem needs, actually encompasses two slightly different kinds of needs: the need for a positive self-image and self-respect and the need to be respected by others. At the top of the hierarchy are self-actualization needs. These involve a person’s realizing his or her full potential and becoming all that he or she can be. Maslow believed that each need level must be satisfied before the level above it can become important. This escalation up the hierarchy continues until the self-actualization needs become the primary motivators. However, if a previously satisfied lower-level set of needs becomes deficient again, the individual returns to that level. In most businesses, physiological needs are probably the easiest to evaluate and to meet. Adequate wages, and comfortable working conditions are measures taken to satisfy this most basic level of needs. Security needs in organizations can be satisfied by such things as job continuity (no layoffs), a grievance system (to protect against arbitrary supervisory actions), and an adequate insurance and retirement system (to guard against financial loss from illness and to ensure retirement income). Most employees’ belongingness needs are satisfied by family ties and group relationships both inside and outside the organization. Managers can help satisfy these needs by fostering interaction and a sense of group identity among employees. Self-actualization needs are perhaps the hardest to understand and the most difficult to satisfy. Working toward self-actualization, rather than actually achieving it, may be the ultimate motivation for most people. Research shows that the need hierarchy does not generalize very well to other countries. Research has also found differences in the relative importance of different needs in Mexico, India, Peru, Canada, Thailand, Turkey, and Puerto Rico. Maslow’s needs hierarchy makes a certain amount of intuitive sense. And because it was the first motivation theory to become popular, it is also one of the best known among practicing managers. However, research has revealed a number of deficiencies in the theory. Five levels of needs are not always present; the actual hierarchy of needs does not always conform to Maslow’s model; and need structures are more unstable and variable than the theory would lead us to believe. And sometimes managers are overly clumsy or superficial in their attempts to use a theory such as this one. B. The ERG Theory The ERG theory, developed by Yale psychologist Clayton Alderfer, is another historically important need theory of motivation. The E, R, and G stand for three basic need categories: existence, relatedness, and growth. Existence needs roughly correspond to the physiological and security needs of Maslow’s hierarchy. Relatedness needs are similar to Maslow’s belongingness and esteem needs. Finally, growth needs are analogous to Maslow’s needs for self-esteem and self-actualization. In contrast to Maslow’s approach, ERG theory suggests that more than one kind of need may motivate a person at the same time. A more important difference from Maslow’s hierarchy is that ERG theory includes a satisfaction-progression component and a frustration- regression component. The satisfaction-progression concept suggests that after satisfying one category of needs, a person progresses to the next level. The need hierarchy assumes that the individual remains at the next level until the needs at that level are satisfied. In contrast, the frustration-regression component of ERG theory suggests that a person who is frustrated by trying to satisfy a higher level of needs eventually will regress to the preceding level. C. The Two-Factor Theory Another important need-based theory of motivation is the two-factor theory, also called the dual-structure theory. This theory identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction. The two-factor theory once played a major role in managerial thinking about motivation, and is still widely known and accepted among practicing managers. 1. Development of the Theory Frederick Herzberg and his associates developed the two-factor theory in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Herzberg began by interviewing approximately 200 accountants and engineers in Pittsburgh and asked them questions about motivation. Herzberg found that entirely different sets of factors were associated with the two kinds of feelings about work. The findings led Herzberg to conclude that the prevailing thinking about satisfaction and motivation was incorrect. As Figure 5.3 shows, Herzberg saw motivation as a two-factor phenomenon. Figure 5.3 also illustrates the two-factor concept that there is one dimension ranging from satisfaction to no satisfaction and another ranging from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction. This theory proposed, employees might be either satisfied or not satisfied and, at the same time, dissatisfied or not dissatisfied. Figure 5.3 lists the primary factors identified in Herzberg’s interviews. Motivation factors are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement, recognition, and the opportunity to plan and control their own work were often cited by people as primary causes of satisfaction and motivation. The other set of factors, hygiene factors, are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security. These factors came out in response to the questions about dissatisfaction and lack of motivation. To use the two-factor theory in the workplace, Herzberg recommended a two-stage process. First, the manager should try to eliminate situations that cause dissatisfaction. According to the theory, once a state of no dissatisfaction exists, trying to improve motivation further through hygiene factors is a waste of time. At that point, the motivation factors enter the picture. As a result, managers would be helping subordinates feel satisfied and motivated. Herzberg described explicitly how managers could apply his theory, “job enrichment” (discussed in Chapter 6) 2. Evaluation of the Theory The two-factor theory has been scientifically scrutinized more than almost any other organizational behavior theory, with contradictory results. In general, studies that use the same methodology as Herzberg did (content analysis of recalled incidents) tend to support the theory. However, this methodology has itself been criticized, and studies that use other methods to measure satisfaction and dissatisfaction frequently obtain results quite different from Herzberg’s. The theory may be “method bound.” Critics say the original sample of accountants and engineers may not represent the general working population. Furthermore, they maintain that the theory fails to account for individual differences. In addition, the theory does not define the relationship between satisfaction and motivation. Research has also suggested that the two-factor framework varies across cultures. It is not surprising, then, that the two-factor theory is no longer held in high esteem by organizational behavior researchers. D. The Acquired Needs Framework Next, we will discuss one final need-based motivation perspective. The acquired needs framework was advanced by David McClelland and centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power (these needs are also sometimes referred to as manifest needs). A key differentiating element of this framework is the argument that these needs are acquired, or learned, from cultural, societal, and family influences. 1. The Need for Achievement The need for achievement arises from an individual’s desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past. Individuals who have a high need for achievement tend to set moderately difficult goals and to make moderately risky decisions. High need-achievers also want immediate, specific feedback on their performance. Preoccupation with work is another characteristic of high need-achievers. Finally, high need- achievers tend to assume personal responsibility for getting things done. Although high need-achievers tend to be successful, they often do not achieve top management posts. High need-achievers tend to do well as individual entrepreneurs with little or no group reinforcement. 2. The Need for Affiliation Individuals also experience the need for affiliation – the need for human companionship. Individuals with a high need tend to want reassurance and approval from others and usually are genuinely concerned about others’ feelings. People with a strong need for affiliation most often work in jobs with a lot of interpersonal contact, such as sales and teaching positions. 3. The Need for Power The third so-called acquired need is the need for power – the desire to control one’s environment, including financial, material, informational, and human resources. People with a high need for power can be successful managers if three conditions are met. First, they must seek power for the betterment of the organization rather than for their own interests. Second, they must have a fairly low need for affiliation because fulfilling a personal need for power may well alienate others in the workplace. Third, they need plenty of self-control to curb their desire for power when it threatens to interfere with effective organizational or interpersonal relationships. III. PROCESS-BASED PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION Process-based perspectives focuses on why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals. Two useful process perspectives on motivation are the equity and expectancy theories. A. The Equity Theory of Motivation The equity theory of motivation focuses on people’s desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity. The theory defines equity as the belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others and inequity as the belief that we are being treated unfairly compared with others. Social comparisons involve evaluating our own situation in terms of others’ situations. In this chapter, we focus mainly on equity theory because it is the most highly developed of the social comparison approaches and the one that applies most directly to the work motivation of people in organizations. 1. Forming Equity Perceptions People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four-step process. First, they evaluate how they are being treated by the firm. Second, they form a perception of how a “comparison-other” is being treated. Third, they compare their own circumstances with those of the comparison-other and then use this comparison as the basis for forming an impression of either equity or inequity. Fourth, depending on the strength of this feeling, the person may choose to pursue one or more of the alternatives discussed in the next section. Equity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an input-to-outcome ratio. Inputs are an individual’s contributions to the organization, outcomes are what the person receives in return. The equity comparison thus takes the following form: Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (other) Inputs (self) Inputs (other) If the two sides of this psychological equation are comparable, the person experiences a feeling of equity; if the two sides do not balance, a feeling of inequity results. A perception of equity does not require that the perceived outcomes and inputs be equal, but only that their ratios be the same. 2. Responses to Equity and Inequity Figure 5.4 summarizes the results of an equity comparison. People may use one of six common methods to reduce inequity. First, we may change our own inputs. Second, we may change our own outcomes. A third, more complex response is to alter our perceptions of ourselves and our behavior. Fourth, we may alter our perception of the comparison-other’s inputs or outcomes. Fifth, we may change the object of comparison. Finally, as a last resort, we may simply leave the situation. 3. Evaluation and Implications Findings support the predictions of equity theory quite consistently, especially when the worker feels underpaid. Most studies appear to uphold the basic premises of the theory. One interesting new twist on equity theory suggests that some people are more sensitive than others to perceptions of inequity. For managers, the most important implication of equity theory concerns organizational rewards and reward systems. Equity theory offers managers three messages. First, everyone in the organization needs to understand the basis for rewards. Second, people tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible. Finally, people base their actions on their perceptions of reality. B. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation Expectancy theory suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it, also known as VIE theory. 1. The Basic Expectancy Model Victor Vroom is generally credited with first applying the theory to motivation in the workplace. The basic premise of expectancy theory is that motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it. Figure 5.5 summarizes the basic expectancy model. The model’s general components are effort (the result of motivated behavior), performance, and outcomes. Expectancy theory emphasizes the linkages among these elements, which are described in terms of expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences. 2. Effort-to-Performance Expectancy Effort-to-performance expectancy is a person’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to successful performance. If we believe our effort will lead to higher performance, this expectancy approaches a probability of 1.0. If we believe our performance will be the same no matter how much effort we make, our expectancy is very low, as low as 0. 3. Performance-to-Outcome Instrumentality Performance-to-outcome instrumentality (also known as performance-to-outcome expectancy) is a person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain other outcomes. As Figure 5.5 shows, several outcomes might logically result from performance. Each outcome, then, has its own instrumentality. 4. Outcomes and Valences An outcome is anything that results from performing a particular behavior. High-level performance conceivably might produce such outcomes as a pay raise, a promotion, recognition from the boss, fatigue, stress, or less time to rest, among others. The valence of an outcome is the relative attractiveness or unattractiveness—the value—of that outcome to the person. Pay raises, promotions, and recognition might all have positive valences, whereas fatigue, stress, and less time to rest might all have negative valences. The strength of outcome valences varies from person to person. The basic expectancy framework suggests that three conditions must be met before motivated behavior occurs. First, the effort-to-performance expectancy must be well above zero. Second, the performance-to-outcome instrumentalities must be well above zero. Third, the sum of all the valences for the potential outcomes relevant to the person must be positive. 5. The Porter-Lawler Model Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler were researchers who used expectancy theory to develop a novel view of the relationship between employee satisfaction and performance. Porter and Lawler argued that if rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction. The Porter-Lawler model appears in Figure 5.6. Some of its features are quite different from the original version of expectancy theory. At the beginning of the motivational cycle, effort is a function of the value of the potential reward for the employee (its valence) and the perceived effort-reward probability (an expectancy). Effort then combines with abilities, traits, and role perceptions to determine actual performance. Performance results in two kinds of rewards. Intrinsic rewards are intangible—a feeling of accomplishment, a sense of achievement, and so forth. Extrinsic rewards are tangible outcomes such as pay and promotion. If the rewards are regarded as equitable, the employee feels satisfied. 6. Evaluation and Implications Several studies have supported various parts of the theory. Research has also confirmed expectancy theory’s claims that people will not engage in motivated behavior unless they (1) value the expected rewards, (2) believe their efforts will lead to performance, and (3) believe their performance will result in the desired rewards. However, expectancy theory is so complicated that researchers have found it quite difficult to test. Moreover, people are seldom as rational and objective in choosing behaviors as expectancy theory implies. Research has also suggested that expectancy theory is more likely to explain motivation in the United States than in other countries. Because expectancy theory is so complex, it is difficult to apply directly in the workplace. A manager would need to figure out what rewards each employee wants and how valuable those rewards are to each person, measure the various expectancies, and finally adjust the relationships to create motivation. Nevertheless, expectancy theory offers several important guidelines for the practicing manager. The following are some of the more fundamental guidelines: 1. Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants. 2. Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals. 3. Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible. 4. Link desired outcomes and desired performance. 5. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies and instrumentalities. 6. Make sure the rewards are large enough. 7. Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone. CASE STUDY: Pride-Building at Aramark Summary: With 270,000 employees in 22 countries, Aramark wanted to motivate its employees who clean airplanes for Delta and Southwest Airlines. Turnover of the low-paid, largely immigrant staff was high while morale was low. Wallets and other valuables left on planes disappeared. After 5 years of efforts to increase motivation, revenue rose from $5 million to $14 million. 1. What motivation theories apply to the workers at Aramark? According to the two-factor theory, hygiene factors such as good working conditions (English and citizenship classes, babysitting, computer training) do not cause job satisfaction. However, if working conditions are poor, employees are dissatisfied and quit, have low morale, or steal. Hygiene factors correspond to Maslow’s lower-level physiological, safety, and social needs and Alderfer’s existence and relatedness needs. 2. If you were the manager of these employees, what would you do to motivate them? Be honest regarding your personal management style and beliefs rather than trying to be like Roy Pelaez. Students may find what motivates different employees in different countries and try to add those components into the job. For those who want career advancement, students may suggest enlarging the job to add decision making, increased responsibility, and training. For those who require more family time, students may suggest redesigning the job to include flextime and job sharing. 3. What are some possible barriers to the effectiveness of your motivation ideas? What could you do to overcome them? Many low-paid, immigrant employees are motivated by higher wages, and during difficult economic times, salary increases may not be realistic. In place of a raise, benefits could be offered – employees could be given gift cards to a grocery store. IV. LEARNING-BASED PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION Learning is another key component in employee motivation. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential that results from direct or indirect experience. A. How Learning Occurs 1. The Traditional View: Classical Conditioning The most influential historical approach to learning is classical conditioning, developed by Ivan Pavlov in his famous experiments with dogs. Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which a conditioned response is linked with an unconditioned stimulus. In organizations, however, only simple behaviors and responses can be learned in this manner. But this form of learning is obviously simplistic and not directly relevant to motivation. For one thing, classical conditioning relies on simple cause-and-effect relationships between one stimulus and one response; it cannot deal with the more complex forms of learned behavior that typify human beings. For another, classical conditioning ignores the concept of choice; it assumes that behavior is reflexive, or involuntary. 2. The Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process Contemporary learning theory generally views learning as a cognitive process; that is, it assumes that people are conscious, active participants in how they learn. First, the cognitive view suggests that people draw on their experiences and use past learning as a basis for their present behavior. These experiences represent knowledge, or cognitions. Second, people make choices about their behavior. Third, people recognize the consequences of their choices. Finally, people evaluate those consequences and add them to prior learning, which affects future choices. B. Reinforcement Theory and Learning In its simplest form, reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is a function of its consequences. Reinforcement theory also suggests that in any given situation, people explore a variety of possible behaviors. C. Social Learning Social learning occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result (some experts refer to social learning as social cognitive theory). Social learning theory suggests that individual behavior is determined by a person’s cognitions and social environment. More specifically, people are presumed to learn behaviors and attitudes at least partly in response to what others expect of them. Several conditions must be met to produce an appropriate environment for social learning. First, the behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple. Second, social learning usually involves observed and imitated behavior that is concrete, not intellectual. Finally, for social learning to occur, we must possess the physical ability to imitate the behavior observed. Social learning influences motivation in a variety of ways. Many of the behaviors we exhibit in our daily work lives are learned from others. D. Behavior Modification Behavior modification is the application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings. Figure 5.7 summarizes these kinds of reinforcement. 1. Kinds of Reinforcement There are four types of reinforcers, as shown in Figure 5.7. Positive reinforcement involves the use of rewards to increase the likelihood that a desired behavior—high performance, for instance—will be repeated. Negative reinforcement is based on the removal of current or future unpleasant consequences to increase the likelihood that someone will repeat a behavior. In other words, avoidance or removal of something undesirable can be motivating. Punishment is the application of negative outcomes to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. For example, a manager might reduce the work hours of low-performing employees. Finally, extinction involves the removal of other reinforcement (positive or negative) following the incidence of the behavior to be extinguished to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. For reinforcement to work, people must associate the reward with the behavior. In other words, people need to know exactly why they are receiving a reward. To best reinforce a behavior, the reward should come as quickly as possible after the behavior. Some of the most powerful rewards are symbolic—things that cost very little but mean a lot to the people who get them. Examples of symbolic rewards are things like plaques or certificates. Rewards also impact ethical behavior choices. Rewards do not always increase ethical behavior because the presence of the reward can undermine the intrinsic value of the ethical behavior. 2. The Timing of Reinforcement Reinforcement should ideally come immediately after the behavior bring influenced. It is useful to understand the various schedules that can be used to provide reinforcement. A continuous reinforcement schedule is one in which the desired behavior is reinforced each time that it occurs. A partial reinforcement schedule is one in which the desired behavior is reinforced only part of the time. There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules: 1. Fixed-ratio: Desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct responses – for example, receiving pay bonuses for every ten error-free pieces made per hour. 2, Fixed-interval: Desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed – for example, receiving weekly paychecks. 3. Variable-ratio: Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors – for example, a supervisor praises a call center representative after the third call, then the seventh call after that, and then the fourth call after that. 4. Variable-interval: Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed – for example, not knowing when a regional supervisor will visit your location for an inspection. Fixed-ratio schedules produce a high, consistent rate of responding with desired behaviors but with fast extinction when the reinforcement stops. Research suggests that the fastest way to get someone to learn is to use continuous reinforcement and reinforce the desired behavior every time it occurs. The most effective schedule for sustaining a behavior is variable reinforcement. In terms of behavior modification, any behavior can be understood as being a result of its consequences. To motivate the right behavior, an expert in behavior modification would identify the desired behaviors and then carefully reinforce them. This process involves five steps: 1. Define the problem – what is it that could be improved? 2. Identify and define the specific behavior(s) you wish to change. 3. Record and track the occurrence of the target behavior. 4. Analyze the current negative consequences of the undesired behavior and arrange for more positive consequences to follow the desired behavior. 5. Evaluate whether the behavior has improved, and by how much. This chapter has covered a variety of theories that can be used by managers to motivate employee performance. Table 5.1 summarizes how different motivation concepts covered in this chapter can be applied to a variety of common management challenges. Understanding why and how a motivational perspective works helps managers better match motivational techniques with motivation opportunities and enhances the likelihood of success. Summary and Application Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to behave as they do. Motivation starts with a need. People search for ways to satisfy their needs and then behave accordingly. Their behavior results in rewards or punishment. Scientific management asserted that money is the primary human motivator in the workplace. The human relations view suggested that social factors are primary motivators. According to Abraham Maslow, human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, from physiological to security to belongingness to esteem to, finally, self-actualization. The ERG theory is a refinement of Maslow’s original hierarchy that includes a frustration-regression component. In Herzberg’s two-factor theory, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two distinct dimensions instead of opposite ends of the same dimension. The equity theory of motivation assumes that people want to be treated fairly. It hypothesizes that people compare their own input-to-outcome ratio in the organization with the ratio of a comparison-other. Expectancy theory, a somewhat more complicated model, follows from the assumption that people are motivated to work toward a goal if they want it and think that they have a reasonable chance of achieving it. The Porter-Lawler version of expectancy theory provides useful insights into the relationship between satisfaction and performance. This model suggests that performance may lead to a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Learning also plays a role in employee motivation. Various kinds of reinforcement provided according to different schedules can increase or decrease motivated behavior. People are affected by social learning processes. Organizational behavior modification is a strategy for using learning and reinforcement principles to enhance employee motivation and performance. This strategy relies heavily on the effective measurement of performance and the provision of rewards to employees after they perform at a high level. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. When has your level of performance been directly affected by your motivation? By your ability? By the environment? Students may describe how motivation, ability, and environment affected their level of performance in previous courses. For example, a student may believe that he or she had the ability to obtain an A in a particular course but, because of a low level of motivation, did not spend enough time studying and consequently received a C. If a student studied the course material thoroughly and still received a C, however, it is likely that ability directly affected performance. Finally, if the student never purchased the textbook and received a C in the course, the result may be attributed to a lack of the right materials and equipment (environment) rather than to lack of motivation or ability. 2. Identify examples from your own experience that support, and others that refute, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. Having students identify experiences that support or refute Maslow’s theory will help them appreciate the intuitive sense of the theory. By identifying experiences that refute the theory, however, students should be able to recognize the deficiencies of the model. Examples supporting Maslow's hierarchy include instances where I prioritized basic needs like safety and financial stability before pursuing personal growth and self-actualization. Conversely, I have seen people achieve high levels of success in their careers despite lacking certain basic needs, suggesting that motivation can sometimes transcend the hierarchical structure. 3. Have you ever experienced inequity in a job or a class? How did it affect you? Students who have worked may have some interesting examples of inequity that include amount of work or number of hours as inputs and amount of pay or extra time off or special benefits as different outcomes. Potential student inputs in a classroom setting include class participation, attendance, exams, and assignments. Outcomes may consist of course grade, knowledge, fatigue, and stress. A likely comparison-other is another student in the class, perhaps one with a similar major. When the student is assessing whether equity or inequity exists, discuss how equity theory emphasizes comparisons of ratios rather than simply outputs. 4. Which is likely to be a more serious problem – perceptions of being under-rewarded or perceptions of being over-rewarded? Student response will vary depending on the extent and type of their work experience. People may initially feel that being under-rewarded is the more serious problem. Students need to relate their answer back to the prescriptions based in equity theory for more guidance. When under-rewarded in relation to a comparison other, one primary alternative is to reduce inputs in order to balance the equation. When over-rewarded, people often increase their inputs in order to balance the equation. Perceptions of being under-rewarded are likely to be a more serious problem, as they can lead to feelings of resentment, decreased motivation, and lower job satisfaction among employees. When individuals feel they are not being fairly compensated for their contributions, it can result in disengagement and decreased productivity. In contrast, perceptions of being over-rewarded may create guilt or discomfort but are less likely to have a significant negative impact on overall morale and performance. 5. Do you think expectancy theory is too complex for direct use in organizational settings? Why or why not? Although students probably will agree that expectancy theory would be difficult to use directly in organizational settings, they should realize that parts of the theory might be applicable in some situations. The difficulty in applying the theory is that a manager would first need to ascertain the rewards each employee wants and the value of those rewards to each individual, then measure the various expectancies, and finally adjust the relationships to enhance motivation. Nevertheless, expectancy theory offers several important and relevant implications for the practicing manager. 6. Do the relationships between performance and satisfaction suggested by Porter and Lawler seem valid? Cite examples that both support and refute the model. Research has not confirmed the assertion that satisfaction leads to performance, but it shows that expectancy theory correctly asserts that people must value the expected rewards, must believe their efforts will lead to performance, and must believe their performances will lead to the desired rewards before they will be willing to engage in motivated behavior. You might discuss classroom examples that both support and refute the proposed performance-satisfaction relationship. An example that refutes the model is a student who performs at a moderate level and receives a B in the course. He or she may believe the reward is equitable but may not be satisfied with the grade. In support of the model, a student who performs at a high level and receives an A may believe the reward is equitable and also be satisfied with the grade. 7. Think of occasions on which you experienced each of the four types of reinforcement. The four types of reinforcement are: positive reinforcement, avoidance, extinction, and punishment. Positive reinforcement should have the student reporting some type of desirable behavior followed by a nice reward. In avoidance the student should again describe a desirable behavior, but this time followed by the removal of something perceived to be bad. Extinction should have the student reporting an undesirable behavior followed by the removal of something the student likes. Finally, punishment should show an unpleasant consequence of an undesirable behavior. 8. Identify the five forms of reinforcement that you receive most often (i.e., wages, grades, etc.). On what schedule do you receive each of them? Students are most likely to use examples from a classroom situation, although working students or older students may have other types of examples. An instructor may use continuous reinforcement through a positive statement or smile or nod every time a student makes a valid contribution to the class discussion. If the class uses a lot of discussion, partial reinforcement may become more practical. The fixed-interval schedule may be used by giving students monthly feedback on how well they are doing in classroom participation. The variable-interval schedule may be used by the instructor who gives praise on an irregular basis. Both fixed-ratio and variable-ratio reinforcement may be difficult to administer in the classroom. Continuous reinforcement probably is the best in the learning situation, because the student needs confirmation of a correct response before moving on to the next question. GROUP EXERCISE – Motivating Your Sales Staff Learning Objective: Explain why different people are motivated by different things. Summary: The goal of this exercise is to give students practice aligning individual and organizational goals, and thinking like a manager in managing employee motivation. After forming small groups, the instructor reads the scenario below. Imagine that you are the management team of a new high-end retail clothing store named Threads. Your company’s business strategy is to provide high-quality customer service and to provide high-quality products. You are not the cheapest store in town, but you expect your employees to create a service-oriented atmosphere that customers will be willing to pay a little extra for. You recognize that your sales staff will be essential to your store’s success, and you want to create a system that motivates them to help create a competitive advantage for your business. Because this is the first store you have opened, you have some latitude to decide how to best motivate your staff. Market-competitive starting salaries have already been established, but you have decided to allocate 10 percent of the stores’ profits to use to motivate your sales staff in any way you see fit. Task: Working as a team, students discuss their answers to the following questions and share their answers with the class. 1. What behaviors would you want from your sales staff? 2. What goals would you set for your sales staff, given your answer to Question 1? 3. What type of system would you set up to reward these behaviors? 4. What challenges would you be on the lookout for? How would you proactively address these potential challenges to prevent them from happening? VIDEO EXERCISE Mike Boyle Strength & Conditioning Summary: Mike Boyle is the co-owner and manager of Mike Boyle Strength and Conditioning, a gym based in Woburn, Massachusetts. Mike’s vision for his gym is he wants everyone to see the gym simply as a place they go each day to help people. Mike Boyle Strength & Conditioning employs a number of people performing in multiple roles. Mike himself, along with his co-founder, also work as personal trainers in addition to managing the gym. Mike understands that the fitness industry is characterized by high turnover. Consequently, he focuses on trying to motivate his staff to both grow and develop as fitness professionals while also seeing his gym as a place they want to stay. 1. Can you relate Mike Boyle’s views on employee motivation to the need theories discussed in this class? If so, how? Mike is meeting all of the needs outlined in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. He meets their physiological needs through a paycheck and their security needs by the stability and success of his gym. Beyond that, workers have a sense of belongingness because they are working with the same people, helping them daily. The staff also seems to work well together. Esteem needs are met through the respect employees receive when attending outside seminars. Mike and Bob also address employees’ self-actualization needs by discussing their personal goals and what they need to achieve those goals. The three basic categories of existence, relatedness, and growth found in the ERG theory could also be satisfied through these same examples. Looking at Herzberg’s motivation factors of achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and advancement and growth were addressed in the above examples except for the work itself. Both trainers in the video appeared satisfied with their jobs and feel they are helping people. They enjoy the work. Responsibility also was not directed addressed and both trainers show responsibility through their attentiveness to their jobs. Herzberg’s hygiene factors are: supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, pay and job security, and company policies. The trainers do not require much supervision but know they have Mike and Bob there if any issues arise. The working conditions are the gym which everyone seems to enjoy. All members are creating new interpersonal relationships with other members. The pay and job security seem secure and the company policies create a win-win situation for everyone involved. When looking at the acquired needs framework, this gym would satisfy members’ needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. Achievement through the actual work itself is easy enough. Affiliation with both the gym itself and the members seem satisfying for all employees. The need for power is reflected in the ability of Mike and his staff to help people on a daily basis. They are all working not just for the betterment of the gym, but for the betterment of all gym members. 2. How does expectancy theory explain Ana’s view of her work at Mike Boyle’s Strength & Conditioning? Ana has a strong belief that effort will lead to higher performance. She drives and motivates others because she needs someone to motivate her. Ana also believes her work with gym members will lead to them feeling healthier. The outcomes she witnesses through her clients is valuable to Ana and may mean more to her than pay or recognition. 3. Marco speaks about the pride he takes in both his work and the gym. Describe how his pride can be explained by any of the need perspectives on motivation. Marco’s pride would meet Maslow’s esteem needs, and the ERG’s relatedness need. Esteem is a motivation factor according to Herzberg’s two-factor theory and the need for power in the acquired needs framework. 4. How do Bob’s ideas about training and learning relate to employee motivation? Training and learning provide tools necessary for employees to satisfy their self-actualization needs, Maslow’s top-most need. This same training and learning may motivate employees as it satisfies their need for growth, according to the ERG theory. The two-factor theory lists advancement and growth as a motivation factor. Training and learning gives employees the tools they need to satisfy their need for achievement. Now What? Imagine working in a group with two other members asked by your boss to brainstorm names for a new product. The other two members stop after quickly generating 3-4 weak ideas and want to quit. One group member doesn’t see the point of the task. The other group member claims to not be good at this kind of creative stuff and would rather get back to work doing something else. What do you say or do? Go to this chapter’s “Now What?” video, watch the challenge video, and choose a response. Be sure to also view the outcomes of the two responses you didn’t choose. OB Concepts Applied: law of individual differences; self-efficacy; Theory Y; need for achievement; empowerment; task significance; autonomy; goal setting; valence, instrumentality, expectancy; interactional fairness; positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement; spot awards; recognition; job design Discussion Questions 1. Which aspects of motivation discussed in this chapter are illustrated in these videos? Explain your answer. Motivation concepts: • Law of Individual Differences: People have different abilities, needs, personalities, values, and self-concepts. Alex is motivated to get to work on the project whereas Ryan shows lack of interest and Allison doesn’t feel creative. • Theory X is the belief that most people dislike work and will try to avoid it whenever possible (incorrect response #1). Alex considers Ryan and Allison, unmotivated Theory X workers, “You’re both so lazy! It’s disappointing that so many people always try to avoid work whenever possible.” Theory Y is the belief that people enjoy responsibility and work. Amy called the group and congratulated the members on a job well done. She has a Theory Y view of her employees and feels that they enjoy the project and wish to do a good job. • Need for achievement refers to the desire to master complex tasks. Alex shows a high need for achievement because he is motivated to complete the project with or without his co-workers. Alex says, “I still can’t believe you guys wouldn’t help name the new toy. I just sent an email to Amy with the names I sent you yesterday that I came up with after our meeting. I think she’ll like some of them…” • Empowerment is the degree to which an employee has the authority to make and implement decisions Amy empowered the team of employees by giving them autonomy, freedom and independence in scheduling the work, and decision-making in generating a list of names for the new toy. • Job Design refers to providing different job opportunities to fulfill employee needs. Allison does not feel very creative and said, “I’d be more productive doing something else right now.” For Ryan, naming the toy lacks task significance, the degree to which a job has importance. “Alex, just pick your favorite name and we’ll be good with it. I don’t see the point of this.” • Positive reinforcement refers to the use of rewards like praise to increase the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. Alex praises his co-workers and uses recognition. “…we did a great job naming the Smash Master…! Alison, remember how you came up with a lot of creative ideas when you put your mind to it? Let’s have some fun with this! I’m sure you’ll come up with some great ideas.” Alex also uses negative reinforcement, removal of unpleasant consequences to increase the likelihood that Ryan will repeat a desired behavior. If Ryan works on the project, he will telecommute one day a week. The discomfort of driving in heavy traffic on Fridays will be removed. • Goal setting refers to setting specific, difficult, achievable goals that serve as motivators. Alex sets goals for Allison and Ryan, “…just try to think of a couple of ideas. Once we get started it will get easier.” He also motivates Ryan by offering him the chance to telecommute. “Doing a good job might help you get the weekly telecommuting day you want to escape the Friday traffic jam!” • Self Efficacy refers to a person’s confidence in organizing and executing actions necessary to accomplish a specific task. Allison shows low self-efficacy when she says, “I work plenty hard. I’m just not very creative.” • Expectancy refers to the belief that hard work and will lead to the desired outcome (correct response). Amy believes that the group can accomplish the task, “I knew the three of you would do a great job since you know the toy best.” • Fairness refers to ensuring that the policies and procedures used in determining employee outcomes are objective and fair (incorrect response #2). Alex submitted his ideas, and Allison and Ryan took the credit. Alex felt that this was unfair, “I can’t believe you took credit for my ideas.” Allison lied about the situation, “I told her we had spent a lot of time working on the list.” Ryan sought maximum benefit with minimum effort, “I’m going to be sure to mention this project in my performance evaluation next month! It should really help me look good.” 2. What do you feel is the biggest challenge facing this team in the challenge video? The biggest challenge is a lack of teamwork. All the members should be working together cohesively to achieve a common goal-naming the toy. In fact, each individual has different wants and needs. Ryan wants to telecommute; Allison wants to have a job that does not hinge on creativity; and Alex wants to get the job done creatively. 3. As a manager, what motivational techniques would you apply in this situation? Improving the job-person match would motivate the employees to perform at a higher level. The characteristics of a job determine its motivating potential. Allison and Ryan are not motivated by the same factors. Ryan is motivated by telecommuting, and Allison by a job that demands less creativity. Growth need strength identifies individual motivators. By comparing a job’s motivating potential to a person’s growth need strength score, a manager arrives at a job-person match. Solution Manual for Organizational Behavior: Managing People and Organizations Ricky W. Griffin, Jean M. Phillips, Stanley M. Gully 9781305501393, 9780357042502
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