Chapter 5 Cognitive Development in Infants and Toddlers 5.1 Multiple-Choice Questions 1. When researchers are interested in studying questions, such as "What do infants really understand about the world?" and "How do babies put together information from their senses?” these researchers are interested in the area of ________ development. A) physical B) cognitive C) socioemotional D) psychoanalytic Answer: B) cognitive. Cognitive refers to mental processes. 2. The term cognitive refers to A) mental processes of perceiving, thinking, remembering, solving problems, and communicating with language. B) the physical process of detecting information about a stimulus in the environment through the five senses and transmitting that information to the brain. C) the process of organizing, coordinating, and interpreting information in the brain that has come from the senses. D) the technique used to test infant visual perception. Answer: A) mental processes of perceiving, thinking, remembering, solving problems, and communicating with language. 3. The physical process of detecting information about a stimulus in the environment through the five senses is called A) sensation. B) perception. C) primitive reflexes. D) visual acuity. Answer: A) sensation. 4. Even young infants have surprisingly well-developed capabilities in areas such as A) perceptual skills. B) adaptation. C) assimilation. D) equilibration. Answer: A) perceptual skills 5. John Locke and other early philosophers claimed that the newborn's mind was A) inherently evil. B) inherently good. C) unable to be accessed due to a lack of language capabilities. D) a blank slate. Answer: D) a blank slate. Early philosophers, most notably John Locke, believed that the newborn’s mind was a “blank slate.” 6. Which of the following individuals claimed that the mental experience of the infant was "one great blooming, buzzing confusion"? A) John Locke B) Sigmund Freud C) William James D) Robert Fantz Answer: C) William James 7. The cognitive process of organizing, coordinating, and interpreting sensory information is called A) sensation. B) perception. C) primitive reflexes. D) visual acuity. Answer: B) perception. 8. ________ is a technique used to test infant visual perception. A) Child-directed speech B) Equilibration C) Preferential-looking technique D) Reflective abstraction Answer: C) Preferential-looking technique 9. Robert Fantz and his associates studied whether or not perception of different forms was innate or learned in human infants by using an apparatus called A) the visual cliff. B) the looking glass. C) a looking chamber. D) habituation-dishabituation technique. Answer: C) a looking chamber. 10. Fantz's early experiments showed that newborns who were only 2 to 5 days old A) looked more at bull's-eyes than faces. B) looked more at newsprint than faces. C) looked more at plain colored disks than faces. D) looked more at faces than bull's eyes. Answer: D) looked more at faces than bull's eyes. Newborns who were only 2 to 5 days old looked more at a drawing of a face than at a bull’s-eye or newsprint, but they preferred any of these over plain colored disks. 11. All of the following are types of visual information that babies prefer EXCEPT A) moving stimuli. B) very complex patterns. C) bright colors, like black and red. D) patterns that resemble the human face. Answer: B) very complex patterns. 12. Courtney and David are expecting their first child. They have decided to purchase a crib mobile. Which of the following features of the crib mobile will capture their child's attention? A) pastel colors B) stationary objects C) moving stimuli D) very complex patterns Answer: C) moving stimuli 13. Which kind of visual information is the most preferred by newborn babies? A) triangles B) moving stimuli C) extremely complex patterns D) Infants have no preference. Answer: B) moving stimuli. 14. Langlois et al. (1987) had college students rate the "attractiveness" of a face using photos of female adults. When an "attractive" photo was paired with an "unattractive" photo and shown to two-month-old children, the infants looked longer at the attractive photo. Langlois et al. concluded that A) infants are born with an innate sense of beauty. B) infants are able to observe and favor particular faces at a very early age. C) infants prefer female faces to male faces. D) infants prefer male faces to female faces. Answer: B) infants are able to observe and favor particular faces at a very early age. 15. In order to recognize faces, one must focus on the internal features such as the eyes, nose, and mouth. At what age do infants begin switching their focus from external features (hairline and chin) and show recognition of familiar faces? A) one month of age B) two months of age C) three months of age D) four months of age Answer: B) two months of age. By 2 months, infants look more at the internal features, especially the eyes. 16. Which of the following statements about infant scanning of faces is TRUE? A) Infants do not learn to scan facial features until approximately 3 months of age. B) One-month-olds tend to fixate more on internal facial features. C) Two-month-olds tend to fixate more on the chin and hairline. D) Three-month-old girls tend to show recognition of familiar faces. Answer: D) Three-month-old girls tend to show recognition of familiar faces. Three-month-old girls looked longer at photographs of their own mothers’ faces than at photos of other adult females. 17. When do you think infants begin to judge the physical attractiveness of faces? A) by 2 months of age B) by 6 months of age C) by 2 years of age D) by 6 years of age Answer: A) by 2 months of age 18. Which of the following questions is the habituation-dishabituation technique designed to answer? A) What if infants can see the difference between two stimuli but find both stimuli to be equally interesting? B) Is it possible for infants to prefer to look at one stimulus over another? C) Do infants prefer faces or newsprint? D) Can infants visually discriminate between colors? Answer: A) What if infants can see the difference between two stimuli but find both stimuli to be equally interesting? 19. In the ________ technique, infants are shown a stimulus repeatedly until they respond less to it. A) child-directed speech B) visual acuity C) preferential-looking technique D) habituation-dishabituation Answer: D) habituation-dishabituation 20. Habituation is A) the tendency of infants to reduce their response to stimuli that are presented repeatedly. B) the recovery or increase in an infant's response when a new stimulus is presented. C) the cognitive process of organizing and interpreting sensory information. D) the technique used to test infant visual perception. Answer: A) the tendency of infants to reduce their response to stimuli that are presented repeatedly. 21. When an infant increases his or her response because a familiar stimulus has been replaced by a novel one, it is called A) habituation. B) dishabituation. C) preferential looking. D) perception. Answer: B) dishabituation. 22. An important limitation of the preferential-looking technique lies in the fact that A) if there is no preference, one cannot assume the infants are able to visually discriminate the selections. B) if there is a preference, researchers are unable to record the time spent fixating on the selection. C) many infants tested show extreme claustrophobia in the chamber. D) illumination within the chamber is distracting to many infants. Answer: A) if there is no preference, one cannot assume the infants are able to visually discriminate the selections. To show visual discrimination, infants not only must be able to see the difference between the stimuli, but also must have some reason to prefer one over the other. 23. Four-month-old Barry is shown an orange circle. He looks at it for eight seconds. Upon successive showings, Barry's interest falls with each repeated trial until he looks for only two seconds. When a purple circle is substituted, Barry looks at the object for nine seconds. From this test one may conclude that Barry A) is unable to discern the difference between orange and purple. B) is able to discern the difference between orange and purple. C) prefers the color orange over the color purple. D) prefers the color purple over the color orange. Answer: B) is able to discern the difference between orange and purple. Infants are shown a stimulus repeatedly until they respond less to it. Then a new stimulus is presented. 24. Using habituation of flash evoked potentials to assess the brain as it responds to visual stimuli A) requires the infant to be moving. B) requires the infant to be awake. C) allows the infant to be asleep. D) requires the infant to be awake, but not moving. Answer: C) allows the infant to be asleep. 25. Neuroscientists use fetal magnetoencephalography (fMEG) to assess fetal responses of A) habituation-dishabituation. B) intermodal perception. C) reflective abstraction. D) embodied cognition. Answer: A) habituation-dishabituation 26. ________ is the process of combining or integrating information across sensory modalities. A) Habituation B) Dishabituation C) Perception D) Intermodal perception Answer: D) Intermodal perception 27. Peter, a 9-month-old infant, sees his mother's face above his crib, hears her singing to him, and feels the breeze from the fan in his room. Which of the following terms best explains the sensory input that he is receiving? A) habituation B) dishabituation C) preferential looking D) intermodal perception Answer: D) intermodal perception You experience the world through combined or integrated sensory inputs, or what researchers refer to as intermodal perception. 28. The ________ view states that people construct their own knowledge of the world by using what they already know to interpret new experiences. A) constructivist B) separatist C) dishabituationist D) nativist Answer: A) constructivist 29. _____ believes that human beings need to learn to combine sensory information into unified impressions. A) Bower B) Gibson C) Piaget D) Spelke Answer: C) Piaget 30. _____ believes that infants have to learn to separate their sensory impressions. A) Bower B) Gibson C) Piaget D) Spelke Answer: A) Bower 31. _____ believes that important features in the environment can be detected by multiple sensory systems. A) Bower B) Gibson C) Piaget D) Spelke Answer: B) Gibson 32. ________ is an important feature in the environment that can be detected by multiple sensory systems. A) An invariant B) A variable C) A habituation D) A dishabituation Answer: A) An invariant 33. Individuals who hold the theory that invariants can be detected by multiple sensory systems would believe which of the following statements? A) An infant cannot tell whether breast milk is sweet because they smell its sweetness or taste its sweetness. B) An infant does not know whether or not they are smelling or tasting the sweetness of breast milk. C) An infant cannot distinguish between the taste of breast milk and formula. D) An infant can both smell and taste the sweetness of breast milk or formula. Answer: D) An infant can both smell and taste the sweetness of breast milk or formula. Important features in the environment called invariants can be detected by multiple sensory systems. 34. Jean Piaget believed that young infants are not aware that what they see is related to what they hear. He hypothesized that infants need to learn, through experience, to coordinate their sensory systems. This is an example of the ________ view of sensory perception. A) constructivist B) separatist C) dishabituationist D) nativist Answer: A) constructivist. The constructivist view believes that young infants are not aware that what they see is related to what they hear. 35. _____ believes that infants can match the dynamic features of moving objects across senses. A) Bower B) Gibson C) Piaget D) Spelke Answer: D) Spelke 36. Although intelligence test scores change over time, they are reasonably stable starting at about _____ years of age. A) 4 B) 5 C) 7 D) 10 Answer: B) 5 37. Correlation of scores for younger children and infants has typically shown _____ to later IQ scores. A) high relationships B) low relationships C) no relationship D) the same relationship Answer: B) low relationships Correlation of scores for younger children and infants has typically shown low relationship to later IQ scores. 38. In one study _____ of the 3-month-olds who were cocaine-exposed failed to achieve habituation at all. A) 1/4 B) 1/3 C) 1/2 D) 2/3 Answer: C) 1/2 39. A _____ infant can match the pace of a sound with the pace of something bouncing. A) 4-month-old B) 5-month-old C) 5 1/2-month-old D) 6- to 8-month-old Answer: A) 4-month-old Four-month-old infants looked significantly longer at the film that matched the pace of the sound. 40. A(n) _____ infant can use information about the shape of a pacifier that they suck on. A) 1-month-old B) 4-month-old C) 6-month-old D) 8-month-old Answer: A) 1-month-old 41. Research by Elizabeth Spelke indicates that infants can match the features of A) color with sound. B) shape with sound. C) moving object with sound. D) changing colors with changing shapes. Answer: B) shape with sound. 42. Jean Piaget’s career in psychology spanned an astonishing _____ decades and had an immense impact on the field. A) 4 B) 5 C) 6 D) 7 Answer: D) 7 43. The insights regarding children's cognitive development that Piaget gained from working in the Binet Laboratory were important because they A) led to the eventual development and wide use of the Simon-Binet intelligence test in Europe and the United States. B) challenged the prevailing position among child development experts that children are passive learners with few consistencies in their thinking. C) challenged the prevailing position among child development experts that children are active learners whose reasoning abilities change over time. D) led to the development of a theory comparing the cognitive abilities of young children and non-human primates. Answer: B) challenged the prevailing position among child development experts that children are passive learners with few consistencies in their thinking. 44. Piaget believed that children were ________ in their reasoning. A) active B) passive C) logical D) disorganized Answer: A) active. He realized that children were active in their thinking, not passive. 45. Which of the following is a part of Piaget's theory about children's cognitive development? A) Children were passive in their thinking, not active. B) Children seem to have age-related patterns in their thinking. C) Children's thinking is highly irregular and inconsistent. D) Children realized that a clinical method would not be an asset in his research. Answer: B) Children seem to have age-related patterns in their thinking. Piaget noticed that children of the same age tended to give the same wrong answers, whereas children of a different age tended to give different wrong answers. 46. Piaget's method of research, in which children are asked to explain the reasons for their answers, is called A) the clinical method. B) the habituation-dishabituation method. C) the preferential-looking technique. D) equilibration. Answer: A) the clinical method. 47. Which of the following theorists determined that the clinical method could be an invaluable tool in his research with children? A) Sigmund Freud B) Andrew Meltzoff C) T.G.R. Bower D) Jean Piaget Answer: D) Jean Piaget. Piaget realized that a clinical method, in which children are asked to explain the reasons for their answers rather than simply to give an answer, could be an invaluable tool. 48. When using the clinical method, children are A) first given the Simon-Binet intelligence test and then observed in a laboratory. B) first asked to give an answer to a problem and then explain their reasons for their answers. C) tested in small groups in a laboratory setting without their parents present. D) examined by Ph.D. clinical psychologists and medical doctors in a hospital setting. Answer: B) first asked to give an answer to a problem and then explain their reasons for their answers. 49. The view that people construct their own knowledge and understanding of the world by using what they already know and understand to interpret new experiences is called A) the clinical method. B) the constructivist view. C) a scheme. D) organization. Answer: B) the constructivist view. 50. According to a constructivist perspective, which of the following statements is TRUE? A) People perceive the environment as it actually exists and do not make any interpretations. B) Young children create their own independent interpretations of reality, but adults do not. C) There is only one reality and individuals should not differ in their interpretations of it. D) People interpret their experiences using their already existing knowledge and experiences. Answer: D) People interpret their experiences using their already existing knowledge and experiences. 51. Which of the following statements about "schemes" is FALSE? A) Schemes are the major building block of human cognition. B) Schemes cannot be altered once they are formed. C) Schemes are organized patterns of thought and action. D) Schemes can involve both physical and mental activity. Answer: B) Schemes cannot be altered once they are formed. 52. An organized pattern of physical or mental action is called A) habituation. B) perception. C) a scheme. D) organization. Answer: C) a scheme. 53. Piaget theorized that as children interact with the environment, A) schemes get modified. B) once formed, a scheme does not change. C) schemes become weaker with age. D) schemes disappear after the sensorimotor stage. Answer: A) schemes get modified 54. Organization is A) an organized pattern of physical or mental action. B) the tendency to integrate separate elements into increasingly complex higher-order structures. C) when people construct their own knowledge of the world by using what they already know. D) the process of combining or integrating information across sensory modalities. Answer: B) the tendency to integrate separate elements into increasingly complex higher-order structures. 55. According to Piaget, the three main processes that guide our interactions with the environment are A) adaptation, scaffolding, and operational thought. B) scaffolding, mediation, and internalization. C) biological maturation, mediation, and collaborative learning. D) organization, adaptation, and reflective abstraction. Answer: D) organization, adaptation, and reflective abstraction. 56. Which of the following statements regarding the concept of organization is FALSE? A) In humans, organization occurs at both the physical and psychological level. B) People cannot help but try to organize their knowledge and impressions of the world around them. C) Because organization is a biological concept, the way in which information is organized is never inaccurate. D) Organization helps people interpret and understand the many events they encounter. Answer: C) Because organization is a biological concept, the way in which information is organized is never inaccurate. 57. ________ is the process of changing a cognitive structure in order to understand the environment. A) Perception B) Assimilation C) Accommodation D) Adaptation Answer: D) Adaptation 58. Adaptation refers to changes A) that an organism makes to ensure its survival in its current environment. B) in cognitive structures or the environment that lead to misunderstanding. C) that separate elements into increasingly complex higher-order structures. D) in the dynamic process of moving between states of cognitive disequilibrium and equilibrium. Answer: A) that an organism makes to ensure its survival in its current environment. 59. The first step in adaptation is A) cognitive disequilibrium. B) cognitive equilibrium. C) assimilation. D) accommodation. Answer: C) assimilation. 60. The second step in adaptation is A) cognitive disequilibrium. B) cognitive equilibrium. C) assimilation. D) accommodation. Answer: A) cognitive disequilibrium. 61. The third step in adaptation is A) cognitive disequilibrium. B) cognitive equilibrium. C) assimilation. D) accommodation. Answer: D) accommodation. 62. The fourth step in adaptation is A) cognitive disequilibrium. B) cognitive equilibrium. C) assimilation. D) accommodation. Answer: B) cognitive equilibrium. 63. The process of bringing new objects or information into a scheme that already exists is called A) adaptation. B) assimilation. C) accommodation. D) perception. Answer: B) assimilation. 64. Thomas and his mother are at the zoo. When they reach the area where the tigers are, Thomas, who has never seen a tiger before, exclaims "Look, Mommy, it's a kitty!" This demonstrates the principle of A) adaptation. B) assimilation. C) accommodation. D) perception. Answer: B) assimilation. Assimilation is the process of bringing new objects or information into a scheme that already exists. 65. The process of modifying old schemes or creating new ones to better fit assimilated information is called A) adaptation. B) assimilation. C) accommodation. D) perception. Answer: C) accommodation. 66. Lily has never seen a cow before. At first she thinks it is a doggie, but after her mom explains that cows give us milk and are bigger than dogs, Lily adjusts her understanding of animals. This demonstrates the principle of A) adaptation. B) assimilation. C) accommodation. D) perception. Answer: C) accommodation. Accommodation is the process of modifying old schemes or creating new ones to fit better with assimilated information. 67. Which of the following terms best explains the process of moving between states of cognitive disequilibrium and equilibrium? A) assimilation B) accommodation C) equilibration D) adaptation Answer: C) equilibration 68. Humans are never satisfied with the state of equilibrium because A) of our innate tendency to organize and make sense of existing information. B) most human beings lack the ability to engage in formal operational thought. C) humans find it difficult to adapt to various physical environments. D) equilibration is an unchanging cognitive state in both adults and children. Answer: A) of our innate tendency to organize and make sense of existing information. Because of the process of organization, human beings are never satisfied with equilibrium. 69. Piaget believed that the normal state of mind is A) accommodation. B) assimilation. C) equilibrium. D) disequilibrium. Answer: D) disequilibrium. 70. Reflective abstraction is the process of A) modifying old schemes or creating new ones to better fit assimilated information. B) moving between states of cognitive disequilibrium and equilibrium. C) bringing new objects or information into a scheme that already exists. D) noticing and thinking about the implications of information and experiences. Answer: D) noticing and thinking about the implications of information and experiences. 71. Which of the following represents the clearest example of reflective abstraction? A) "This bird is very tiny." B) "This animal can't fly, but the teacher called it a bird." C) "This bird is huge and eats meat." D) "I see that birds come in different shapes and sizes, but all birds have wings." Answer: B) "This animal can't fly, but the teacher called it a bird." In reflective abstraction a person notices something in the environment, and then reflects on it. 72. _____ is a precursor to learning. A) Cognitive disequilibrium B) Cognitive equilibrium C) Assimilation D) Accommodation Answer: A) Cognitive disequilibrium Cognitive disequilibrium is a precursor to learning. 73. The stage of thought that is based only on sensory input and motor actions is called A) sensorimotor thought. B) symbolic thought. C) preoperational thought. D) intentionality. Answer: A) sensorimotor thought. 74. Which of the following statements regarding the beginning of the sensorimotor stage is FALSE? A) Children in this stage learn about the world through their senses (e.g., hearing, seeing, tasting). B) Children in this stage are able to create mental representations of physical objects outside themselves. C) Children in this stage "think" by making sensory contact with objects. D) Children in this stage "think" by making motor contact with objects. Answer: B) Children in this stage are able to create mental representations of physical objects outside themselves. 75. Children in the sensorimotor stage can learn about their world through all of the following activities EXCEPT A) sucking. B) reaching. C) babbling. D) grasping. Answer: C) babbling. 76. Which of the following list the stages of cognitive development in their correct order? A) preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational, sensorimotor B) sensorimotor, preoperational, formal operational, concrete operational C) sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational D) preoperational, sensorimotor, concrete operational, formal operational Answer: C) sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational. Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development in order are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational thought. 77. ________ is the ability to form symbols that stand for objects or events in the world. A) Sensorimotor thought B) Symbolic thought C) Preoperational thought D) Intentionality Answer: B) Symbolic thought 78. Without mental representation, it is impossible to learn _____ and understand what they stand for. A) pictures B) sounds C) words D) images Answer: C) words. Without mental representation, it is impossible to learn words and understand what they stand for. 79. In Piaget’s six substages of sensorimotor thought the primary circular reactions occur when the child is _____ months of age. A) 1-4 B) 10-12 C) 12-18 D) 18-24 Answer: A) 1-4 80. In Piaget’s six substages of sensorimotor thought, the transition to symbolic thought occurs when the child is _____ months of age. A) 1-4 B) 10-12 C) 12-18 D) 18-24 Answer: D) 18-24 81. In Piaget’s six substages of sensorimotor thought, the tertiary circular reactions occur when the child is _____ months of age. A) 1-4 B) 10-12 C) 12-18 D) 18-24 Answer: C) 12-18 82. In Piaget’s six substages of sensorimotor thought, the coordination of secondary schemes occurs when the child is _____ months of age. A) 1-4 B) 10-12 C) 12-18 D) 18-24 Answer: B) 10-12 83. Intentionality is when infants A) have the ability to form symbols that stand for objects or events in the world. B) begin to take actions that they expect to have specific outcomes. C) base their thought on sensory input and physical actions. D) begin to purposely form words to communicate with others. Answer: B) begin to take actions that they expect to have specific outcomes. 84. Ten-month-old Mark gleefully drops his spoon to the floor from his high chair for the tenth time. He smiles as the spoon drops from his hand and he is quite pleased when it bounces on the floor. He laughs when his older sister hands it back to him to try again. Mark's behavior indicates that he is A) developing intentionality. B) engaging in reflexive actions only. C) not yet able to predict possible outcomes. D) unable to notice the effects of random actions. Answer: A) developing intentionality. Babies begin to take actions that they expect to have specific outcomes. 85. When infants take an action and modify their next action by watching what happened, this is called A) intentionality. B) cause and effect. C) trial and error. D) object permanence. Answer: C) trial and error. 86. How can parents tell when an infant has achieved representational thought? A) The evidence is the use of language. B) The evidence is the use of gestures. C) The evidence is the use of body language. D) There is no outward evidence. Answer: A) The evidence is the use of language. One line of evidence is the use of language, starting at about 1 year of age. 87. ________ is the fact that objects, events, and people continue to exist even when they are out of a child's direct line of sensory input or motor action. A) Intentionality B) Cause and effect C) Trial and error D) Object permanence Answer: D) Object permanence 88. When your niece's toy rolls out of sight under her bed, she immediately begins to search for it. What Piagetian concept does her behavior illustrate? A) symbolic thought B) animism C) object permanence D) centration Answer: C) object permanence Object permanence is the fact that objects, events, and people continue to exist even when they are out of a child’s direct line of sensory input or motor action. 89. Piaget traced understanding of object permanence from nonexistence at birth to its full achievement at about A) six months of age. B) one year of age. C) eighteen months of age. D) two years of age. Answer: D) two years of age. 90. Achievement of object permanence can be tested using A) Piaget's conservation problems. B) visible and invisible displacement problems. C) trial-and-error learning problems. D) reaction times to unfamiliar stimuli. Answer: B) visible and invisible displacement problems. By about 1 year, babies can solve a visible displacement problem. By 2 years of age, the child is able to solve invisible displacement problems. 91. By about eighteen months of age, an infant can solve ________ displacement problems, but not ________ displacement problems. A) physical; mental B) mental; physical C) invisible; visible D) visible; invisible Answer: D) visible; invisible 92. By about ________ of age, a child can solve invisible displacement problems. A) 3 months B) 6 months C) 18 months D) 2 years Answer: D) 2 years 93. Which of the following list the stages of the sensorimotor stage in their correct order? A) Trial and error, deliberate and intentional actions, interacting reflexively, the ability to mentally represent objects, events, and people. B) The ability to mentally represent objects, events, and people, interacting reflexively, trial and error, deliberate and intentional actions. C) Deliberate and intentional actions, the ability to mentally represent objects, events, and people, interacting reflexively, trial and error. D) Interacting reflexively, trial and error, deliberate and intentional actions, the ability to mentally represent objects, events, and people. Answer: D) Interacting reflexively, trial and error, deliberate and intentional actions, the ability to mentally represent objects, events, and people. 94. The 3 babies in the experiment Where Did It Go? participated in a task called A) expectation studies. B) invisible displacement. C) visible displacement. D) accommodation. Answer: C) visible displacement. 95. By _____ months, infants can form associations between their memories of two stimuli. A) 3 B) 6 C) 9 D) 12 Answer: B) 6 96. _____-month-old infants who have seen an object moving across a computer screen will, when a screen prevents them from seeing the object’s movement, anticipate to where the object will move. A) One B) Two C) Three D) Four Answer: D) 4 97. Which of the following is a key feature that distinguishes human language? A) equilibration B) semanticity C) accommodation D) assimilation Answer: B) semanticity Three key features that distinguish human language are semanticity, productivity, and the quality of displacement. 98. The idea that language represents thoughts, objects, and events through specific and abstract symbols is known as A) equilibration. B) semanticity. C) productivity. D) displacement. Answer: B) semanticity. 99. ________ is the idea that there is no limit to the number or types of utterances that humans can create. A) Equilibration B) Semanticity C) Productivity D) Displacement Answer: C) Productivity 100. Displacement is the idea that language A) has no limit to the number of types of utterances that humans can create. B) represents thoughts, objects, and events through specific and abstract symbols. C) can communicate about a vast range of things instead of being limited to immediate circumstances. D) is the comprehension and production of spoken words. Answer: C) can communicate about a vast range of things instead of being limited to immediate circumstances. 101. An arbitrary system of symbols that is rule-governed and allows communication about things that are distant in time or space is called A) language. B) a language acquisition device. C) nativist theory. D) learning theory. Answer: A) language. 102. The ability of children to understand and respond appropriately to spoken language is known as A) a language acquisition device. B) language comprehension. C) language production. D) language imitation. Answer: B) language comprehension. 103. Language production is the A) ability to understand spoken language. B) arbitrary system of symbols that allows communication. C) approach that views language as a behavior that people learn. D) production of grammatical speech. Answer: D) production of grammatical speech. 104. An infant's first sounds are reflexive, nonintentional sounds, such as crying and sneezing, that are called A) vegetative sounds. B) cooing. C) echolalia. D) true babbling. Answer: A) vegetative sounds. 105. During the first year, an infant’s sounds become increasingly _____, which means that specific sounds are produced under specific conditions. A) differentiated B) intentional C) vegetative D) telegraphic Answer: A) differentiated 106. During the first year, an infant’s sounds become increasingly _____, which means that the baby produces them for a specific goal. A) differentiated B) intentional C) vegetative D) telegraphic Answer: B) intentional 107. An infant’s production of vowel-like sounds that are present by 2 months are called A) vegetative sounds. B) cooing. C) echolalia. D) true babbling. Answer: B) cooing. 108. True babbling begins at approximately A) 2 months. B) 4 months. C) 6 months. D) 8 months. Answer: C) 6 months. 109. Undifferentiated sounds occur at A) birth. B) 2 months. C) 4 months. D) 5 months. Answer: A) birth. 110. Transitional babbling occurs at A) birth. B) 2 months. C) 4 months. D) 5 months. Answer: D) 5 months. 111. Laughing occurs at A) birth. B) 2 months. C) 4 months. D) 5 months. Answer: C) 4 months. 112. Cooing to indicate comfort and pleasure occurs at A) birth. B) 2 months. C) 4 months. D) 5 months. Answer: B) 2 months. 113. The first true words occur at A) 6 months. B) 8 to 12 months. C) 9 to 18 months. D) 1 year. Answer: D) 1 year. 114. Immediate imitation of others’ sounds and words occurs at A) 6 months. B) 8 to 12 months. C) 9 to 18 months. D) 1 year. Answer: B) 8 to 12 months. 115. True babbling occurs at A) 6 months. B) 8 to 12 months. C) 9 to 18 months. D) 1 year. Answer: A) 6 months. 116. Jargon babbling occurs at A) 6 months. B) 8 to 12 months. C) 9 to 18 months. D) 1 year. Answer: C) 9 to 18 months. 117. Echolalia is A) repeated consonant-vowel syllables. B) the production of vowel-like sounds. C) the immediate imitation of others' sounds or words. D) passive, natural sounds that lack intentional meaning. Answer: C) the immediate imitation of others' sounds or words. Echolalia is the immediate imitation of others' sounds or words. 118. The average child can produce about _____ words by 18 months of age. A) 10 B) 20 C) 40 D) 50 Answer: D) 50 119. ________ is where children acquire at least a partial understanding of a word after only a single exposure. A) Variegated babbling B) Protowords C) Fast mapping D) Overextensions Answer: C) Fast mapping 120. ________ refers to consistent patterns of sounds that refer to specific people, objects, or events. A) Vegetative sounds B) True babbling C) Variegated babbling D) Protowords Answer: D) Protowords 121. Zoe calls her pacifier a "bee-bee." This is an example of A) vegetative sounds. B) true babbling. C) variegated babbling. D) protowords. Answer: D) protowords. Protowords are consistent patterns of sounds that refer to specific people, objects, or events. 122. When a child expands a word's meaning to include more objects than it should, this is called A) under extensions. B) protowords. C) overextensions. D) fast mapping. Answer: C) overextensions. 123. ________ is when a child uses a word too narrowly. A) An under extension B) A protoword C) An overextension D) Fast mapping Answer: A) An under extension 124. Single words used to express an entire idea or sentence are called A) adaptation. B) holophrases. C) telegraphic speech. D) universal grammar. Answer: B) holophrases. 125. Telegraphic speech is speech that uses A) single words to express an entire idea or sentence. B) only words that are essential to get the meaning across. C) narrow meanings of words. D) gestures, babbling, and protowords. Answer: B) only words that are essential to get the meaning across. 126. Between eighteen months and two years of age, toddlers start to A) experiment with variegated babbling. B) produce two- and three-word sentences. C) use holophrases. D) use protowords. Answer: B) produce two- and three-word sentences. 127. Toddlers indicate a beginning understanding that the ordering of words, not just the words themselves, conveys important information by placing them in this order: A) nouns, verbs, possessives B) possessives, nouns, verbs C) verbs, nouns, possessives D possessives, verbs, nouns Answer: B) possessives, nouns, verbs. Toddlers usually place nouns before verbs; and they place possessives before nouns. 128. If a child repeats the sounds of a word, shows signs of struggle behaviors, or frequently produces a repetition in more than ___ out of 10 words, then this could indicate a stuttering condition. A) 1 B) 2 C) 4 D) 8 Answer: A) 1 129. Children who have language problems in the first 5 years of life are at risk for _____ problems later. A) science B) social studies C) math D) writing Answer: D) writing. Children who have language problems in the first 5 years of life are at risk for reading and writing problems later. 130. ________ is the theory that sees language as a skilled behavior that children learn through operant conditioning, imitation, and modeling. A) Nativist theory B) Learning theory C) Language acquisition device D) Symbolic thought Answer: B) Learning theory 131. The ________ theory emphasizes the role of the environment on language. A) nativist B) learning C) language acquisition device D) symbolic thought Answer: B) learning 132. When a parent tends to reinforce the sounds that a child makes that resemble real words and ignore those that do not, this exemplifies the principle of A) language. B) habituation. C) shaping. D) object permanence. Answer: C) shaping. Shaping is selectively reinforcing certain behaviors while ignoring or punishing others. 133. When a child says something that they have never heard before, such as "I goes to the store," this is an example of A) the nativist theory. B) shaping. C) productivity. D) language comprehension. Answer: C) productivity. From an early age, children regularly say things that they have never heard before, such as, “I goad to the store.” 134. The theory that sees language as an innate human capability that is triggered by language input is called A) the nativist theory. B) the learning theory. C) the language acquisition device. D) symbolic thought. Answer: A) the nativist theory. 135. Which of the following does the language acquisition device (LAD) contain? A) an innate knowledge of universal grammar B) an external knowledge of universal grammar C) an environment that shapes or trains verbal behavior D) the ability to preprogram a child to learn a specific language Answer: A) an innate knowledge of universal grammar LAD is a brain mechanism in humans that is specialized for acquiring and processing language. 136 Which of the following areas of the brain enables human beings to understand spoken words and produce coherent written and spoken language? A) the right hemisphere B) Wernicke's area C) Broca's area D) arcuate fasciculus Answer: B) Wernicke's area 137. Which of the following areas of the brain directs the patterns of muscle movements necessary for producing speech? A) the right hemisphere B) Wernicke's area C) Broca's area D) arcuate fasciculus Answer: C) Broca's area 138. The arcuate fasciculus A) allows us to understand spoken words and produce coherent written and spoken language. B) directs the patterns of muscle movements necessary for producing speech. C) is a band of fibers that connects Wernicke's area to Broca's area. D) processes written language. Answer: C) is a band of fibers that connects Wernicke's area to Broca's area. 139. Which of the following structures allows the processing of written language? A) Wernicke's area B) Broca's area C) arcuate fasciculus D) angular gyrus Answer: D) angular gyrus 140. Direct measures, such as _____, examine the timing and localization of electrical activity within the brain. A) near-infrared spectroscopy B) the angular gyrus C) the primary auditory cortex D) event-related potentials Answer: D) event-related potentials Direct measures, such as event-related potentials, examine the timing and localization of electrical activity within the brain in response to spoken words alone or in combination with visual stimuli. 141. Other measures, such as _____, estimate brain activity by projecting light through the scalp and into the brain and measuring the reflection of the light. A) near-infrared spectroscopy B) the angular gyrus C) the primary auditory cortex D) event-related potentials Answer: A) near-infrared spectroscopy Other measures, such as near-infrared spectroscopy, estimate brain activity by projecting near-infrared light through the scalp and into the brain and measuring the reflection of the light. 142. If the left hemisphere is damaged before the age of _____, the language functions can shift into the right hemisphere and “crowd out” the perceptual-spatial skills that usually localize there. A) 6 months B) 9 months C) 12 months D) 18 months Answer: C) 12 months 143. Research has found that if language exposure comes only from ______, children do not develop typical language skills. A) books B) other children C) videotapes D) television Answer: D) television Research has found that if language exposure comes only from television, children do not develop typical language skills. 144. ________ is one of Piaget's theories that views language as one of several abilities that depend on overall cognitive development. A) Sensorimotor thought B) Language acquisition device C) Nativist theory D) Cognitive developmental theory Answer: D) Cognitive developmental theory 145. One of the major cognitive achievements by the end of the sensorimotor stage is A) symbolic thought. B) animism. C) object permanence. D) centration. Answer: C) object permanence. 146. Children first begin using words that indicate something disappeared at about the same time they develop A) symbolic thought. B) animism. C) object permanence. D) centration. Answer: C) object permanence. 147. Words that indicate evaluation of effort appear at around the same time children start using A) problem-solving strategies. B) the learning theory. C) the language acquisition device. D) symbolic thought. Answer: A) problem-solving strategies. Words that indicate evaluation of effort appear at around the same time children start using intentional, goal-directed, problem-solving strategies. 148. Repeating but also correcting and elaborating on the child’s utterance is called A) recast. B) mimicking. C) modeling. D) expansion. Answer: D) expansion. 149. Which of the following is true about child-directed speech? A) Child-directed speech is faster. B) Child-directed speech is lower pitched. C) Child-directed speech has fewer questions. D) Child-directed speech has more frequent and more extreme ups and downs in pitch. Answer: D) Child-directed speech has more frequent and more extreme ups and downs in pitch. Child-directed speech has more frequent and more extreme ups and downs in pitch. 150. Which of the following is the best example of a recast? A) A child who is looking at a cow exclaims, "Look, Mom, a doggie!" His mother replies, "No, honey, that's a cow. Dogs are smaller, and cows give us milk." B) A child who is at a pet store says to his mom, "I saw a bunch of mouses." His mother replies, "You saw a bunch of mice? What were they doing?" C) A mother asks her child, "Does my baby-waby want to go sleepy-weepy?" D) A child tries to repeat his mother's requests for him to say Mommy, by saying "Mama." Answer: B) A child who is at a pet store says to his mom, "I saw a bunch of mouses." His mother replies, "You saw a bunch of mice? What were they doing?" Recasts are restatements of what the child said but with corrected grammar. 151. It does not take infants long to start recognizing differences between speech sounds. This is a _____ skill. A) cognitive B) perceptual C) social D) reflective Answer: B) perceptual 152. _____ infants prefer forward-going speech to backwards speech. A) Newborn B) 2 month-old C) 4 month-old D) 6 month-old Answer: D) 6 month-old 5.2 True/False Questions 1. John Locke and other early philosophers believed that the newborn's mind was a "blank slate." Answer: True 2. Infants begin to judge the "attractiveness" of faces at approximately 2 months of age. Answer: True 3. The habituation-dishabituation technique is a technique used to test infant visual perception, where infants consistently look longer at some patterns than at others, researchers can infer that the infants can see a difference between the patterns. Answer: False 4. The process of combining or integrating information across sensory modalities is called intermodal perception. Answer: True 5. T.G.R. Bower held a constructivist view of sensory perception. Answer: False 6. Piaget combined his background in sociology and mathematics to create the dynamic systems theory of cognitive development. Answer: False 7. Adaptation is the process of changing a cognitive structure or the environment in order to understand the environment. Answer: True 8. The tendency to integrate separate elements into increasingly complex higher-order structures is called reflective abstraction. Answer: False 9. Equilibration is the process of bringing new objects or information into a scheme that already exists. Answer: False 10. When there is an imbalance between the new experience and the old scheme, it is called cognitive disequilibrium. Answer: True 11. Three-year-old Kate sees many squirrels in her front yard. One weekend on a family camping trip, Kate sees a chipmunk. "Look, Dad, a squirrel with no tail!" Calling a chipmunk a squirrel is an example of accommodation. Answer: False 12. The first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development is called preoperational thought. Answer: False 13. Sensorimotor thought is the stage of thought that is based only on sensory input and physical actions. Answer: True 14. Piaget described the ability to solve invisible displacement problems as evidence of full mental representation. Answer: True 15. Around the age of 1 year, children say their first true word. Answer: True 16. Fast mapping is a process in which children acquire at least a partial understanding of a word after only a single exposure. Answer: True 17. Learning theory is a theory that sees language as an innate human capability that develops when language input triggers a language acquisition device in the brain. Answer: False 18. The novelty of children's language utterances is what linguists call productivity. Answer: True 19. Motherese is when adults use child-directed speech. Answer: True 20. Recasts are when parents repeat, correct, and elaborate on a child's utterance. Answer: False 5.3 Short Answer Questions 1. The term ________ refers to mental processes such as perceiving, thinking, and remembering. Answer: cognitive 2. ________ is the physical process of detecting information about a stimulus in the environment through the five senses. Answer: Sensation 3. ________ is the tendency of infants to reduce their response to stimuli that are presented repeatedly. Answer: Habituation 4. The process of combining or integrating information across sensory modalities is called ________. Answer: intermodal perception 5. ________ is the process of changes in thinking, in which children's thought gradually becomes more organized and complex. Answer: Cognitive development 6. Jean Piaget held the ________ view. Answer: constructivist 7. A ________ is an organized pattern of physical or mental action. Answer: scheme 8. ________ is the process of noticing and thinking about the implications of information and experiences. Answer: Reflective abstraction 9. ________ is the ability to form symbols (or mental representations) that stand for objects or events in the world. Answer: Symbolic (representational) thought 10. ________ is the idea that children begin to take actions that they expect to have specific outcomes. Answer: Intentionality 11. ________ is a brain mechanism in humans that is specialized for acquiring and processing language. Answer: Language acquisition device (LAD) 12 ________ is the theory that proposes that language development results from the interaction of biological and social factors and that social interaction is required. Answer: Social interactionist theory 5.4 Essay Questions 1. Newborns come equipped with an array of sensory capabilities. In the 1950s, the emergence of reliable nonverbal techniques for testing infants opened the floodgates for research. Two techniques that emerged during this time period were the preferential-looking technique and the habituation-dishabituation technique. Define each of these terms and explain how these research techniques help answer questions related to visual discrimination. Answer: The preferential-looking technique is a technique where researchers can infer that infants can see a difference between patterns, if they consistently look longer at some patterns than at others. This technique addresses the question: "Is the perception of different forms innate or learned?" The habituation-dishabituation technique is where infants are shown a stimulus repeatedly until they respond less (habituate) to it. Then, a new stimulus is presented. This technique addresses the question: "What if infants can see the difference between stimuli, but find both stimuli to be equally interesting?" 2. Define habituation and describe how researchers use the habituation-dishabituation technique to examine infant visual perception. Answer: Habituation refers to the tendency for an organism to reduce its responsiveness to a stimulus as a result of repeated exposure. Researchers have used their knowledge of habituation to obtain evidence regarding infants' visual perception abilities. In using the habituation-dishabituation technique, researchers present infants with the same visual stimulus repeatedly until the infants habituate, or show decreased responsiveness, to it. Then, the experimenter presents a new stimulus. If the infant shows "dishabituation," that is, if the infant shows renewed interest and responsiveness to this new stimulus, the infant's behavior is said to indicate that he or she has processed the difference between the first stimulus and the second stimulus. In other words, the infant can visually perceive the differences between the two stimuli. 3. When you experience the world through combined or integrated sensory inputs, it is called intermodal perception. There are two extreme positions on how such information is put together into unified impressions: the constructivist view and the separatist view. Describe how each of these viewpoints sees intermodal perception and give an example of a theorist who held that perspective. Answer: Jean Piaget was a proponent of the constructivist view, which states that young infants are not aware that what they see is related to what they hear. He hypothesized that infants need to learn, through experience, to coordinate their sensory systems. On the other end of the spectrum, T.G.R. Bower speculated that infants have to learn to separate their sensory impressions. In the beginning, infants confuse their sensory impressions—they do not know whether they are seeing or hearing, tasting or smelling. Bower concluded that, "the initial primitive unity [of the sensory systems] must go; leaving differentiated sensory systems in place of a unitary perceptual world." 4. Explain why Piaget considered the development of representational thought the "key" to freeing children from the "here and now." Answer: The student should be able to articulate the idea that the ability to think using symbols (i.e., representational thought) enables the young child to think about past events and anticipate, predict, and plan for future possible interactions with the environment. Representational thought also allows children to communicate with others using language. Therefore, children can begin to interact with others using information about the past, present, and future. Representational thought also allows for the development of imagination. Piaget considered the development of representational thought the "key" to freeing children from the "here and now" because it allows them to mentally represent objects, events, and actions that are not physically present. This ability to create mental representations enables children to: 1. Use Symbols: They can use words, gestures, and images to represent objects and experiences, allowing communication about past events, future plans, and abstract concepts. 2. Engage in Pretend Play: Representational thought enables imaginative play where children can pretend one object is another or create imaginary scenarios. 3. Plan and Problem-Solve: They can mentally manipulate information, anticipate outcomes, and plan actions based on internalized representations rather than immediate sensory input. 4. Remember and Learn: It facilitates memory by allowing children to store and retrieve information about past experiences and learn from them. In essence, representational thought liberates children from relying solely on concrete, immediate experiences, expanding their cognitive abilities to think abstractly, solve problems, and navigate a world beyond their current sensory perception. 5. Language is a fascinating subject for psychologists. It is seen as an indicator of mental representation, and it also seems to be one skill that sets humans apart from other species. Define the term language and then outline the three key features that distinguish human language. Answer: Language is an arbitrary system of symbols that is rule-governed and allows communication about things that are distant in time and space. One key feature of human language is that it has semanticity, which means that it represents thoughts, objects, and events through specific and abstract symbols. Another key feature of human language is that language is productive, which means that there is no limit to the number or types of utterances that humans can create. The final key feature of human language is displacement, which means that people can communicate about things that are distant in time or space or even about things that are physically or logically impossible or nonexistent. 6. There are three basic theories that attempt to explain language development. Name these three theories and define each. Answer: The learning theory, which is a theory that sees language as a skilled behavior that children learn through operant conditioning, imitation, and modeling. It emphasizes the role of the environment. The nativist theory sees language as an innate human capability that develops when language input triggers a language acquisition device in the brain. It emphasizes the role of biology. Finally, the social interactionist theory proposes that language development results from the interaction of biological and social factors and that social interaction is required. This theory obviously focuses on how various aspects of the environment interact with biological characteristics The three basic theories that attempt to explain language development are: 1. Behaviorist Theory: This theory suggests that language is learned through operant conditioning and imitation. According to behaviorists like B.F. Skinner, children acquire language by being reinforced for producing certain sounds and words, and by imitating the speech of others. 2. Nativist Theory: Also known as innatist theory, this perspective proposes that humans are biologically predisposed to acquire language. Noam Chomsky is a prominent proponent of this view, arguing that the human brain contains a language acquisition device (LAD) that allows children to intuitively grasp the rules of grammar and generate infinite combinations of sentences. 3. Interactionist Theory: This theory emphasizes the interplay between biological factors (such as innate abilities) and environmental influences (such as social interaction). Interactionists believe that language development results from a combination of children's innate linguistic capabilities and their exposure to language input from caregivers and the surrounding environment. These theories offer different perspectives on how language develops, ranging from environmental influences and learning mechanisms to innate biological predispositions and social interactions. 7. There is a definite developmental progression in speech production during the first year. If you examine this progression you will see that the sounds become increasingly differentiated and intentional. Describe the progression of types of speech sounds that occur between birth and a child's first real words that occur around one year. Answer: Students' answers will vary depending upon what types of speech sounds they choose to describe. During the first year of life, infants progress through several stages of speech sound development: 1. Birth to 2 months: • Reflexive vocalizations: Crying, fussing, and cooing sounds. • Sounds are mainly produced involuntarily in response to internal states or external stimuli. 2. 2 to 4 months: • Cooing and laughter emerge: Infants produce vowel-like sounds such as "oo," "ah," and "ee." • Begin to make more sustained vowel sounds. 3. 4 to 6 months: • Babbling begins: Infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like "ba-ba," "da-da," and "ma-ma." • Consonant sounds like /p/, /b/, /m/, and /d/ are common. 4. 6 to 10 months: • Canonical babbling: Infants produce more complex combinations of consonant and vowel sounds, such as "ba-ga" or "da-ma." • Babbling begins to resemble adult-like speech patterns in rhythm and intonation. 5. 10 to 12 months: • Reduplicated babbling: Infants produce repeated consonant-vowel syllables like "ba-ba" or "da-da" consistently. • Variegated babbling: Begins to include a wider variety of consonant and vowel combinations, preparing for real speech. By around one year of age, infants typically produce their first real words, which are meaningful and intentional vocalizations that correspond to objects, actions, or people in their environment. This progression from reflexive cries to intentional babbling and finally to meaningful speech reflects the development of their ability to produce and eventually use language. 8. Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are born with a language acquisition device. Explain what this language acquisition device is and how it helps carry out the task of language. Answer: Students' answers will vary depending upon what aspects of the language acquisition device they choose to discuss. Noam Chomsky proposed that the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a hypothetical innate mental structure or mechanism that enables humans to acquire and produce language. The LAD is believed to be part of the brain's biological endowment, specifically dedicated to language processing and learning. Key points about the Language Acquisition Device (LAD): 1. Innate Capacity: Chomsky theorized that humans are born with a pre-existing ability to understand and produce language structures. The LAD provides a universal grammar framework that allows infants to grasp the rules and patterns of any language they are exposed to. 2. Facilitates Language Learning: The LAD helps infants rapidly learn and comprehend the complex grammatical structures of their native language(s), even before they receive formal instruction. It enables children to generate an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences based on the linguistic input they receive. 3. Universal Features: Chomsky argued that all human languages share certain universal features and principles, which are accessible to infants through the LAD. These include syntactic rules, grammatical categories, and hierarchical structures. In summary, the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is a theoretical concept proposed by Chomsky to explain the innate ability of humans to acquire and use language. It is a cognitive mechanism that facilitates the learning and production of language by providing infants with the foundational tools necessary to understand and generate linguistic expressions. 5.5 MyDevelopmentLab Questions 1. According to Piaget, which stage is the most significant stage of cognitive development? A) sensorimotor B) preoperational C) concrete D) formal Answer: A) sensorimotor 2. Cognition is, in a sense, a child’s age-specific understanding of their A) parents. B) friends. C) environment. D) temperament. Answer: C) environment. Cognition is, in a sense, a child’s age-specific understanding of their environment. 3. After watching the video clip Child Care Center name two specific things the center did to promote positive development of cognitive skills. Answer: They established appropriate teacher/child ratios to encourage one-on-one language, and they used a curriculum that had effective teaching methods. However, typical methods child care centers use to promote positive development of cognitive skills include: 1. Structured Learning Activities: Engaging children in age-appropriate activities such as storytelling, puzzles, and games that stimulate problem-solving, memory, and attention. 2. Encouraging Exploration and Inquiry: Providing opportunities for children to explore their environment, ask questions, and experiment with materials to foster curiosity and critical thinking skills. 4. After watching Clip 1, name several things the child does that prove that he has developed object permanence. Answer: Answers will vary, but should include the fact that the child looked for the object after it was hidden. After watching Clip 1, several things the child does that prove he has developed object permanence might include: 1. Searching for a Hidden Toy: The child looks for a toy after it has been covered or hidden from view. 2. Lifting or Moving Objects to Find Hidden Items: The child moves a blanket or another object to reveal a hidden toy. 3. Showing Interest in Out-of-Sight Objects: The child points to or reaches for an object that is no longer visible, indicating they know it still exists. 4. Following the Path of a Disappearing Object: The child tracks the movement of an object that rolls out of sight, showing an understanding that it continues to exist. Test Bank for The World of Children Joan Littlefield Cook, Greg Cook 9780205953738
Download
Close
Close
