CH-5 Attitudes Based on High Effort – Consumer Behavior : Book Guide

Chapter 5 Attitudes Based on High Effort CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter examines how consumers’ affective involvements are formed and changed when their motivation, ability, and opportunity to engage in a behavior, make a decision, or process a message are high. In these instances, consumers tend to expend a lot of effort informing their attitudes. An attitude is a relatively global and enduring evaluation about an offering, issue, activity, person, or event. Attitudes can be described in terms of their favorability, accessibility, confidence, persistence, and resistance. When motivated ability and opportunity (MAO) is high, consumers devote considerable effort to processing a message. The thoughts and feelings that they have in response to this situation can affect their attitudes, through either a cognitive or an affective route to persuasion. From a cognitive perspective, attitudes can be based on cognitive responses, which are defined as thoughts that individuals have in response to a stimulus. Three major types of cognitive responses are counterarguments, support arguments, and source derogations. Many counterarguments and source derogations would suggest that consumers’ attitudes toward an offering are negative. A second cognitively based perspective on attitudes is the expectancy-value approach. The Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA), an extension of this model, is designed to predict not only attitudes but also behavioral intentions. This model predicts that intentions are affected by consumers’ attitudes toward the act and normative factors. The model also identifies how attitudes and intentions can be influenced by four major strategies: (1) change beliefs (bi), (2) change evaluations (ei), (3) add new beliefs (bi x ei), and (4) target normative beliefs (NB). Also, under elaborative processing, messages can be effective if they (1) have a credible source, (2) have a strong argument, (3) present positive and negative information (under certain circumstances), or (4) involve direct comparisons (if not the market leader). Attitudes are also formed from feelings or emotions such as joy and fear. In essence, consumers can experience emotions either when they are affectively involved with a communication or when the message involves an emotional appeal. In either case, the consumer holistically processes the communication, and the feelings that result (either positive or negative) can determine attitudes. When attitudes are affectively based, sources that are likable or attractive can have a positive impact on affective attitude change. Emotional appeals can affect elaborative processing if they are relevant to the offering (the match-up hypothesis). Fear appeals are a specific type of emotion-eliciting message. A consumer’s attitude toward the ad (Aad) can play a role in the attitude change process if the ad is informative or associated with positive feelings. The Aad can then rub off on brand beliefs and attitudes. Finally, attitudes will better predict a consumer’s behavior when (1) involvement is high, (2) knowledge is high, (3) consumers analyze their brand preferences, (4) attitudes are accessible, (5) attitudes are held with confidence, (6) they are specific, (7) the time between exposure to product advertising and product trial is short, (8) there are no situational factors present, (9) normative factors are not in operation, and (10) we are dealing with certain personality types. CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students will be able to 1. Discuss how marketers can apply various cognitive models to understand and influence consumers’ attitudes based on high-effort thought processes. 2. Describe some of the methods for using the communication source and the message to favorably influence consumers’ attitudes. 3. Explain how and why a company might try to change consumers’ attitudes by influencing their feelings. CHAPTER OUTLINE I. What Are Attitudes? A. The Importance of Attitudes (Introduction with luxury watch example): overall evaluation that expresses how much we like or dislike an object, issue, person, or action. Attitudes are learned, and they tend to persist over time. Our attitudes also reflect our overall evaluation of something based on the set of associations linked to it. 1. Attitudes guide thoughts (cognitive function). 2. Attitudes influence feelings (affective function). 3. Attitudes influence behavior (con-native function). B. The Characteristics of Attitudes 1. Favorability—how much we like or dislike an attitude object 2. Accessibility—how easily the attitude is retrieved from memory 3. Confidence—how strongly we hold our beliefs 4. Persistence—how long our attitudes stay with us over time 5. Resistance—how difficult it is to change attitudes we hold 6. Ambivalence—when we have strong negative evaluations about some aspects of the attitude object and strong positive evaluations about other aspects of it. II. Forming and Changing Attitudes A. The Foundation of Attitudes 1. Cognitive bases—attitudes based on thoughts a) Information from external sources—e.g., ads b) Information from internal sources—memory 2. Affective bases—attitudes based on emotions a) Direct experience b) Vicarious experience B. The Role of Effort in Attitude Formation and Change 1. Elaboration is the extensiveness of thinking that a consumer puts forth 2. When MAO is high: central-route processing a) Attitude development is based either on careful, effortful analysis, or a high level of elaboration. 3. When MAO is low: peripheral-route processing a) Attitude development is based on tangential or superficial analysis, or a low level of elaboration. III. The Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes A. Direct or Imagined Experience 1. Consumers use direct experience and imagery to form attitudes B. Reasoning by Analogy or Category 1. Consumers form attitudes by considering how similar an object is to other similarly categorized objects. C. Values-Driven Attitudes 1. Attitudes are generated or shaped based on an individual’s values D. Social Identity-Based Attitude Generation 1. How consumers view their social identities can play a role in attitude formation E. Analytical Processes of Attitude Formation 1. Cognitive Responses to Communication a) Cognitive responses are thoughts a consumer has when exposed to a communication. b) Categories of cognitive responses (1). Counterarguments (CAs)—thoughts that express disagreement with the message (2). Support arguments (SAs)—thoughts that express agreement with the message (3). Source derogations (SDs)—thoughts that discount or attack the source of the message a) Marketing Implications (1). Consumers will generate more CAs and fewer SAs when message content is different from existing beliefs, or belief discrepancy (2). Test market communications to assess the extent to which they generate CAs or SDs; then improve communications to overcome these barriers. 2. Expectancy-Value Models a) Attitudes based on two factors (1). Beliefs about an object or action (2). Evaluation of the object or action b) Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA) Model (1). Expectancy-Value Model for predicting attitudes (2). Model includes normative influences—how other people in the social environment can influence our behavior (3). TORA model includes belief about consequences (bi) of an action and the evaluation of those consequences (ei) (4). Model predicts that behavioral intentions (BI) are determined by the combination of a person’s attitudes (Aact) and the subjective norms that operate in the situation (SN). c) Theory of Planned Behavior (1). Predicts behavior over which consumers have incomplete control by examining perceived behavioral control d) Marketing Implications (1). Diagnosing Existing Attitudes (2). The TORA model can help identify the perceived strength of existing brands. (3). Devising Strategies for Attitude Change (4). The TORA model provides guidance on changing beliefs, changing evaluations, adding new beliefs, encouraging attitude formation based on imagined experience, and targeting normative beliefs. IV. How Cognitively Based Attitudes Are Influenced A. Communication Source 1. Source Credibility a) Trustworthiness, expertise, and status influence credibility. b) Credible sources influence consumer acceptance when prior attitudes are negative, when the message is very inconsistent with our prior beliefs, and when the message is complex. c) Credible sources have less impact when attitudes are confidently held, when consumers are more knowledgeable, and when the source endorses a large number of products. d) Marketing Implications (1). Celebrities thought to be honest, as well as ordinary people, can be credible spokespersons. (2). Celebrities who are thought to be experts in their fields can be credible sources, but may become liabilities if they get in trouble. (3). A low-credibility source can be effective if he/she argues against his/her own self-interest. 2. Company Reputation a) Companies with a reputation for quality products, dealing fairly with consumers, and being trustworthy, are more likely to be believed. b) Marketing Implications (1). Many companies devote considerable time and money to developing a positive corporate image. B. The Message 1. Argument Quality a) Strong arguments presenting the merits of the offering in a convincing manner are important. b) Marketing Implications. (1). Message strength should match the amount of effort consumers want to use to process it. 2. One- Versus Two-Sided Messages a) Presenting both positive and negative information can be effective either when consumers are initially opposed to the offering or when they will be exposed to strong competitive counter messages. b) Marketing Implications. (1). Two-sided messages should occur only if the negative message is about an unimportant attribute. 3. Comparative Messages a) Showing relative advantages over competitors can be useful. b) Indirect comparative ads referring to unnamed competitors and are effective in increasing consumers’ perceptions of a moderate-share brand, compared to other moderate-share brands. c) Direct comparative advertising explicitly names a competitor or set of competitors and can be effective for low-share brands that are attempting to take sales away from high-share brands and when consumer MAO is high. d) Marketing Implications. (1). All information in a comparative ad must be factual and verifiable to avoid legal action from competitors. V. The Affective (Emotional) Foundations of Attitudes A. Emotional Processing 1. Affective involvement leads to more holistic processing of messages including the activation of images or feelings, which in turn influence attitudes. 2. Affective responses are the images or feelings generated as a result of emotional involvement with a message. 3. Cross-cultural differences influence the effectiveness of emotional appeals. 4. Negative emotions can influence attitude change when feelings encourage action, as when empathy for another is generated. 5. Marketing Implications. a) Marketers can try to influence emotions to affect consumer attitudes through marketing communications. VI. How Affectively Based Attitudes Are Influenced A. The Source 1. Attractiveness of the source—those who are physically appealing, similar to us, likable, or familiar—can influence attitudes. 2. When MAO is high, attractive sources can evoke favorable attitudes if they are appropriate for or “match up” with the category—called the match-up hypothesis. B. The Message 1. Emotional Appeals and Emotional Contagion a) Emotional appeals are more effective when the message shows how a given offering, action, or behavior has personally relevant consequences for the consumer. b) Emotional appeals may limit the amount of product-related information consumers can process. c) Emotional appeals may be more effective when the arousal of emotion is related to the consumption or use of the product, as when hedonic or symbolic motivations are important. d) Marketing Implications. (1). Marketers may use music, emotional scenes, visuals, sex and attractive sources to elicit an affective response from consumers. 2. Fear Appeals a) Fear appeals attempt to elicit fear or anxiety by stressing negative consequences of either engaging in or not engaging in specific behaviors. b) Studies of fear appeals found them to be ineffective as consumers’ perceptual defenses block the message. c) However, fear appeals that evoke guilt, regret or challenge can be effective because of feelings of self-accountability. d) Terror Management Theory (TMT) (1). Consumers develop a worldview of values and beliefs to cope with the inevitability of death. (2). A high-fear appeal using a fatal threat may thus be ineffective. e) Marketing Implications. Fear appeals are most effective if: (1). The appeal suggests an immediate action that will reduce the fear. (2). The level of fear is moderate. (3). At higher levels of involvement, the fear appeals are more effective. (4). Other factors such as personality, product usage, and socioeconomic status will have an impact on the effectiveness of fear appeals. VII. Attitude Toward the Ad A. Attitude toward the ad can influence brand attitudes and behavior. 1. Ads that are more informative are usually better liked, generating positive responses and positively influencing brand attitudes. a) Called the utilitarian (or functional) dimension. 2. Ads that create positive feelings are better liked, can elicit positive experiences from memory, and can transfer positive attitude over to the brand. a) The creation of positive feelings or emotions is called the hedonic dimension. 3. Ads that are more interesting generate curiosity and get attention, which can lead to high elaboration generating positive attitude toward the ad. VIII. When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? A. Many factors affect whether one’s attitudes will affect one’s behavior. 1. Higher level of involvement/elaboration leads to more strongly held beliefs that are more predictive of a consumer’s future behavior. 2. Higher levels of knowledge and experience are associated with more strongly held attitudes that are more predictive of a consumer’s future behavior. 3. Research shows that asking consumers to analyze their reasons for brand preferences increases the link between attitude and behavior. 4. More accessible attitudes that are “top of mind” are more strongly related to behavior. 5. Attitudes that are more confidently held are more predictive of behavior. 6. Attitudes that are more specific to a behavior are more predictive of that behavior. 7. The shorter the time between exposure to product advertising and product trial, the more likely it is that attitudes will predict behavior. 8. The more emotionally attached consumers are to a brand, the more likely their attitudes will predict their purchase behavior. They will also develop counterarguments to negative information about the brand. 9. Intervening situational factors can prevent a behavior from being performed and thus weaken the attitude-behavior relationship. 10. Normative factors and motivation to comply with them can affect the attitude-behavior relationship. 11. Personality variables can influence attitude-behavior relationships. a) People who think more (high need for cognition) evidence stronger attitude-behavior relationships. b) People guided by their own internal dispositions (low self-monitors) are more likely to display consistent attitude-behavior relationships than those who frequently adjust to their situation (high self-monitors). QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION Possible answers are as follows. 1. What are attitudes, and what three functions do they serve? Answer: Attitudes are the enduring evaluations that one has regarding the object, issue, person, or action. They serve cognitive, affective and connative functions. In short, attitudes can influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions. If someone is angry, they are more likely to view their experience as negative according to the text. 2. How do expectancy-value models seek to explain attitude formation? Answer: Expectancy-value models attempt to explain consumers’ attitude formation as function of the beliefs consumers have about an objective and the evaluations they have of those beliefs. For example, consumer positive attitudes can be formed if they believe a brand is reliable and high quality, and they evaluate reliability and quality as good traits for the product. 3. What role does credibility play in affecting consumer attitudes based on cognitions? Answer: Source credibility directly influences consumer attitudes. High credibility can positively influence consumers’ acceptance of the message even when consumers’ attitudes are negative, when the message deviates from their prior beliefs, and when the message is complex or difficult to understand. In short, high source credibility has the ability to change prior negative product attitudes. 4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of offering a two-sided message about a product? Answer: Advantages of a two-sided message include making the message more credible and reducing counterarguments. A two-sided message is often seen as less biased to the consumer. This type of message presents the product as less than perfect, which makes the message appear to be more believable. However, a two-sided argument can be disadvantageous when the consumer perceives the negative aspect of the message as an extremely important attribute of the product. 5. Contrast emotional and fear appeals. Why is each effective? Which do you consider most compelling for products in which you are interested? Answer: Emotional appeals can be effective in forming positive associations within a consumer’s product schema. Many products are purchased to elicit different emotions. Tapping into these underlying motivations can lead to stronger brand connections for even habitually purchased convenience items. Fear appeals can be effective at garnering attention. These appeals typically cut through advertising clutter, making them more memorable in the process. Fear can be a strong motivator to behave in a certain manner. However, although tobacco has not been advertised on television in quite a while, tobacco use among teens is still growing at a fast clip. The Fear factor of many of these anti-tobacco ads might be overrun by a teen’s need to fit in. 6. What three factors may lead to a positive attitude toward the ad (Aad) when consumers devote a lot of effort to processing a message? How can marketers apply these factors when designing advertising messages? Answer: In high-effort processing situations, consumers tend to like (1) more informative ads, (2) ads that create positive feelings or emotions, and (3) ads that are inherently interesting. Marketers need to identify products that elicit a high-level of cognitive effort. Advertising for these high-effort products should follow the guidelines of being informative, interesting and positive. CONSUMER BEHAVIOR CASE VW’s Drive to Become the World’s Top Automaker Volkswagen Group, Europe’s largest automaker, is accelerating toward its goal of passing Toyota to become the world’s largest automaker by 2018. Based in Wolfsburg, Germany, VW has introduced many distinctively-styled vehicles over the years, including the Beetle, which was recently redesigned and relaunched in North America amid a flurry of multimedia marketing communications. The latest Beetle model lacks the bud vase that graced the dashboard of the previous model, a small but noticeable change that may steer consumers away from the idea that the Beetle is a “chick car.” Another pointed hint about the target market: Ads with the headline “It’s a boy” over an image of the redesigned Beetle. A third clue is a new emphasis on sleek styling and powerful performance, as evidenced by the campaign’s tagline: “That’s the power of German engineering.” Overall, however, VW wants to give consumers a good feeling about its cars. One TV commercial showed a 30-ish man driving around town in the new black Beetle. As he sits at red lights or inches ahead in traffic, he gets friendly hand-slaps from a pedestrian, a truck driver, a police officer on horseback, a construction worker, and a group of cyclists, all to the toe-tapping tune of “The Clapping Song.” Why the focus on friendly reactions? Eric Wilson, Volkswagen of America’s marketing communications manager, observes that the Beetle is “the world’s most iconic car, and when people see it, they smile, they connect with the driver, and the driver connects with them.” When the redesigned Beetle was introduced in Canada, VW invited consumers to download a free app that activates special on-screen digital animation when the phone is pointed at billboards and transit poster ads around Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver. Brought to life on the smartphone screen, the Beetle seems to roar from one billboard to another and race through tunnels on the transit ads. The company used messages on YouTube and in other social media to build awareness and engage consumers in the animated ads. Here, VW wanted to emphasize the Beetle’s more aggressive personality and performance, to distinguish it from the cute Beetles of the past. To introduce its new Passat model, VW post an online preview of a clever 60-second commercial that gained millions of YouTube views and thousands of Twitter comments days before its network television Super Bowl debut. In “The Force,” a youngster in a Darth Vader costume prowls the house trying in vain to use the force to do something to his dog, his sister’s doll, a sandwich, and other things. When his father’s new Passat coasts to a stop in the driveway, the child rushes past Dad and tries to use the force on the car. After a moment, the car roars to life, and its headlights illuminate a surprised and delighted Darth. Then the audience gets a glimpse of Dad, out of sight in the kitchen, smiling as he holds up his keychain and presses the Passat’s remote starter. This feel-good commercial had already gone viral before the Super Bowl kickoff, capturing upwards of 10 million YouTube views. As the game progressed, social media sites buzzed with positive reactions to “The Force.” The commercial, among the most popular and critically-acclaimed of all the Super Bowl ads, continued to draw online views and reinforce the Passat’s family-friendly image for many months. VW’s sales are up, but it still faces a number of challenges in its drive to the top, including competition from other global automakers, economic uncertainty in numerous markets, and relatively tepid demand for new cars as many consumers keep the brakes on personal spending. But when consumers are thinking about a new car, VW wants them to have positive thoughts and feelings about its cars. Case Questions 1. What is VW doing to change consumers’ beliefs and evaluations of its cars or encourage them to add new beliefs about its cars? Explain your answer. Answer: VW is adding new beliefs about the performance and relevance of their vehicles through marketing that is informative (explaining the power and performance of their vehicles), interesting (funny and unexpected, such as the “Darth Vadar” commercial), and positive (exhibited in the upbeat music and the feeling of warmth). 2. What message characteristics are particularly important to VW’s ability to try to influence consumers’ affective attitudes toward its cars? Answer: It is important that Volkswagen emphasize the hedonic and symbolic needs their vehicles can meet such as status, play, and affiliation with other Volkswagen owners. It’s particularly important to the company’s marketing communication strategy because their cars, particularly the Beetle and Passat, have been on the market for a long time. 3. How is VW applying the principle of emotional contagion in its marketing communications? Answer: Through fun commercials such as the Beetle “hand-slap” spot that features upbeat, happy music and depicts the driver having an unexpectedly fun drive down the street, which makes viewers feel happy along with the driver. Similarly, the “Darth Vadar” Passat commercial depicted the child’s parents feeling warmth and happiness that the viewer could share with them. 4. Describe how VW employs the utilitarian dimension, the hedonic dimension, and the arousal of curiosity to influence consumers’ attitudes toward its ads. Which do you think is most important in this product category, and why? Answer: Utilitarian – by highlighting the performance and power of their vehicles, “That’s the power of German engineering” Hedonic – tapping into positive memories consumers may associate with the Beetle as it is such an iconic car, ads highlighting its fun spirit Curiosity – generating interest and curiosity by using interesting and novel ads, such as the billboard that was “activated” when one pointed their smartphone at it SUGGESTED EXERCISES AND TEACHER GUIDELINES 1. Collect three pharmaceutical advertisements as these generate elaborative processing. Perform a detailed analysis of these ads in terms of the following: (a) What types of cognitive responses might consumers have when seeing/reading these ads? (Be sure to identify counterarguments, support arguments, and source derogations.) Based on these responses, how effective do you think each ad will be in changing attitudes? (b) Applying the TORA model, what types of attitude-change strategies are these ads using? (c) What kinds of affective responses (feelings or emotions) might occur? How would these responses affect the attitude change process? Answer: 1. Analysis of Pharmaceutical Advertisements: (a) Cognitive Responses: • Counterarguments: Doubts about safety or side effects. • Support Arguments: Trust in brand reputation or positive testimonials. • Source Derogations: Concerns about credibility if endorsed by less reputable sources. • Effectiveness: Ads addressing counterarguments and emphasizing credible support are more likely to change attitudes positively. (b) TORA Model Application: • Strategies: Ads use behavioral intention strategies (promoting positive attributes) and adjust beliefs/evaluations to influence attitude. (c) Affective Responses: • Emotions: Feelings of hope or relief, or fear and skepticism. • Impact: Positive emotions boost attitude change; negative emotions may reinforce resistance. 2. Find three ads that you think will generate a fair number of cognitive responses from consumers. Show these ads to a sample of 15 consumers and ask them to think out loud about their reactions while reading the ads. Record these responses either on tape or by hand. Then classify the responses into the categories of counterarguments, source derogations, support arguments, and affective responses. Use this information to answer the following questions: (a) What are the major strengths of each ad? (b) What are the major weaknesses of each ad? (c) How could each ad be improved? Answer: Attempt to find ads that are for products that might be viewed negatively in addition to ads for products that are generally regarded positively. This will help bring more variance to the consumer responses and make for more interesting comparisons. 3. Find ten social media ads (on Facebook, etc.) that you think will elicit elaborative processing. Analyze these ads for the types of source and message factors discussed in the chapter. Based on this analysis, answer the following questions: (a) Which types of source and message factors are most frequently used? (b) Which ads do you think are most effective, and why? (c) Which ads do you think are least effective, and why? Answer: Consider requiring the student to be able to discuss the message content factors such as argument quality, one- versus two-sided arguments, and the use of a comparative message. The student should analyze the source factors of attractiveness and credibility. Additionally, the student should comment on the match-up hypothesis, especially in cases where the source is a famous person. Answer: (a) Most Frequently Used Factors: Source Factors: Celebrities/Influencers, User Testimonials. Message Factors: Emotional Appeals, Informative Content. (b) Most Effective Ads: Reasons: Use credible sources and strong emotional appeals. (c) Least Effective Ads: Reasons: Generic messages and lack of clear authority or emotional connection. 4. Interview three people who engage in personal selling for a business. Develop a short questionnaire that will identify the types of strategies they use to persuade consumers to buy particular products. First, ask some open-ended questions about how the salespeople try to influence consumers. Then ask some specific questions regarding the source and message factors discussed in the chapter. Be sure to ask how often the salespeople use each technique and how effective they think the techniques are. Summarize this information and answer the following questions: (a) Which types of persuasion techniques are most likely to be used in a personal selling situation? (b) Which message factors are most effective and why? (c) Which message factors are least effective and why? Answer: Consider having the students present some of their interesting findings to the class for this exercise. Some students may have professional experience in selling products. Request that these students share with the class their successes and failures. Questionnaire for Personal Selling: Open-Ended Questions: 1. How do you typically try to influence consumers to purchase your products? 2. Can you describe a recent successful sales interaction and what strategies you used? 3. How do you handle objections or resistance from potential buyers? Specific Questions: 1. How often do you use personal testimonials or endorsements in your sales pitch? 2. Do you use emotional appeals or focus on practical benefits? How frequently? 3. How often do you emphasize the product’s unique features or compare it to competitors? 4. How effective do you find each of these techniques? Summary: (a) Most Likely Used Persuasion Techniques: Techniques: Personal Testimonials, Emotional Appeals, Highlighting Unique Features, Comparison with Competitors. (b) Most Effective Message Factors: Reasons: Emotional Appeals and Unique Features are most effective due to their ability to create a personal connection and clearly differentiate the product. (c) Least Effective Message Factors: Reasons: Generic or overly technical information is less effective because it may not address individual consumer needs or create a strong emotional response. SUGGESTED INTERNET EXERCISES WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS ROGAINE Consumers and potential consumers of hair-loss remedies constitute a large and growing contingent of the adult population. Hair loss is primarily associated with aging, and in many nations the mean age is increasing. Hair loss products are generally expensive; interest in, and demand for, such products grow during prosperous times. Also, hair loss is a sensitive subject for many consumers, and the Internet provides a confidential source of information about products to halt or reverse the process. Pharmacia and Upjohn provide a comprehensive website about their hair-loss treatment, Rogaine, to maintain consumers’ privacy. Click through the pages at Rogaine’s website (www.rogaine.com) to assess its information for consumers. What impact does consumers’ MAO have on their attitudes about Rogaine? In terms of cognitive and affective bases of attitude formation, how does the overall message at this website help consumers to develop positive attitudes about the product? Assess specifically the argument quality and the use of emotional appeals presented at Rogaine’s website. Instructor Notes Current and potential consumers of hair-loss treatments are intensely motivated by social and esteem needs to use, or seek information about, such products. Their involvement with the product is enduring, not situational. Their ability and opportunity to access and process information about Rogaine varies widely. However, for an expensive product like this, Internet promotion is a wise choice; the product’s average target customers are very likely to have Internet access because of their above-average income. The Rogaine site is a well-designed comprehensive website that reveals how well its marketer understands its target market. Consumers use central-route processing when forming attitudes about products like Rogaine, exerting considerable effort in processing product information before forming an attitude. The website anticipates and defuses many counterarguments, and provides bases for support arguments, through a series of links to pages that answer common questions about the product’s benefits. The site’s extensive information also can help to change the beliefs of skeptical consumers concerning Rogaine’s benefits, or add new beliefs for consumers who are less informed about the product. The site’s sponsorship is obvious throughout, which is a mixed blessing in terms of source credibility. Consumers often discount marketer-provided messages; however, consumers’ voluntary exposure to company-provided information may indicate a perception of high source credibility among the site’s visitors. The quality of the argument presented at the Rogaine site is very high. The persuasive message showcases the product’s most beneficial features, especially at the links for potential users. Pages entitled “Why Rogaine,” “How It Works,” and “Are You a Candidate?” provide powerful evidence to convince the most skeptical nonuser that Rogaine is a good choice. Consumers may indeed form strong positive attitudes toward Rogaine use after evaluating this information. Clearly, Pharmacia and Upjohn realize that consumers’ attitudes toward hair-loss treatment also have strong affective bases. The emotional appeal of the site’s feature photo of a bald father with his (still) hirsute son relates directly to the affective bases of attitude formation, in hopes of eliciting positive emotions toward the product among potential consumers. Additional Uses This exercise also relates to concepts in the following chapters: • Chapter 2, Motivation, Ability, and Opportunity (sources of motivation concerning hair-loss treatment) • Chapter 4, Memory and Knowledge (influence of Rogaine’s information about competing treatments on the consumer’s consideration set for hair-loss treatments) • Chapter 8, Judgment and Decision Making Based on High Effort (contextual and situational influences on decision making concerning hair-loss treatments, cognitively based and affectively based decision making processes concerning hair-loss treatments) • Chapter 11, Social Influences on Consumer Behavior (demographics of Rogaine’s market segments, including young men, middle-aged and older men; women of all ages; married and single consumers) • Chapter 15, Innovations: Adoption, Resistance, and Diffusion (why some prefer baldness to hair-loss treatment) Discussion Idea How important is word-of-mouth communication about products such as Rogaine? What is the role of opinion leaders and celebrity spokespersons in consumer attitude formation about Rogaine? NATIONAL CENTER FOR MISSING AND EXPLOITED CHILDREN The statistics concerning missing and exploited children in the U.S. are chilling. The National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (www.missingkids.com) uses its home page and various links to inform and persuade visitors concerning child abductions and abuse. Go to the NCMEC’s website and evaluate the various visuals, graphics, and text in terms of their effectiveness as emotional appeals. Instructor Notes Appropriately, the home page of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children incorporates primary colors to dramatize its mission: to stop the abduction and exploitation of children through public awareness and action, and to facilitate the return of missing children to their homes. In addition, heart-tugging pictures of missing children smiling and laughing are used to elicit an affective response from viewers of the website. For example, the Education and Resources page includes a snapshot of smiling teen girls to highlight the organization’s Know the Rules campaign targeting this demographic, leaving the visitor to wonder about abducted teens who have little reason to smile. Even the organization’s toll-free number—1-800-THE-LOST—serves as an indelible reminder of the crucial significance of NCMEC’s activities. Anyone with a heart for children will find the emotional appeals incorporated in the site’s visuals, graphics, and text a moving reminder of the responsibility all adults bear to protect the welfare of all children. The site’s overall influence is to facilitate positive attitudes toward the organization among its visitors, and to instigate or reinforce negative attitudes toward those who abduct or exploit children. Additional Uses This exercise also relates to concepts in the following chapters: • Chapter 3, From Exposure to Comprehension (personal relevance of NCMEC’s message to parents, grandparents, neighbors and others) • Chapter 4, Memory and Knowledge (chunking of information such as telephone numbers—1-800-THE-LOST—to enhance retrieval) • Chapter 11, Social Influences on Consumer Behavior (the family as a cultural institution) • Chapter 13, Household and Social Class Influences (probability of awareness and support for NCMEN among parents versus non-parents) • Chapter 14, Psychographics: Values, Personality, and Lifestyles (importance of the family in various cultures) Discussion Idea Would the inclusion of graphic photos of abused children at its website help or hinder the effectiveness of the message provided therein by the National Center for Exploited and Missing Children? Probable answers may include: • Distinction between abuse and exploitation • Ineffectiveness of overly-graphic fear appeals • Appropriate website content balance between informative, persuasive text and emotional appeals using visuals ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS These discussion questions can be used as in-class activities or as thought questions that the students consider while reading the chapter or to test their understanding of the material after the reading and lecture are complete. 1. Explain central-route processing and discuss ways marketers can influence high-effort consumer attitudes. Answer: When consumers’ motivation, ability, and opportunity (MAO) are high, they are more likely to devote a lot of effort to attitude formation and change. This high-effort processing is called central-route processing. Marketers can influence high-effort consumers’ attitudes either cognitively or affectively. Marketers’ cognitive efforts attempt to influence consumer beliefs and thoughts about the object by focusing on the credibility of the source and the logical appeal of the message used, or a combination of the two. Marketers’ affective efforts attempt to influence consumers’ emotional experiences associated with the offering by focusing on the attractiveness of the source, the emotional appeal of the message used, and consumers’ attitude toward the ad. 2. Explain how marketing communications can affect consumers’ cognitively based attitudes. Answer: Marketers should create communications that incorporate credible sources and messages because these communications are most likely to influence cognitively based attitudes. Source credibility is enhanced by the trustworthiness, expertise, or status of the communication source, as well as by the reputation of the company. Message credibility is enhanced by the argument quality of the message, whether it is a one- versus two-sided message, and whether it is a comparison message. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS 1. In your group, develop a definition of attitudes and explain why they are important to marketers. Answer: Definition: Enduring evaluations of objects or ideas influencing responses. Importance: Guides consumer behavior and purchasing decisions. 2. Based on your definition of attitudes, describe how they are formed and give an example of this process in a marketing context. Answer: Process: Through experiences, social influences, and information exposure. Example: Positive reviews shape a favorable attitude toward a brand. 3. Describe the factors that can influence whether attitudes are more likely to predict behavior. Explain the marketing implications of each factor. Answer: Relevance: Directly related attitudes predict behavior. Strength: Strong attitudes are more predictive. Accessibility: Easily recalled attitudes influence behavior. Consistency: Consistent attitudes across contexts are more reliable. 4. Describe the expectancy-value model. Explain how attitudes are changed under this model. Develop three marketing examples to show how this model might work for consumers. Answer: Explanation: Attitudes based on expected outcomes and their values; change with perceived benefit or importance. Examples: • Highlighting benefits of a product. • Emphasizing health advantages. • Positive customer reviews. 5. Discuss source credibility and its dimensions. Provide an example of each type of source credibility. Explain how source credibility can influence attitudes and why this can be important to marketing. Answer: Dimensions: • Expertise: Knowledge (e.g., a dentist endorsing toothpaste). • Trustworthiness: Reliability (e.g., a respected journalist). • Attractiveness: Appeal (e.g., celebrity endorsements). Influence: Enhances persuasiveness and trust. 6. Develop an explanation of a “strong argument” and give examples of how strong arguments can affect consumer attitudes. Answer: Definition: Well-supported and relevant evidence. Examples: Price savings, clear product benefits. 7. Develop a set of guidelines that tell marketers when it is useful to put negative information into their messages. Explain what types of effects these messages can have on consumers. Answer: When Useful: Addressing significant issues or differentiation. Effects: Can enhance credibility but may reinforce negative views. 8. Explain what a comparative message is and give examples of the basic types. Offer guidelines about when each type of comparative message should be employed. Include a cautionary statement about the dangers of using direct comparisons. Answer: Explanation: Compares a brand to highlight advantages. Types: • Direct: Names competitor. • Indirect: Implies comparison. Guidelines: Use when clearly superior, avoid aggressive comparisons. 9. Develop a clear explanation of how attitudes can be developed through emotions and feelings. Specify when this is most likely to occur and provide a marketing example. Answer: Explanation: Emotional ads shape attitudes. Example: Heartwarming ads fostering positive brand attitudes. 10. Explain what fear appeals are and when these messages are likely to be most effective. Offer a marketing example of when a fear appeal might be used. Answer: Explanation: Uses fear to motivate behavior with negative consequences. Effectiveness: Effective with relevant, manageable threats and solutions. Example: Anti-smoking ads showing health risks. EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES AND CLASSROOM EXAMPLES Students who learn more readily through visual and tactile stimuli will benefit from the introduction of physical examples into the classroom. 1. “Dueling Ads” Divide the class into groups of six to eight students, and then divide each of these groups in half. Tell the two smaller groups (of three to four students apiece) that they must each develop a print ad designed to influence consumer attitudes toward the same controversial issue, but that they must take different strategic/tactical approaches (i.e., cognitive versus emotional). Examples of controversial issues include organ donation, cremation, physician-assisted suicide, bilingual education in public schools, and gun control. When all the ads have been completed, ask the students which ad from each pair they believe works better and why, and discuss the challenges involved in the assignment. CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITIES Advertising Influences on Affect, Cognition, and Connation: 20 MInutes I. Start Up A. Purpose of the activity 1. This activity will give students an opportunity to apply the concepts of attitude formation and change in a brief classroom exercise. B. What the instructor will do 1. The instructor will divide people into small groups, provide them an advertisement for consideration, and be available to coach and help the groups as needed. 2. Advertisements should be collected in advance. Select ads that provide an opportunity for students to uncover components designed to influence affect, cognition, and connation through efforts to change beliefs, evaluations, or feelings. Also, look for ads containing elements to which consumers might form support arguments, counterarguments, or source derogations. 3. Optionally, if resources permit, create transparencies of each ad so small groups can present their ideas to the large group when they have finished their analyses. C. What the participants will do 1. The participants will work in small groups to study advertisements to uncover tactics related to concepts presented in the chapter. After a period of small-group discussion, they will make reports to the large group. D. Rules for this experience 1. Groups are to work separately from each other. Individuals should rely on their knowledge from the book and may refer to their notes and the book as necessary. II. Experience A. Group up. 1. Have students form groups of no more than five. This exercise will work in groups of any size; however, room restrictions that do not allow for moving furniture may make group work more difficult. B. Assign brands. 1. Each group should be assigned a single advertisement on which to focus. a) Consider using local brands, including both products and services. b) Consider using brands that are not the leaders in their categories (i.e., not Coca-Cola or McDonald’s). c) Consider bringing samples of the brands to the class for students to study and review in their groups (e.g., box of crackers, candy bar, cola can). C. Specific actions for groups 1. The groups are responsible for analyzing the advertisement to uncover efforts aimed at forming or changing attitudes in consumers. 2. Questions to be answered by small groups a) In what ways is the ad designed to form or change attitudes? b) How does the ad aim to change affect, cognition, or connation? c) What types of support arguments, counterarguments, and source derogations might consumers form in response to the ad? d) To what extent does, the ad attempt to affect beliefs and evaluations about consequences related to a particular behavior. Does it target normative beliefs? Does it seek to add new beliefs? 3. Large-group discussions a) Ask for a group to volunteer to discuss their analysis. Have them share the ad they are analyzing and then discuss their insights. b) If there are many groups, share the discussion among all groups, though not all groups may answer all of the questions. III. Debrief and Unveil Concepts A. Discuss the activity itself. 1. The purpose of this discussion is to allow students to express what they felt about the experience itself. 2. Ask students to describe their experiences of “doing” the activity. a) Likes and dislikes about what just happened b) How they felt during the experience c) What is realistic, unrealistic about the exercise? d) What will be different when they do this for their own brand? B. Discuss the content of the experience. 1. The purpose is to ensure that students “take away” important learning points. 2. Ask students to describe the important points the experience teaches. a) The role of advertising in the process of attitude change and formation b) The role of affect and cognition in the attitude formation process c) The behavior of consumers who may create support arguments, counter-arguments, and source derogations when processing advertisements 3. Use the chalkboard to record student responses. a) Write down their ideas as they are presented. b) Concentrate on the principles being discussed rather than the examples being used. c) Help them to see the interrelationships between their responses. IV. Execute A. Apply what has been learned. 1. Lead a discussion on how the concepts can be applied in organizations. a) What barriers may be faced in applying the concepts from the exercise? b) What can be done to help others understand the concepts when you use them at work? B. Transfer and use the knowledge. 1. Encourage students to make a record in their notes about how they will use the ideas in the workplace. 2. Even if they do not have a specific job, how will they remember to use what they have learned? Brand/Parent Company Quiz: 15 Minutes I. Start Up A. Purpose of the activity 1. This activity will give students an opportunity to illustrate how incorrect beliefs and attitudes have been acquired over time. B. What the instructor will do 1. The instructor will hand out the following exercise to everyone in class (see actual exercise at the end of this outline). 2. After students finish, the instructor will go over the correct responses, most of which will come as a great surprise to the students. C. What the participants will do 1. Identify each of the parent companies for the ten different products. 2. Go back and rank the confidence of their responses. D. Recap 1. Exercise should illustrate how we all have a number of incorrect beliefs that affect our attitudes about the products many use on a regular basis. II. Brand/Parent Company Quiz (Next Page) A. Answers: 1. a (9Lives – Heinz) 2. c (Prego – Campbell’s) 3. c (Aquafresh – GlaxoSmithKline) 4. a (Gatorade – Pepsi) 5. a (Champion – Sara Lee) 6. b (Dr. Pepper – Cadbury Schweppes) 7. c (Country Time Lemonade – Kraft) 8. b (Pine Sol – Clorox) 9. b (Hidden Valley Ranch – Clorox; yes, this is correct) 10. a (Q-Tips – Chesebrough Ponds; yes, this too is correct, it is not J & J; check the box!) PARENT COMPANY QUIZ For each of the following products, select the parent company. After you have finished all ten, using each of the numbers 1–10 ONLY ONCE, go back and rank each of the answers based on how sure you are that they are correct. The product that you are most certain of the parent company, rank it as 10. The product that you are least certain should be ranked as a one. Richard E. Petty, H. Rao Unnava, and Alan J. Strathman, “Theories of Attitude Change,” in eds. Thomas S. Robertson and Harold H. Kassarjian, Handbook of Consumer Behavior (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1991), pp. 241–280. Stuart Elliott, “Clap, Here Comes the Beetle,” New York Times, September 8, 2011, www.nytimes.com; Matt Semansky, “Volkswagen Canada Augments Reality in OOH Campaign,” Marketing Magazine (Canada), October 26, 2011, www.marketingmag.ca; Todd Wasserman, “VW’s ‘The Force’ Super Bowl Ad Goes Viral,” Mashable, February 3, 2011, www.mashable.com; Gabriel Beltrone, “Ad of the Day: Volkswagen,” Adweek, September 27, 2011, www.adweek.com; Bob Garfield, “VW Finds Viral Force with Cute Ad, But So What?” Advertising Age, February 7, 2011, www.adage.com; Robert Klara, “Volkswagen Beetle Nipped in Bud,” Adweek, April 22, 2011, www.adweek.com; and Chris Bryant, “Volkswagen Sales Surge Across Its Brands,” Financial Times, October 27, 2011, www.ft.com. Solution Manual for Consumer Behavior Wayne D. Hoyer, Deborah J. MacInnis, Rik Pieters 9780357721292, 9781305507272, 9781133435211